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Article Lead Author: Anand, K.J.S.                                    Date: 8/1989
Article: The Neuroanatomy, Neurophysiology, and Neurochemistry of Pain, Stress, and
Analgesia in Newborns and Children

   1. 	 Pain felt at:
           a. 	 If the article specifically asserts unborn children feel pain, at what post­
               fertilization age?
           b. 	 Page:
   2. 	 Nociceptors:
           a. 	 Ifthe article states nociceptors are present, at what post-fertilization age?
           b. 	 Page: 798, Third Paragraph. "Thereafter, the thalamocortical nociceptive
               connections via the posterior limb of the internal capsule and corona radiate
                undergo complete myelination by 37 weeks of gestation."
   3. 	 Thalamus link:
           a. 	 If the article states nerves link nociceptors to the thalamus, at what post­
               fertilization age?
           b. 	 Page:
   4. 	 Subcortical plate link:
           a. 	 If the article states nerves link to the subcortical plate, at what post-fertilization
               age?
           b. 	 Page:
   5. 	 Noxious stimuli reaction:
           a. 	 Does the article refer to reaction to noxious stimuli? At what post-fertilization
               age?
           b. 	 Page;
   6. 	 Stress hormones:
           a. 	 Does the article refer to increase in stress hormones with noxious stimuli? At
               what post-fertilization age?
           b. 	 Page: 809, Third Paragraph. :We might well carry their thesis further, to state
               that the anatomic substrates for opioid actions in any physiologic system ­
               nociception and stress hormone secretion being but two examples - bear
               st riking parallels and at point literally coincide."
   7. 	 Long-term effects:
           a. 	 Does the article describe long term harmful effects from exposure to noxious
               stimuli?
           b. 	 Page:
   8. 	 Fetal anesthesia:
           a. 	 Does the article refer to use of fetal anesthesia and its effect? At what post­
               fertili zation age?
b. 	 Page: 811, Second Paragraph. "Based on these data, it is reasonable to expect
             that similar beneficial effects may be obtained by decreasing the stress
             responses of neonates and children.
             Page: 813, First Paragraph. "Thus aggressive anesthesia not only decreased the
             stress responses of neonates undergoing surgery but also improved their
             postoperative clinical outcome."
9. 	 Cortex:
       a. 	 Does the article relate to the asserted need for cortical involvement to
            experience pain? How?
       b. 	 Page:
10. Other:
lEIL L. SCHECHTER              Acute Pain in Children                                     0031-3955/89 $0.00 + .20


I    sUTVey of U.S. bum

letter]. N Eng}     J Med
r1
                                             The Neuroanatomy, Neurophysiology,
b, and Management.
                                               and Neurochemistry of Pain, Stress,
tUldren.    J   Dev Behav
                                                      and Analgesia in Newborns
1001: A comparison of
15,1986
                                                                    and Children
he neonate and fetus

lin North Am 52:131­

    local anesthetic during
                                                     K. J. S. Anand, MBBS, D Phil, * and D. B. Carr, MDt
    id analgesics. J Pediatr

    reduction of pain and
    with cancer. J Pediatr

                                    In recent years, broad similarities between the experience of pain in
                               children and adults have become increasingly evident. Although recognition
                               of these parallels carries great weight for clinical practice, for example, in
                               mandating aggressive analgesia for the young, essential differences exist
                               between the pain experienced by children and adults. These differences
                               reBect the unique biologic and behavioral characteristics of newborns,
                               infants, and children in different stages of development. Craig and
                               colleagues48 have stated that "the challenge for adults is to understand just
                               what it is that children are experiencing. Adults do not think and feel like
                               children." This volume is evidence for evolving concern for pain issues in
                               pediatric patients, and its contents are testimony to the numerous scientific
                               advances and changes in clinical practice presently occurring in this field.
                                    Another article in this issue describes the cultural indifference with
                               which pain in newborns and children has been treated until the recent
                               past, Clinicians long have been misguided by the premise that neonatal
                               and pediatric patients do not experience pain as severely as adults, and
                               that the magnitude and duration of its impact may be less than in adults.
                               This article presents the scientific foundations for the physiology of pain as
                               expressed in the pediatric age group, its clinical correlates, and implications
                               for clinical outcome. The present discussion therefore may provide a
                               physiologic rationale for the treatment of pain described in subsequent
                               articles.

                               ·Clinical Fellow in Pediatrics and Research Fellow in Anesthesia, Harvard Medical School
                                    and The Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts.
                               tAssociate Professor of Anesthesia, Harvard Medical School; Co-Director, Anesthesia Pain
                                    Unit Staff Physician, Massachusetts General Hospital and Shriners Burns Institute,
                                    Boston, Massachusetts.

                               PediDtric ClinicS of North America-Vol. 36, No. 4. August 1989                      795
K.   J. S.   ANAND .... ND   D. B. CARR                   NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, .... NO NEUROCHEMISTRY OF PAI N                          797



  J:
                NEUROANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

       A Dynamic Process in the Central Nervous System
      Pain has been depicted as a process in which the activation of specmc
    !ptors in the periphery evokes reproducible responses within spinal
    1 dorsal horn neurons that in turn send projections to well-demarcated
                                                                                                   I                                                                    CEI1E811AL COflfl',A'




    halad loci. 9] This "hard-wired" model, along with other straightforward
    'gorizations of pain mechanisms, has been abandoned by researchers in                                                                                                              THALAMUS
      field because overwhelming evidence has accumulated that the phe­
    lenon of pain reflects remarkably adaptive neural and chemical processes                                    Figure 1. Pain pathways from 

                                                                                                          the .spinal . Cord to the sensory 
                                          t.lIOiJRJlIIi
    lin networks, the elements ofwhieh may grow or dwindle in number.l78
                                                                                                          cortex, including connections to 

      Wall recently has critiqued traditional c1assi6cations of nociceptive                               affective and 8ssociative areas. (Ab­

    rons.178 Based on the absence of fixed relationships between excitation                               breviations follow slllndard neuro

                                                                                                                                            ­                                          PONS
   leripheral fibers and sensory or behavioral outcome, or between input                                  anatomJca1 nomenclature.) 

     output of individual dorsal horn neurons, Wall argues persuasively that
   ut-output schemes within pain pathways are context dependent. For                                                                                                                  t.lE1XII.J.A
   mple, painful inputs bigger widespread increases of neural excitability                                                                                                            08lt)Nt;A'"
   hin the spinal cord, . and expansion of these spinal neurons' cutaneous
   eptive fields. 4.5, 179. 191 The description of constantly shifting patterns of
  !rneuronal communication within pain pathways recalls Sperry's seminal
  :ure of consciousness itse1P61 and is a far cry from "the dassical expec­
  on of hard-wired dedicated systems monopolized in the service of a
                                                                                               I
  ~le sensation. "178 Nonetheless, certain areas of the nervous system are                                                                                                            SPiN.tI. C O
                                                                                                                                                                                                CIII
  ognized to be particularly dense foci of processing and modulation of
  'iceptive inputs 187, 19f; these are summarized in Figure 1. Within each
 d, convergence and summation of incoming signals occurs in multiple
  e frames through both excitatory and inhibitory afferent projections.
 jtatory and inhibitory descending projections to spinal and supraspinal                       I
 ; are interwoven with ascending circuits to produce exquisitely variable                  I.              but, in contrast to somatic afferents, reach the spinal cord through sympa­
                                                                                           i
 ~ring or enhancement of potentially painful afferent stimuli.                                            thetic, parasympathetic, and splanchnic nerves .
                                                                                                                Upon reaching the spinal cord, afferent nociceptive signals are ampli­
 .ture Anatomic Pathways: A Pr~cis                                                                        fied or at.tenuated within the layers of the dorsal horn. Nociceptive-specific
      Acute pain relevant to the hospitalized child typically reflects the
   ivation of nociceptors ,is, 187, 19f In broad terms, these are of two major
                                                                                           1              (NS) neurons within the substantial gelatinosa of the superficial dprsal horn
                                                                                                         respond only to pain. Wide dynamic range (WDR) neurons, particularly in
   ,es: high-threshold mechanoceptors and polymodal nociceptors. The                                      deeper layers, respond.to various input modes (e, g" mechanical, thennal,
   mer do not respond to heat or chemical irritation but do respond to                                   or chemical) even at a low, non-noxious intensity. Multiple incoming and
   lng pressure applied to a wide area of skin. Axons of high-threshold                                  descending stimuli combine to modulate the discharge patterns of dorsal
   chanoceptors are myelinated and conduct in the A-delta velocity range,                                horn cells . . Woolf has shown that under conditions of stimulation , such as
  .0 25 meters per second. Polymodal nociceptors respond to heat and                                     produced by peripheral tissue injury, the threshold of NS neurons is
  esic substances as well as to pressure. Being unmyelinated, the axons of                               conSiderably lowered, thereby converting them to WDR neurons. tal . 139
   ymodal nociceptors conduct slowly, in the C-fiber range (less than 2                                 This hypersensitivity, associated with alteration in the receptive fields of
   ters per second). Nociceptors project to the spinal cord through primary                I            such neurons, .is exquisitely sensitive to treatment with opioid analgesics. 130
 ~rents with cell bodies in dorsal root ganglia and increase in sensitivity                                   Such nociceptive discharges are conveyed via axons that largely cross
 ~r injury.                                                                                             to ascend in the contralateral spinal cord, The spinothalamic tract, in the
    , Classically, selective stimulation offast, myelinated A-delta fibers yields                      anterolateral cord, ascends to ventroposterior arid medial thalamic nuclei
;1 J):Lin: rapid in onset after injury, slwp, localized, and pricking. Second                          and thence to associative and somatosensory areas of cerebral cortex that
tn-slower in onset, prolonged, dull, aching, and poorly localized-is                                   mediate the discriminative and localizing aspects of pain, Spinoreticular
~ ntiRed with C-nber effects. Visceral ail'erents may be of A. or C-caliber                            neurons project to the limbic system (including hypothalamus), and mediate
                                                                                                       arousal, affective responses, and neuroendocrine and autonomic sequelae
798                                               K.   J.   S.   ANAND AND   D. B. CARR      NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, AND NEUROCHEMISTRY OF P AJN                                                                                              799
    of nociceptive input. Pain sensations may persist or recur even after                               MATURATION                       a: PAIN PATHWAYS IN Tt£ HUMAN FETUS AND NEONATE
    sectioning of both these ascending tracts owing to persistence of spinomes­
    encephalic projections.                                                                                             ~                ~ ~ ~ ~ ~                                  ~                 ~            ~                ~       ~
                                                                                                  ----              I       i        I    l i t i                                                 I       I       r     I       I       It'

    Development of the Anatomic Substrate for Pain                                                Cutaneous   Sensoryl
                                 aa}tI.,r.es
            The development ......                    ~'l:tiiredfOi"- pain transmission
                                                                                                     Perception

       occurs mainly during fetat ~. "_~lb11t ltlQIl'fha of~CYt The gross                         ~/~TiON.~~~:;~~;;;;~~ri~~~~======~~--
                                                                                                                                    ",1I""n!:=:er""na=;:'~C<i=p=sut~e=::====~
       elements of the pain system may be traced from sensory receptors in the
       skin to the sensory cerebral cortex: this linked array serves as a framework
                                                                                                           Nerw Troatl in me Spinal
                                                                                                                                     !Cord
                                                                                                                                     _       crd Brain Stem                                 ICorona Radicla
                                                                                                  CORTICAL M4TilRAT.t:;W_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ __
       for describing the development and integration of its components. Anatomic
       studies have shown that ~q'-_U.i.llt~II~.~~~&Veen~                                           Neuronal M"'9fO!rQ!!Sk~ArbarizDtion                                __      _ __ 

      m the late fetus and newbditi            'nll1' ~'.- · eMIeeid. that of adult
      skin. 73 Recent recordings from single cutaneous afferents in newborn and                                                 [S)!OOptoqenesIl with Thal~n~:!~== 

      fetal rats also have shown that the receptive field sizes are similar to those             ££6 PATTERNS.
      in the adult. S8 EarJy ~~· oIM_. _ _ OGIHe.es showed that                                      ~ten.t
      cutaneous sensory perceptieftlppt!sis ''i& tire ~ . . of the human
      fetus in the seveR,tit week of._'liu ._~' apreadsto all cutaneous
      and mucous surfaces by 20 WoIIbof~ae ,sprea8 of cutaneous
      sensation is preceded by ae4:,,~Dized with the development of                                                                                                                                                             POtTem4ffG          -~
                                                                                                                                                                    [ Corricol ElIOked Potentials
      synapses between inG.QmiBg~ fUa~, and receptiv.e oeurones in the
      dorsal hom of the spinal coni, ~, .firJtappear during the sixth week of
      gestation. us, 19~ Rizvi and cAi....... have $how» that mpr.phologic differ­                              I       I        I       I   I       I                          I       I     I       I       I     I       I       I   I       I
      entiation of dorsal horn neur-QUS in thespiaal cord begins around 13 weeks                                    ~                ~           M       ~      ~       ~           ~             ~               ~ .           ~           ~
      of gestation. I4S Further development proceeds with their arrangement into                                                                             H££K.S' OF GESTATION
      Rexed's laminae, together with formation of synaptic interconnections and                     Figure 2, Overview of the development of nociceptive functiOns and their physiologic
     specific neurotransmitter vescicles to form a mature dorsal horn in some                  basis dUring the third trimester of fetal life, (From Anand KS. Hickey PH; N Engl J Med
                                                                                               317:1321, 1987; with permission,)
      regions of the spinal cord by 30 weeks of gestation.
            Traditionally, lack of myelination has been proposed as an index of
     immaturity in the neonatal nervous system 1tlll and used frequently to support             neocortex begins at 8 weeks' gestation; by 20 weeks the cortex has a full 

     the argument that neonates and infants are not capable of pain perception. 8               complement of 108 neurons. The dendritic processes of cortical neurons 

     As described above, nociceptive impulses in adult. peripheral nerves also                  undergo profuse arborization and develop synaptic targets for the incoming 

     are conducted via unmyelinated and thinly myelinated fibers. The slower                    thalamocortical fibers and intracortical connections. 117. 143 The development 

     conduction velocity in neonatal nerves or central nerve tracts resulting                  of these connections is of crucial importance for cortical perception because 

     from incomplete myelination is offset by the shorter interneuronal and                    most sensory pathways to the cortex have synapses in the thalamus. From 

     neuromuscular distances ' that the impulse has to travel in neonates and                  studies on primate and human fetuses, Rakic et a1. I-LJ have shown that 

     :;mall infants. Is< Furthermore, ~ quantit,ative neuroanatomic methods,                   afferent neurons in the thalamus produce axons that grow into the cerebrum 

     Gilles et al. have shown that .~ tracts associMed with nociception in                     prior to midgestation and "wait" just below the neocortex until migration 

     the spinal cord and brain steIB (die lateral spinothalaniic, spUlal trigeminal,           and dendritic arborization of cortical neurones is complete. Finally, the 

     spinoreticular, dorsal cervical, ~ ~ocerebellar) are completely myeli­                    thalamocortical connections are established with synaptogenesis occurring 

     nated up to the thalamus byao weeks of gestatioo. 1I Thereafter, the                     between 20 and 24 weeks' gestation. 98. 118
     thalamocortical nociceptive connections via the posterior limb of the internal                 Several types of observations speak for the functional maturity of the
    capsule and corona radiata undergo ~ myelinati(m by 37 weeks of                           cerebral cortex in the fetus and neonate. First are reports of fetal and
    gestation. Formation and myelination of the nerve tracts linking nociceptive              neonatal EEG patterns, including cortical components ofvisual and auditory
    centers in the brain stem, thalamus, and sensory cortex, with the limbic                  evoked potentials, that have been recorded in preterm babies of less than'
    system. hypothalamus. and associative areas of the cerebral cortex, have                  30 weeks' gestation. 80. 170 Recent studies also have identified the cortical
, . not been studied and may occur during early infancy and childhood.                        components of somatosensory evoked potentials.- Second, in vivo meas­
           It is clear from the above that the neuroanatomic apparatus for                    urements of cerebral glucose utilization have shown that the maximal rates
   cunducting nociceptive impulses from the periphery to the sensory cortex                   of metabolic activity occur in sensory areas of the neonatal brain (sensori­
    is intact even in the newly born, infant (Fie:. 2), Develonment ofthp. fp.tal             motor cortex, thalamus, midbrain-brain stem regions) .41 Thil·rt wpl.,rl ..Il" ....l
800                                             K.   J.   S.   AN....ND ~D   D. B. CJRR    NEURO~""TOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, AND NEUROC HE MISTRY O F P AIN              801

periods of sleep and wakefulness are present in utero from 28 weeks'                         the central nervous system (CNS) of multiple peptide fam ilies, termed
gestation, in addition to various cognitive, coordinative, and associative                   "neuropeptides." Studies from a variety of disciplines delineating the
capabilities demonstrated by newborn infants together with their specific                    behavioral, biochemical, and ' pharmacologic effects of such peptides in
behavioral responses to pain. Thus, human newborns do have the anatomic                      humans began to appear only within the last decade but are now quite
and functional components required for appreciation of painful stiinuli.                     numerous. Taking as criteria for neurotransmitter function 1) the presence
     Further development of the paiD pathways during infancy and child­                      of a peptide as assessed by radioimmunoassay, 2) its localization within
hood involves the refinement of these sensory modalities and intracortical                   discrete neuronal populations by immunohistochemistry, 3) its release from
c:onnections with the limbic system and the affective and associative areas                  neurons in vivo or in vitro in a calcium-dependent manner, and 4) the
located in the frontal cortex, parietal cortex, and the insula. The develop­                 presence of specific receptors and cellular actions triggered by receptor
ment of descending inhibition of nociceptive neurons and interneurons in                     occupancy, it is now accepted that a variety of neuropeptides do serve as
the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and the sensory brain stem nuclei also                    authentic neurotransmitters. Pep tides function in excitatory (e.g., substance
occurs during this period. The importance of this phase of development in                    P) and inhibitory (e.g., enkephalins) roles at spinal and supraspinal levels.
the maturation of the pain system is underscored by the high index of                        All peptides are biosynthesized from larger precursor forms that are cleaved
"brain plasticity" present during this period. Clearly, the cellular, synapti~,              and otherwise processed to yield active daughter forms .
and molecular mechanisms determining brain plasticity are highest during                          Although the opioid peptides are certainly the best-studied group of
iniancy and early childhood. lll5 Painful and other experiences during this                  neurotransmitters in the context of pain, much effort recently has been
period therefore may determine the final architecture of the adult pain                      directed to extending the results found with endorphins to other peptide
system, with subtle and presently undefined characteristics responsible for                  neurotransmitters. It is already clear that certain forms of environmental
the clinically evident individual variation.                                                 stress evoke analgesia that is unaccompanied by endorphin secretion and is
                                                                                             not reversed by naloxone. Such stress-induced analgesia has been termed
                                                                                             nonopioid, and certain features suggest mediation by monoamines; yet the
                           NEUROCHEMISTRY                                                    roles of many possible nonopioid peptides that might subse rve such
                                                                                            analgesia remain to be defined . The candidates are myriad ~ecause dozens
Taxonomy of Pain Mediators and Transmitters                                                 of peptide neurotransmitters, many originally identified outside the eNS
                                                                                            (e.g., in gut). Several stand out as most deserving of attention.
      Pain's complex neurophysiology is the result of mediator molecules or                       Calcitonin was discovered by Copp and co-workers in 1962, and named
 other stimuli acting on nociceptors that evoke subsequent responses within                 on the basis of its functional antagonism of the hypercalcemic effects of
 many neural circuits. Dozens of neurotransmitters act within these diverse,                parathyroid hormone. 19. 87 It is derived from "c" cells of the thyroid gland,
 multilevel circuits. In the microenvironment of the nociceptor, mediators                  and inhibits osteoclastic activity in bone and calcium resorption by the
of injury or inflammation range in size from mere ions such as potassium                    kidney. After it was located in the brain, its brain receptors were demon­
or hydronium, to simple monoamines such as histamine, to eicosanoids, to                    strated and physiologic effects of intracerebral administration were exam­
peptides such as bradykinin, to protems such as. lymphokines. Each class                    ined. Apart from its effects on bone, calcitonin has produced analgesia in
of mediator occurs centrally in pain pathways, too, as a primary neurotrans­                patients with cancer and nonmalignant pain such as causalgia or pancreati­
 mitter or as a modulator of underlying synaptic transmission.                              tis. m Prolonged analgesia in tail pinch but not tail flick assays was
      Monoamines active in central pain pathways include dietary amines                    demonstrated after intracerebral administration of calcitonin to animals.
(e.g., glycine) or enzymatically produced derivatives. Tyrosine-derived                     Derived from the same precursor as calcitonin is calcitonin gene-related
catecholamines (particularly those such as norepinephrine) that act on                     peptide (CGRP), which has been localized in dorsal root ganglia and
presynaptic alpha-2 receptors, and tryptophan-derived serotonin both con­                  substantia gelatinosa, trigeminal ganglion, and other areas that modulate
vey inhibitory brain stem signals to the spinal cord dorsal horn and also                  pain. H9 There is some, but not complete, competition between calcitonin
contribute to analgesia after opioid administration. Drugs such as clonidine,              and CGRP for brain receptors.
an alpha-2 agonist, or monoamine oxidase inhibitors, are recognized to be                         Neurotensin, although its structure was elucidated from hypothalamic
analgesic by virtue of their stimulatory actions upon monOlUIline analgesic                extracts, is present outside the CNS in the gastrointestinal tract, and
pathways . GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), or drugs such as baclofen or
                                                                                           outside the hypothalamus in areas of the CNS important for pain processing
midazolam that act on GABA sites, have likewise been found to produce
                                                                                           such as the periaqueductal gray and superficial laminae of the dorsal hom.
analgesia, largely by acting on the spmal cord.
                                                                                           As is the case for calcitonin, neurotensin produces modality-specific anal­
     Peptides have a primary structure made up of a chain of ammo acids.                   gesia in rats: hot plate and acetic acid writhing tests give positive results,
These chains twist to produce three-dimensional structurel that 6t specific                but not tail pinch. In mice, neurotensin produces comparable analgesia
receptors in assorted bodily cOmpartments. Understanding of pain and its                   after intracisternal injection as beta-endorphin.
relief has been revolutionized in . the past 15 years by the isolation within                    CorticotroDin-releasinsz factor (CRF) is understood to mean the 4J
802                                            K.   J. S.   ANAND AND   D. B. CARR          NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, AND NEUROCHEMISTRY OF P AlN                      803

 amino acid hypothalamic peptide characterized in 1981 by Vale and col­                       tazocine) produced excitation but little analgesia and was deemed "sigma'
 leagues on the basis of its stimulation of ACI'H and beta-endorphin release                  receptor selective.
 from the pituitary. Many other compounds, such as vasopressin or interleu­                        Martin's classification, based on work in his laboratory at an addiction
 kin-l, possess such stimulatory activity but are not the "authentic" CRF.l96                research facility in Kentucky, was extended by results obtained by another
 CRF neurons are widely distributed in brain areas concerned with auto­                      long-standing addiction research group in Aberdeen, Scotland. The Scottish
 nomic regulation and its intracerebral administration activates the sympa­                  investigators had isolated and characterized the structure of two pentapep­
 thetic nervous system and produces behavioral arousal. Recently Har­                        tides, leucine and methionine enkephalin, by tracking opiate activity of
 greaves, Dubner, and colleagues have shown that peripheral administration                   successively purified pig brain fractions. 84 To monitor opiate activity they
 of CRF induces analgesia in rats and human subjects. TT                                     measured analytes' inhibition of electrically induced smooth muscle con­
      Somatostatin was isolated in 1973 from hypothalamic extracts by                        traction. Armed with a test drug panel composed of the enkephalins, related
 Brazeau and colleagues in a search for inhibitors of growth hormone release.                peptides, and morphine, they found different potency rankings for drugs
 Somatostatin inhibits the release of multiple pituitary hormones besides                    tested in their bioassay, depending on whether the smooth muscle was
growth hormone, and its high concentration within the nervous system,                        harvested from guinea pig ileum or mouse vas deferens. 106 They deduced
 particularly [n the superficial dorsal hom of the spinal cord, led to tests of              that opiate receptors in mouse vas deferens must be distinct from those in
its analgesic potential. 66 Rats are more sensitive to the toxic effects of                  guinea pig ileum (which were already recognized to be mu-like), and gave
 somatostatin than are species such as the dog, rabbit, or (apparently) human                the name delta to this newly recognized opiate receptor.
 because a number of studies in postoperative pain in humans have pro­                            By the start of the 1980s, laboratories throughout the world had
ceeded apparently without incident.·1 Analgesia produced by somatostatin                     confirmed the division of opiate receptors into at least four major categories
is more pronounced for pinprick testing than cutaneous thermal pain and                      by methods such as numerical analysis of drug-receptor binding, displace­
is not reversed by naloxone nor associated with respiratory depression.                      ment of reference reagents by test compounds, susceptibility to naloxone
      Substance P was isolated decades ago by von Euler and characterized                    reversal of drug effects, and quantitative autoradiography. 35. 201 These
20 years ago by Leeman and colleagues. Its importance as a neurotrans­                       methods, increasingly removed from Martin's clinical starting point, bave
mitter for primary nociceptive afferents is by now well accepted and has                    further disclosed subtypes within major receptor categories. 2g• .0 Pasternack's
led to synthesis and testing of antagonist compounds. Likewise the "gut"                    identification of high-affinity mU l and low-affinity mU2 receptor subtypes is
peptide cholecystokinin (subsequently identified in brain) appears to be                    especially promising because of experimental evidence in vivo that opiate
hyperalgesic; it is contained in the $JlDle neurons within the dorsal hom as                analgesia is mediated by the fonner receptor subpopulation, whereas
substance P and antagonizes analgesia produced by opiates. 1M                               activation of the latter produces undesirable side effects, such as respiratory
      This summary cannot do justice to a vast and actively evolving                        depression. 129
literature; for conciseness references are given to recent reviews or mono­                       One of the most powerful tools for studying opiate receptors-not to
graphs, ISS. 194. 198 each of which deals with multiple nonopioid analgesic                 speak of endorphin physiology in general-has been the ongoing character­
peptides.                                                                                   ization of their endogenous ligands. Strong homologies in the amino acid
                                                                                            sequences of the opioid peptides created initial confusion in the 1970s as
Opioid Receptors and Ligands
                                                                                            to the number and distribution of opioid peptides. By the early 1980s this
      Cellular receptors for morphine were postulated some time ago (Por­                  confusion was overcome by consolidation of results from peptide chemistry,
 toghese 1960), and the existence and functions of multiple types of opiate                immunologic analyses relying on region-specific antibodies, and, ultimately
 receptor were deduced with great precision by Martin in the 1970s. 71, 11.3               cloning and sequencing the genes for their precursor molecules ..0. H . Ik. 148
(Martin had himself speculated in the 1960s that "one can assume, for                      The three precursor molecules, named according to their biologically active
argument's sake, that opioids mimic a naturally ongoing process."lU) His                   fragments, are proenkephalin, pro-AcrHlendorphin (or, synonymously,
seminal studies, although performed in dogs, were prompted by clinical                     pro-opiomelanocortin [POMC]), and prodynorphin. The name of the second
impressions of different symptcms displayed by narcotic addicts during                ~    precursor derives from the remarkable fact that ACTH and beta-endorphin
exposure to or withdrawal from opiates that had different structures. His                  are cosynthesized from a common parent molecule53 and cosecreted during
observations were based solely on in vivo effects: no eBOrt was made to                    stress (see later).
physicochemically analyze any receptor. Nevertheless, his classification is                Opioid Analgesia
still current, albeit with interim reBnements. Thus, the receptor most
readily activated by morphine--to produce analgeSia, mydriasiS, and res­                        The likelihood that "morphine appears to enhance supraspinal inhibi­
piratory depression-was named mu. Ketocyclazocine produced analgesia                  I;   tory mechanisms on pain reflexes" was mentioned by Beecher in the
with less respiratory depression than morphine by acting on a postulated              r
                                                                                      I.
                                                                                           195Os. 17 Subsequent work by several groups revealed that morphine does
"kappa" receptor. The proprietary compound SKF 10,047 (N-allyl norme-                 I.
                                                                                           activate supraspinal neurons that descend to inhibit pain transmission
                                                                                           throum the sDinal cord.116, 166. l~, 111i5 Direct mp.asl1 rp.mp nt~ nf cn;nll! ""rrl
804                                                                          K.   J. S.   ANAND AND           D. B. CARR           NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, AND NEUROC HE MISTRY O F PAIN                                                                                   805.

 neuron responses to pain, their inhibition following systemic doses of                                                           within the spinal cord gray matter, particularly in the dorsal horn. us. 129. 19'
 morphine, and the reduction of this morphine effect after spinal cord                                                            Their greatest densities are in substantia gelatinosa, at the "gate" postulated
 transection 7S further confirmed this view. The identification of opiate                                                         by Melzack and Wall to regulate nociceptive input, as well as in deepe r
 receptors prompted Basbaum and Fields to mold their own and others'                                                              layers (Rexed IV-VI) termed the nucleus proprius. Selective activation of
 findings into a unified "descending opiate-mediated analgesia system. "18 In                                                     mu receptors markedly reduces visceral pain, or acute pain caused bv
 this model, the periaqueducta1 gray of the midbrain and the raphe and                                                            exposure to heat, but is less effective against pain from skin (or tail )
 adjacent nuclei in the meduUa are densely supplied with opiate receptors,                                                        pinch. 172• 173 Kappa agonists (i.e., agents which bind to and activate kappa
 and in turn descend via dorsolateral tracts to inhibit the dorsal horn. As                                                       receptors) in contrast are more potent than mu agonists at redUCing pai.n
 might be surmised from the above work, opiate receptors in this system                                                           caused by pinch, hardly effective at all on thermal testing, and comparably
 (e.g. , periaqueductal gray) are predominantly mu. Because spinal transec­                                                       analgesic for pain due to peritoneal irritation. Delta agonists are, like mu
 tion does not reduce kappa agonists' analgesic effect at the level of the                                                        agonists, active against thermal pain, but basic and clinical reports point to
 distal cord (Wood 1981), kappa receptors appear less active in this descend­                                                     their effectiveness against visceral pain as well. 26, 126. 142. 153
 ing analgesic pathway. Descending endorphin-mediated analgesic pathways,                                                              Despite the above unresolved issues, the recognition of multiple
 normally quiescent, become active during many fonns of external threat or                                                        receptor types has at least shed light on how one might select a narcotic
 insult to produce "stress-induced analgesia. ''a3. 171                                                                           painkiller by matching it to the mode of pain to be treated. A wid e l!9· 81. 1}1
       Although the peripheral actions of opiates require more characteriza­                                                     and increasingM·.o· 126 range of clinically useful opiates now includes selective
 tion, spinal mechanisms of opiate analgesia have been explored in meticu­                                                       agonists of varymg duration (e.g., fentanyl and alfentanil, which selectively
 lous detail for decades. 1M. 1l1li Just as new findings of the past 15 years have                                               activate mu receptors for longer or shorter intervals); partial agonists (e.g.
 enhanced (but not overthrown) prior knowledge ofopiate structure-function                                                       buprenorphine on mu receptors); and mixed agonist-antagonists. The latter
 relationships or neuroendocrine stress responses, so have advances in                                                           type of compounds, typified by butorphanol or nalbuphine, act as agonists
 endorphin biology been fruitfully applied to clarify clinical and basic aspects                                                 on one opiate receptor type and simultaneously as antagonists on another
 of spinal opiate analgesia.94• 118. lal For example, all drugs active as opioids                                                Recently the latter compounds have been given to reverse respiratory
 are now recognized to share key stereotopic determinants. 188 The presence                                                      depression following intraoperative use of a mu agonist:' they stimulate
 of opioid peptides and receptors within the dorsal horn was confirmed as                                                        ventilation by blocking mu receptors, yet maintain analgesia through kappa
 soon as methods appeared for doing SO,12 and considerable detail was added                                                      receptor activation.200 Unfortunately, patients habituated to chronic use of
 as multiple opioid peptides and receptors were distinguished and exploited                                                      a mu agonist such as morphine or methadone may undergo acute narcotic
clinically.46. 83. 194 There is now no question that multiple opiate receptors                                                   Withdrawal when first exposed to agonist-antagonist drugs (including pen­
 at the spinal level participate in a complex filtering process, in which                                                        ta:zocine).
distinct opiate receptors act selectively to impede pain signals arising from
different forms of injury.IIID                                                                                                   Neurotransmitter Expression in the Fetus
       Opioids have unique actions in the dorsal horn.51. !12. 79. 156. 198 Applied                                                   Several mediators, including the various classes of neuropeptides .
systemically or spinally, opioids reduce neurotransmitter release (e.g., of                                                       monoamines, and catecholamines, described above, act as neurotransmitter
substance P) into synapses of primary afferents and also shrink the size of                                                      and neuromodulator substances in the central nervous system. Thus, A­
cutaneous receptive fields evoked by A-delta and C-fiber impulses, without                                                       delta and C-fibers related to afferent pain pathways may contain substance
affecting responses evoked by A-beta afferents. Opioids inhibit responses                                                        P, somatostatin, .CGRP, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), and glutamate.
to C-fiber stimulation more so than to A-delta stimulation. Most signifi­                                                        Enkephalin-containing fibers are localized in the dorsal horn of the spinal
cantly, opioids reduce the rate of rise of the excitatory postsynaptic potential                                                 cord, whereas 5-HT, norepinephrine, and dopamine are contained in fibers
(EPSP) that normally results from prolonged C-fiber input, thereby blocking                                                      descending from the brain stem that terminate in the dorsal horn. In the
dorsal horn neuronal excitation in response to this input. This action on                                                        l.wunan fetus., Abers containing CGRP. somatostatin, and substance P appear
EPSPs occurs at low doses of morphine and is manifest in vivo as the                                                            in ~the doi-ttd horn at ·8 to 10 weeks' gestation.:MI·:I8· 111 Mediators such as
prevention of Bexor reBex conditioning by C-Bber afferent stimuli.4:I Tenfold                                                   en kephalin lWd VIP appear later, at 12 to 14 weeks ' gestationY· Ja The
higher doses of morphine are required to reverse this C-fiber facilitation of                                                   density of all these peptides increases gradually dUring gestation with
reflex withdrawal once it is established. lei Opioid inhibition of dorsal horn                                                  marked increases around the perinatal period . On the other hand, S-HT
EPSPs may underlie two recent important clinical observations; first,                                                           h. s not been detected in the spinal cord of human fetuses or neonates and
                                                                                                                                   a
recruitment of additional dermatomes of sensory anuthuia by systemic                                                            is thought to develop some time after the first 6 postnatal weeks. 111
morphine dUring epidural infusion of local anesthetic,108 and second,                                                           Catecholamines and other monoamines were observed in the dorsal horn
forestalling of postoperative pain by the combined technique of opioid                                                          during late gestation and early infancy, having appeared earlier in the
p'remedication plus local anesthetic nerve blocks. 11" l7V                                                                      ventral and intermediate regions of the spinal cord. llI Substance P-positive
      ·A ..   t.,,~..,....   ...~,t +n   Q   , _ ". . . .   -'acn-_   rl...lta .......... nmrc   ~r...   ('OnlY'ntrlltp.rl 
   ~h.a. ..",   '.InA no.l1 .. 1':'-1«,,,,,   . " . 0....0   ,..hr"o _,,o,.l .:_ .....e. ,..,.. ,...( Jot.. ,.. L._:_ ... "' .... _____ .J   l..:_.. __
806                                             K.   J.   S.   ANAND AND   D. B.   CARR             NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOCY. AND NEUROCHEMISTRY OF P AIN                            80~



                                                                                                               ~~~w
         centers associated with nociception and endogenous antinociception, al­



                                                                                                             '~ ~. '~                                                "Jr, 'J:~: 

          though the significance of this distribution is unclear. 50. 1113. 130. l.37     t
              Endorphinergic cells have been observed in the anterior and inter- ,N..
 <~ mediate lobes of the fetal pituitary gland18. lOf and were responsive to CRF
, ~; stimulation in vitro by 20 weeks' gestation. 70 Increased production of beta ­
  ,.'} endorphin during fetal and neonatal life was demonstrated subsequently by
                                                                                                                    U                                           OH     0 'DOH
                                                                                                                     A                  B                  C                  D              E
    ; a beta-endorphinlbeta-lipotropin molar ratio of 0.36 in adult pituitary
    ! glands, 1. 04 iii neonatal and 2.13 in fetal pituitaries. 117 Endogenous opioids                         Figure 3. CommOJl ltructural features of morphine (a), morphinan (b), benzomorphan (c).
         are released in the human fetus at birth and higher levels are found in                           phenylpiperidine, (d) fentanyl, and enkephalin, (e) molecules. (From Carr DB: Opioids. IntI
                                                                                                           Anesth Clin 26:273, 1988; with permission.)
         response to fetal and neonatal distress, birth asphyxia, infections, and in
     . newborns of drug-addicted mothers. Ill. ltB. 1311. 182 It has been speculated that
      ,i elevated beta-endorphin levels may be responsible for decreased anesthetic                          and integrate nociceptive inputs , From these pathways emanate neural
         requirements in neonates,l03 although we may caution that the concentra­                            outflows to distinct organs and circulatory beds, and nociceptive signals
         tions of beta-endorphin during analgesia after injection into the CSF of                            that ascend rostrally to influence emotion, perception, and hormone secre­
     ., human adults SO were more than 10,000 times greater than the highest                                 tion from the pituitary and adrenal glands. Some evidence suggests analgesic
                                                                                                  ""'
    .  values recorded in neonatal CSF or plasma.                                                           effects of opiates in the periphery as well, outside the CNS. It is Dot
  .'                                                                                                        surprising, then, that in broad terms the effect of intraopera,tive opiate
                                                                                                            analgesia is to diminish the magnitude of stress hormone secre­
                               CUNlCAL IMPUCATIONS                                                           tion-particularly adrenocortical and adrenomedullary-by diminishing 00­
                                                                                                            ciceptive input, as well as the centrally mediated neuroendocrine response
             The above background has significance primarily as a biologic frame­                           to a given level ofsuch input. The introduction of modem radioimmunoassay
        work within which the management of pain in pediatric patients can be                               methods, beginning in the late 1960s as opioid "anesthesia" was devel­
        defined. The detailed clinical application of this information is elsewhere                         oped,I07 was indeed soon followed by reports that stress ho~onal responses
        in this volume, in which pharmacotherapy, behavioral approaches, and                                to surgery were more effectively suppressed by high doses of opioids than
        special settings such as the neonate or postoperative period are discussed.                         by inhalational agents. 20. 68. 75, l22. 136, 163
        To describe the clinical sequelae of analgesia or its absence, this section
                                                                                                                 In fact, morphine was employed decades ago to p robe pituitary
        describes the context in which stress responses are evoked by nociceptive                           physiology. IS. 21 It was given by itself or with barbiturates to inhibit eNS
        mechanisms or blunted by analgesics, and exert their clinical effects through
                                                                                                           input to the pituitary gland and thereby pharmacologically to isolate the
        a variety of physiologic systems, such as neuroendocrine and cardiovascular.
                                                                                                           latter from its hypothalamic nerve supply, lOIS For this reason, and also from
        In this context the results of a variety of studies arguing for aggressive
                                                                                                           pursuit of explanations for endocrine dysfunction in narcotic addicts. 21
        analgesia in pediatric patients may then be reviewed.
                                                                                                           abundant knowledge already existed in the pre-endorphin era concerning
        Pain, Analgesia, and the Global Stress Response                                                    the hormonal effects of narcotics. l99 Morphine, for example, provokes
           Clinical management of two hallmarks of the global stress response is 
                         prolactin release in humans, and inhibits the secretion of pituitary gona­
     key to the optimal outcome of illness in the neonate, infant, and child. 
                            dotropins~tions that mimic the pituitary response to environmental
     First is its neuroendocrine dimension, in which a coordinated outpouring 
                           stress. Morphine's effects are mediated not by direct actions upon the
     of pituitary, adrenal, and pancreatic hormones may grossly disturb protein 
                         pituitary, but rather on its neural input (i. e.• the hypothalam us).33. 199
     and carbohydrate metabolism in the perioperative period. Second are 
                                      Once opiate receptors and their endogenous ligands were recognized
    cardiovascular reactions manifest as arrhythmias and diminished perfusion 
                           as the biologic basis for prior findings based on morphine, research in this
    of vital or healing organs. Other aspects of the global response, such as 
                           area promptly advanced along several avenues. First, responses to naloxone
    altered immunity or respiratory effects, are of course significant, but the 
                         at baseline and dUring a variety of stressors by subjects who were narcotic
    first two areas stand out as those in which integration of basic and applied 
                       free permitted inferences as to the actions of endogenous opioids and their
    science has had an impact on daily clinical practice. Since these two types 
                        receptors in such circumstances. 22, 118, l4l Naloxone, like morphine, is an
    of response are known from clinical studies (see later) to respond favorably 
                       alkaloid (in contrast to endogenous opioids that are peptides) and hence has
    to the administration of opioids, we shall focus on the mechanisms by which 
                        some biologic effects not mediated solely through opiate receptors. ~2
    opioid analgesia produces its favorable clinical effects in these contexts. 
                        Nonetheless, responses to naloxone, morphine, and synthetic opioid pep­
                                                                                                         tides are for the most part consistent and complementary. so. us. 141, 152. 165
    How Do Opioid Analgesics Blunt Neuroendocrine Responses?                                             Second, echOing events in pain research, the anatomic substrate of mor­
         Morphine and fentanyl exert their global effects at multiple levels 
                           phine's endocrine effects-particularly the hypothalamus-was found to
    within hi2hlv orszanized. often , intricate retru1atorv oathwavs that receive 
                      have high concentrations of opioid receptors, which were of multiolp.
I"


 808                                               K.   J.   S.   ANAND AND   D. B.   CARR                   NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, AND NEUROCHEMISTRY OF PAIN                                                 809
  functional types.33, 1Z9. 133. WI Each receptor type and subtype had sOQlewhat                             administration mimic the actions of endorphins on their receptors,27 and
  different actions on hormone secretion, making it possible to tease apart,                                 through feedback controls tYlJical of endOCrinology reduce endogenous
  using selective agonists or antagonists, the regulation of individual stress                               opioid secretion during stress. Endorphins participate in many instances of
  hormones within the global stress response. 88. ~. 131. 13l!. 134. 182 Third, the                          stress-induced autoanalgesia, and measurements of plasma endorphin con­
  discovery that beta-endorphin and ACTH arise from the same parent                                          centrations at times prOVide a rough index of activity within central opioid
  molecule:13 suggested that endogenous analgesia, and the autonomic and                                     pathways. 110. 121 Clinical reports have related such plasma measurements to
  endocrine responses to stress were one seamless garment with common                                        pain after surgery or trauma,'" 167 but the many dynamic components of
  molecular threads. Unfortunately, although the foregoing may be true in a                                  the endorphin system, intricately arrayed within many compartments,
  general sense, levels of one · and the same opioid peptide may change in                                   frustrate unidimensional "dipstick" measurements or reductionist attempts
  the same or opposite directions in separate compartments (e.g. , cerebro­                                  to depict their role in simple tenns.
  spinal fluid, plasma, brain nuclei. .. ) or have no apparent relationship,
  depending on the particular stress or species studied. 31. 110 Furthermore,                               Pain, Opioid Analgesia, and Cardiovascular Stability
  the anatomic distributions of the three opioid peptide families l48 do not                                        Holaday has pointed out that the cardiovascular actions of opioids wert'
  coincide: neurons containing ACTH and beta-endorphin are found in the                                       probably first noted when someone who had received opium stood up and
  hypothalamic arcuate nucleus, and brain stem vagal nuclei, whereas the                                      felt dizzy.82 Cardiovascular sequelae of opioid use have bee n analyzed for
  uther two families of neurons are more diffusely distributed throughout the                                 over a century, and the continuing appearance of reviews from differing
  nervous system. 89• 94, 116, 1:13                                                                           perspectives shows the area is still a thriving one. 27, 57, e.z. ea. 147 As traced
         A major source of confusion in interpreting opioid effects on stress                                 above for pain and hormone secretion, research in the last 15 years has
  hormone secretion, enunciated over 30 years ago, is "the apparent paradox                                   extended earlier work without negating it. For example, Gann and associates
  that morphine can stimulate, as well as depress, the release of ACTH."21 If                                 had earlier mapped with great precision the central pathways linking
 one considers, however, that pituitary secretion of any hormone normally                                     cardiovascular afferents with ACTH secretion.s.
  reflects a balance between stimulatory and inhibitory signals from hypo­                                          Based on a review of studies such as these, and their own results
 thalamus, and that the hypothalamus itself receives dual inhibitory and                                      Randich and Maixner have convincingly argued that "systems controlling
 stimulatory projections from multiple brain areas, this apparent paradox is
 more understandable. 13. 31 , l~ For example, .surgical stress85 activates brain
 stem and limbic neural pathways, which stimulate the hypothalamus to
 secrete CRF and other hormones (e.g., vasopressin) that act to trigger
                                                                                             !                cardiovascular function are closely coupled to systems modulating the
                                                                                                              perception of pain. "1" We might well carry their thesis fu rther, to state
                                                                                                              that the anatomic substrates for opioid actions in any physiologic system­
                                                                                                             nociception and stress hormone secretion being but two examples--bear
 pituitary ACTH and beta-endorphin release,11I8 Opioids, as analgesics,                                      striking parallels and at points literally coincide. In each instance example~
 reduce nociceptive afferent traffic reaching the hypothalamus U8 • 188. 187. lQ3.                           may be cited of 1) excitatory effects of exogenous opioids given to resting
 Jl.I; opioids as hypothalamic hormones les'sen the CRF response to such                                    subjects contrasting with inhibitory effects when identical drugs are given
 neural traffic as remains. 138. ~ In the latter context opioicls alter synaptic                             during stress; 2) dense concentrations of opioid receptors and opioid
 transmission in monoaqtine circuits of the hypothalamus,l80 an action termed                          "	    peptides centrally, at sites of intense afferent integration; 3) separate roles
 neuromodulation.1IO Thus 'in crude terms opioids may be likened to a car's                  ~.
                                                                                                             for individual opioid peptides and receptor types; and 4) neurally based
                                                                                             ~
 brakes: unimportant unless the car is moving.                                                               circuitry that relies heavily on opioid pre- and postsynaptic inhibition of
        These dual, superficially contradictory inBuences of opioids on hormone                              underlying monoaminergic excitatory synapses. How well do opioid cardio­
secretion are evident for most pituitary stress hormones as well as plasma                                   vascular effects fall within this scheme?
catecholamines.32 Systemic opioids stimulate CRF (and hence adrenocorti­                                           Morphine, if given to normal subjects in the basal state, may produce
cal) secretion when given to unstressed subjects54, 131 but inhibit the                                      tachycardia and increase ventricular contractility via a reflex sympathetic
corticosteroid increase during surgical or other stresses. Interestingly in                                 activation that can be prevented by beta-adrenergic blockade. 141, 176 In
view of vasopressin's physiologiC action as a CRF-like hormone, morphine                                    contrast, under conditions of high initial sympathetic tone, morphine
and other opioids tend to raise its leve4 in basal subjects but inhibit its                                 decreases blood pressure by producing a centrally mediated sympatho­
stress-induced rise. Systemic opiates, or intracerebral beta-endorphin,                                     lysis. lOT, 108 These effects may be exaggerated by morphine's propensity to
increase plasma catecholamines if given under basal conditions l74 but act                                  release histamine if administered quickly, but similar findings occur with
upon stimulatory circuits in hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce the                                      fentanyl, for which histamine release is not an issue. 146 The excitatory effect
normal catecholamine rise produced by a variety of stresses,                                                of morphine in unpremedicated normal subjects may refl.ect acute CRF
        Thus, in their dual roles during stress, endogenous opioids regulate                                release, which is known to produce sympathetic activation, or effects on
the responses of many hormones and themselves are secreted to produce a                                     spinal sympathetic effector neurons. 62. 1&5 The inhibitory effect of morphine
ho~t of biologic effects. Morphine, fentanyl, or synthetic opioid peptide
                                                                                                            on preexisting sympathetic activation may reside in the paraventricular
                                                                                                            nllr.1""l11' nt th&o hvnnth"I" ....... ~ /'"   1,... , ~'~ ft l'~ _ ._.~~_..: __ _ c   __ .. __ __ .I   .'
and autonomic responses l118 or the. locus coeruleus,l from which most brain             Pain and Metabolism: Clinical Studies
noradrenergic projections originate.                                                           Studies in adult patients undergoing surgery have shown that injury
       Opioid receptors w~re early demonstrated in the vagal nuclei,l2. 114. 19:1        triggers the release of "stress hormones" (catecholamines, corticosteroids.
and the vagotonia that opioids cause daily in the ope1'8ting room is well                growth hormone, and glucagon), which stimulate a cascade of metabolic
explained by their binding to these sites to stimulate parasympathetic                   changes leading to substrate mobilization with the breakdown of protein ,
outflow.87• 100 A prolonged bradycardia (after an initial transient tachycardial)        fat, and carbohydrate stores. These metabolic changes are one component
has in fact been observed after intracerebral administration of several opioid           of the global response which, in a nonhospital setting, may facilitate wound
peptides.74 Vagal outflow appears to underlie the protective effect that                 repair and eventual recovery. S In a hospital setting these responses serve
morphine exerts against ventricular fibrillation, as this protective action is           no useful function and following severe trauma may lead to a hypermetabolic
lost after atropine or vagotomy.411 Fentanyl also exerts a protective effect             state associated with complications such as cardiac insufficiency, dysrhyth ­
against ventricular fibrillation; this effect is significant during stress but not       mias, and myocardial infarction, pulmonary insufficiency, impaired immune
under basal conditions, is lost after vagotomy, but is unaffected by atro­               responses, thromboembolic complications, gastric stress ulcers, persistent
pine.IS1 Fentanyl's actions thus depend on vagal afferent traffic and accord             metabolic acidosis, and prolonged convalescence in adult patien ts.9:2 Moyer
with the profibrlliatory effect of naloxone,115 as well as the actions of other          et a1. measured metabolic stress responses in adult patients with sepsis and
protective agents, which likewise appear to enhance the brain stem baro­                 trauma and were able to discriminate between patients who survived and
ceptor reflex. 34 This reflex receives baroceptor impulses entering via the              those who did not survive with 99 per cent certainty up to 9 days befo re
vagus and responds to blood pressure rises by decreasing sympathetic and                 death. lllO In some cases, a severe catabolic drive may persist even after
increasing parasympathetic efferent traffic, thereby slowing the heart rate. 183         subsidence of the stressful stimulus that triggered it, and may prevent the
 Its enhancement by opioids is the basis for these agenu' "vagotonic" action.            healing and repair of injured tissues.
As this discussion suggests, opioid agonists with different receptor specific­                 As a result of these data, anesthetic techniques have been developed
ities have distinct cardiovascular actions. Paralleling research on nociception         for decreasing the stress responses to major surgery. Suppression of stress
and hormone release, a variety of workers have shown that multiple opioid               responses in adult patients using high-dose opioid lO7 or epidural anes­
 receptors have distinct roles in cardiovascular regulation. This is certainly        . thesia,ll17 both of which would abolish perioperative pain, have shown a
so in shock states· and has been accepted in basal studies as well.li5-57· 78. 13.5     significant reduction in postoperative morbidity and mortality. Based on
       As to the last portion of our opioid paradigm, opiofw enhance contrac­           these data, it is reasonable to expect that similar beneficial effects may be
 tility in isolated myocytes,101. 1011 whereas in preparations in which cardiac         obtained by decreasing the stress responses of neonates and children. One
 innervation ' is preserved, they oppose catecholamine-induced contractility            might further surmise that the current practice of limited perioperative
 and chronotropy,t3-t4. 43, 105, 180 nus anticatecholamine. modulatory effect is        analgesia in pediatric patients may result in an exaggerated stress response
 evident when probed. using the beta-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol,25. 43,           and contribute to an increased incidence of postoperative complications and
 lro and it is associated with a reduction in the normal calcium influx that            poor clinical outcome follOwing major surgery.
 ordinarily follows isoproterenol binding to myocardium. 1 150 Conversely,
                                                                ot.                           In pediatric patients, and particularly newborn infants, metabolic
 peripherally administered opioid receptor antagonists such as naloxone or              stability is much more difficult to maintain because of: 1) a relative.ly greater
 nalmephene acutely increase myocardial inotropy and chronotropy. t3-2II. 105           surface area, necessitating greater heat production; 2) a larger brain-to­
The latter effects are particularly strong after acute bilateral carotid                body weight ratio, with increased obligatory requirements for glucose 3)
 occlusionlS or after tricuspid avulsion and progressive pulmonary artery               the need to maintain somatic growth; 4) much smaller reserves of protein ,
constriction,l05 both conditions in which blood pressure is maintained by               carbohydrate and fat ; 5) metabolic adaptation to extrauterine life and enteral
 sympathetic outflow. These results in the periphery echo morphine's                   nutrition; and 6) maturation of metabolic enzyme systems and homeostatic
                                                                                lO7
exaggerated, centrallY, mediated reduction of blood pressure in patients               mechanisms controlling these systems.~· 14 Given the physiologic and me t­
or animals10l'l with elevated resting sympathetic tone. The circuitry by which         abolic immaturity in early life, it is not surprising that a high incidence of
these peripheral effects occur-inhibition of underlying catecholamine                  postoperative complications and mortality have been documented in neo­
 neurotransmission-mirrors that in many sites within the eNS, in which                 nates and critically ill children undergojng major surgery. 9&, 164 Despite their
for example opioids inhibit substance P relea$e (in dorsal horn of spinal              clinical importance, there are few published data on the stress responses
cord), dopamine release (in hypothalamus or bual ganglia). or norepineph­              of pediatric patients undergoing anesthesia and surgery. ll
rine release (from locus ceruleus). Whether physiologic levels of opioids                     Preliminary studies showed that neonates responded to surgical stress
confer protection from harmful effects of circulating catecholamines (e.g.,            with marked increases in plasma catecholamines, glucagon, and glucocor­
patchy necrosis) during circulatory compromise, or decrease inotropy or                ticoids, together with suppression of insulin secretion . These hormonal
chronotropy enough to exert a protective effect on myocardial oxygen                   changes precipitated hyperglycemia and lactic acidosis, asSociated with
 consumption is speculative, although drugs that directly block beta-recep­           other indices of metabolic substrate mobilization. II Older infants and
'tors or calcium channels are given clinically for such purposes.                     children also had similar hormonal changes, although their catecholamine
812                                            K.   J.   S.   ANAND AND   D. B. CARR        NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY , AND NEUROCHEMISTRY OF PAtN                                                                                         813

  and glucagon responses were smaller than in neonates, and their cortisol                    substantially reduced in neonates given high-dose sufentanil. e. 7 Major
  responses were greater and more prolonged than in neonates. These stress                    postoperative complications and mortality were more common in neonates
  responses differed quantitatively, and in their time course in relation to                  given halothane and low-dose morphine than in neonates given sufentanil,
  surgery, from those of adults. In general, hormonal-metabolic changes in                    in whom no postoperative deaths occurred (Anand K]S, Hickey PR:
  infants and children were greater in magnitude than those of adult patients,                Unpublished data, 1988). Thus, aggressive anesthesia not only decreased
  particularly with regard to the increases in plasma epinephrine, glucagon,                  the stress responses of neonates undergoing surgery but also improved
  growth hormone, blood glucose, blood lactate, and other gluconeogenic                       their postoperative clinical outcome. From the physiologic rationale pre­
  substrates during and after surgery. Infants and children mounted uniphasic                sented above, it is likely that similar effects may be expected in older
  cortisol responses which were smaller than the lIl81"ked biphasic responses                infants and children undergoing surgery, as well as those subjected to
  of adult patients undergoing surgery, and plasma insulin decreased to lower                artificial ventilation and frequent invasive procedures during intensive
                                                                                                    5G             .
  values both during and alter surgery as compared to adult patients.                        care.                                               ,
  Important differences were therefore evident between the pediabic and                            Relatively few studies have compared the hormonal-metabolic stress
  adult stress responses following surgery.                                                  responses of older infants and children receiving different anesthetic tech­
       The effects of anesthesia on the neonatal and pediatric stress responses              niques during surgery; randomized controlled trials to examine these
  are important and may conbibute to the effects of stress suppression on                    differences are even fewer, The effects of potent anesthesia on the cortisol
  postoperative clinical outcome. In a randomized controlled trial, preterm                  responses of infants undergoing abdominal surgery were investigated in a
  babies undergoing ligation of the patent ductus arteriosus were given                      nonrandomized study, which found that infants given nitrous oxide anes­
  nitrous oxide and curare, with or without the addition of intravenous                      thetic mounted significantly greater cortisol responses than did infants given
 fentanyl. Marked hormonal responses to smgery, as indieated by changes                      halothane in addition. 1iA
 in plasma epinephrine, norepinephrine, glucagon, aldosterone, corticoster­                        In older children, Sigurdsson and co-workers found that morphine and
 one, and other steroid hormones, were decreased signHicantly in neonates·                   hyoscine premedication in addition to diazepam signjficantly decreased
 receiving fentanyl. The hOnDonai responses of neonates receiving nitrous                    cortisol, 17-hydroxyprogesterone, and ACTH responses and virtually abol­
 oxide alone were associated with significant increases in blood. glucose,                   ished the catecholamine responses to surgery. 158 A su bsequent randomized
 lactate, and pyruvate; these were prevented inc neonates given fentanyl in             f
                                                                                        L
                                                                                        :
                                                                                             trial showed that the plasma catecholamine responses to adenoidectomy
 addition. t Increased endogenous protein breAkdown and an increased                         were significantly greater during halothane anesthesia than during enHurane
 incidence of postoperative complications after surgery were also noted in              f    anesthesia. l158 These differences occurred in both intubated and nonintu­
 the nitrous oxide group, as compared to the fentanyVnitrous oxide group.                    bated children undergoing adenoidectomy; lower catecholamine levels in
       Another randomized controlled trial compared term neonates undergo­                   the enflurane anesthesia group were associated with a lower incidence of
 ing surgery with nitrous oxide and curare with those receiving halothane                    cardiac arrhythmias during surgery. 157
 added to the anesthetic regimen. 10 Neonates given halothane and ·nitrous              f          In infants and children aged 5 to 60 months undergoing pelvic surgery.
 oxide anesthesia showed decreased hormonal responses to surgery from                        the neuroendocrine responses during halothane/nitrous oxide anesthesia
 those of neonates given nitrous oxide alone, with significant differences in                were abolished completely by epidural anesthesia. Measurements of plasma
 the plasma epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol responses during and                   beta-endorphin, ACfH, arginine vasopressin, and blood glucose levels at
after surgery. Changes in circulating concentrations ofglucose, non esterified               5 and 15 minutes after incision were Significantly different between the two
fatty acids and ketone bodies also were decreased in neonates receiving                      anesthesia. groups. Plasma cortisol concentrations were unchanged from
halothane anesthesia, together with a decreased incidence of complications                  baseline in both anesthetic groups, presumably because of the short period
during and after surgery. These investigations showed that lack of potent                   for blood sampling after the start of surgery.69 In older children receiving
anesthesia may be partially responsible for the exaggerated stress responses                either epidural anesthetic or etomidate during major abdominal operations,
of neonates reported in earlier studies and suggested that giving deeper                    the former technique abolished intraoperative adrenocortical stress re­
anesthesia to neonates undergoing surgery may improve postoperative                         sponses. 121 Plasma concentrations of cortisol, aldosterone, and precursor
clinical outcome.                                                                           steroid hormones decreased in children receiving epidural anesthesia, and
      The latter hypothesis was tested in a randomized trial of high-dose                   children given etomidate had decreases in cortisol levels, but with substan­
opioids in neonates undergOing cardiac surgery. In this study, 15 neonates                  tial increases in the precursor steroid hormones consistent with impairment
given halothane and low-dose morphine mounted substantial catecholamine,                    of sterOid biosynthesis by etomidate. Further studies will be required to
endorphin, and glucagon responses during and after cardiac surgery; these                   demonstrate conclusively an improvement in postoperative outcome in
responses were Significantly blunted in another 30 neonates given high­                     children after aggressive anesthesia and analgesia. Nevertheless the data
dose sufentanil. Metabolic stress responses between the two groups were                     reviewed above have important implications for the practical management
aho «rllcinlllv niffp-rent. with mArlcAd hVnP.7'Q'lv~mIA. 11lrlI~ ~nm:k Ann                 _t" _ ....;_ : __ a"_ ...... Of!"   :_t""' ....... co   "' ..... ,..l ..... 4:1,..l ... .a...... ... ..... ,1 00-_"'.....: __   P" ... _ _ _ _ "
814                                                           K.   J. S.   ANAND AND   D. B.   CARR                NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOCY, AND NEUROCHEMI STRY OF PAIN                                    815

                                        CONCLUSION                                                                                undergoing cardiac surgery; effects on the metaboHc stress respon se. AnestheSiology
                                                                                                                                 67:A502, 1987
                                                                                                                        8. 	Anand KJS. Hickey PR: Pain and its effects in the human neonate and retus. N Eng! J
       Studies relevant to nociception and its consequences in the very young                                                    Med 317:1321, 1987
 have proliferated in recent years and the above review can only survey a                                               9. 	 Anand KJS, Sippel! WG, Aynsley-Green A: Randomised trial of fe ntanyl anaesthesia In
 rapidly evolving field. Despite the promise ofcontinued scientific advances,                                                    preterm babies undergoing surgery: Effe<:ts on the stress response. Lancet 1:243. 1987
 certain fundamental questions lie outside the realm of clinical investigation
                                                                                                                      10. 	 Anand IC]S. Sippellwe.         Schofield NM, et aI: Does halothane anaesthesia decrease the
                                                                                                                                 Rtress response of newborn Infants undergoing operation? Br Me<! J 296:668. 1988
 per se. For example, questions regarding quality of life are often posed for                                          11. 	 Anand KJS, Ward-Platt MP: Neonatal and pediatric stress responses to anesthesia and
 the adult patient with pain, for example, due to cancer. In those settings,                                                     operation. Int Anesthesiol Clin 26:218. 1988
 the patient's verbal description is heavily weighted, as are his or her                                              12. 	 Atweh SF. Kuhar MJ: Distribution and physiological significance of opfoid receptors Itl
 functional abilities as a family member and productive w.dividual within                                                        the brain. Br Med Bull 39:47-52. 1983
                                                                                                                      13. 	 AJelrod J: The relationship between the stress hormo~es, catecholammes, ACTH and
 society. Defining quality of life in nonnal neonates, particularly if prema­                                                    glucocorticoids. In Usdin E. Kvetnansky R. Axelrod J (eds): Stress: The Role of
 ture, is infinitely more difficult given their inability to express or otheIWise                                                Catecholamines and other Neurotransmitters . New York, Gordon ~ Breach, 1984 .
convey experiences and emotions. Furthermore. "purposeful activity" is a                                                         p3              .
concept that is irrelevant to the neonatal setting.                                                                   14. Aynsley-Green A: The control of the adaptation to postnatal nutrition . Monogr Paedialr
                                                                                                                                 16:59. 1982
      Despite these difficulties, one must take into account the neonate's                                            15. 	 Barraclough CA. Sawyer CH: Inhibition of the release of pituitary ovu latory hormone in
 potential to grow and develop, to overcome handicaps, and to experience                                                         the rat by morphine. Endocrinology 57:329, 1955
life to a degree far greater than in the adult. To foster optimal development,                                        16. 	 Basbaum A, Fields H: Endogenous pain control systems ; brainstem spinal pathways ami
stress during the perioperative period or prolonged intensive care should                                                       endorphin circuitry. Ann Rev Neuroscl 7:309, 1984
be minimized.3 The recognition of highly developed nociceptive systems,                                               17. Beecher HK: The measurement of paln. Pharmacol Rev 9:59, 1957
                                                                                                                      18. 	 Begeot M. Dubois MP. Dubois PM: Immunologic localiution of alpha- and beta­
and evidence for clinical, physiologic, and psychologic sequelae of inade­                                                      endorphins and beta·lipotropin in corticotropic cells of the normal and anencephalic
quately treated pain in neonates and children, mandate that aggressive                                                          fetal pituitaries. Cell Tiss Res 193:413, 1978
treatment of pain is central to such care. In the fub.1re, knowledge of                                     f         19. Bomas C. Magistretti PJ. Morrison JH: An immunohistochemical study of six biologically
nociceptive mechanisms and their ontogeny in the human undoubtedly will                                 I                       active peptides in the human brain. Human Neurohiol 5:213, 1986



                                                                                                        I
be exploited to apply novel treatments of pain in a context-d.ependent                                               20. 	 Brandt MR, Korshin J. Hansen AP, et al: InHuence of morphine anaesthesia on the
                                                                                                                                endocrine-metabolic response to open.heart surgery. Acta Anaesth Scand 22:400. 1978
manner. As this occurs, the present perspective that pain and suffering are                                           21. 	 Briggs FN, Munson PL: Studies on the mechanism of stimulation of ACfH secretion
inevitable parts of each child's illness will have to be abandoned.                                     i                       with the aid of morphine as a blocking agent. EndOCrinology 57:205. 1955
                                                                                                        1            22. 	 Bruni JF. Van Vugt D, Marshall J. et al: EffecU of naloxone. morphine and metlUonine
                                                                                                                                enkephalin on serum prolactin. luteinizing hormone. fuUlde stimulating hormone
                                    ACKNOWLEDGMENTS                                                                             thyroid stimulating hormone and growth hormone. Life Scl 2.1:461 . 1977
                                                                                                                     23. CaffreyJL. Gangl JF, Jones CE: Local endogenous opiate activity in dog myocardium
    Partial support for this article was provided by the Shriners Hospitals for Crippled                                       receptor blockade with naloxone. Am] Physiol248 (Heart Cire PhysioI17):H382, 1985
Children and NINCDS grant PO 1·23357 (to Dr. Carr). and the Chi1~'s Hospital Medical                                 24. 	 Caffrey JL. Wooldridge CB, Gaugl JF: The interaction of endogenous opiates with
Center Anesthesia Foundation (tQ Dr. Anand).                              .                                     "              autonomic circulatory control in the dog. Cire Shock 17:233, 1985
                                                                                                                     25. 	 Caffrey JL, Wooldridge CB. Gaugl JF: Naloxone enhances myocardial responses to
                                                                                                                               i$oproterenol i.n dog isolated heart-lung. Am J PhysioJ 250 (Heart Circ Physjol
                                                                                                                               19):H749. 1986
                                       REFERENCES                                                                    26. 	 Calimlin JF. Warden WM, Sriwatanakal K, et al: A.nalgesic efficacy of parenteral
                                                                                                                               metkephamid acetate in treatment of postoperative pain . Lancet 1: 1374, 1982
                                                                                                                     27. Carr DB: Opioids. Inti Anesth Clinics 26;273. 1988
  1. 	 Aghajanian G: Tolerance of locus coeruleus neurons to mOIphine and suppression of
        withdrawal responses to morphJne. Nature 276:186. 1979                     .
                                                                                                                     28. 	 Carr DB: Pain. In Firestone, Lebowitz, Cook (eds): Clinical Anesthesia Procedures oj 

                                                                                                                               the Massach usetts General Hospital (3rd edition). Boston, UttJe, Brown ~ Co, 1988. 

  2. 	Akil H, lewis JW (eds): Neurotransmitters and pain control. In Gildenberg PL (ed):                                      P 571 

        Pain and Headache, Vol 9. New York. lCarger. 1987
                                                                                                                    29. Carr DB, Ballantyne ]C: Endorphins and analgeSia. Compr Ther 13:7. 1987
 3. 	Als H, Lawhon G, Brown E. et al: Individuafized behavioral and environmental care for
                                                                                                                    30. 	 Carr DB, Fisher JE: Opiate receptors, endogenous ligands, and anesthesia: I. synopsis
        the very low birthwelght preterm infimt at high risk for bronchopulmonary dysplasia:
        neo~tal intensive care unit and developmental outcome. Pediatrics 78:1123. 1986
                                                                                                                              In Estafanous FE (ed): Opioids in Anesthesia.. Boston. Butterworth. 1984. p 10
 4. 	Anand KJS, Causon RC. Christofides NO. et aI: Can the human neonate mount an                                   31. Carr DB, Jones ICJ. Bergland RM , et al: Causal links between plasma and CSF endorphin
                                                                                                                              levels in stress: vector-ARM A analysis. Peptides 6 (Suppl l );5, 1985
        endocrine and metabolic response to surgery? J Pediatr Surg 20:41, HISS
 5. 	 Anand KJS: The stress response to sl1flPcal trauma: From physiologbl basis to thera­                          32. 	 Carr DB, Murphy MT: Openilion. anesthesia, and the endorphin ,},stem. Inti Anesthesiol
                                                                                                                             Olin 26:199, 1988
        peutic implications. Prog Food Nlltr Sci 10:67, 1986
                                                                                                                    33. Carr DB. Ro.enbLatt 	M: Endorphins in the normal and abnormal pituitary. In .Black P
 6. 	Anand KJS. Carr DB. Hickey PH: RaMomiled trial of high-dOie sufentanil anesthesia
       in neonates undergoing cardiac ,urgery: bormoQAI and hemod)"ftAlNc stress responses.                                   MeL, et al (ech): Secretory Tumors of the Pituitary Gland.. Prog Endocr Res Ther. vol
                                                                                                                              1. New York. Raven Press, 1984, p 245
       Anesthesiology 67:A501, 1987.
.7. Anand KIS. Hldcev PR: Randomiled trial ofhiifh-do.e .uientanll • ....".~h,._cl. In n ..... nat..c               34. Carr DB, Saini V, Venier RL: Opioids and cardiovascular function; neuromodulation of
The neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, and neurochemistry of pain, stress, and analgesia in newborns and children
The neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, and neurochemistry of pain, stress, and analgesia in newborns and children
The neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, and neurochemistry of pain, stress, and analgesia in newborns and children
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The neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, and neurochemistry of pain, stress, and analgesia in newborns and children

  • 1. Article Lead Author: Anand, K.J.S. Date: 8/1989 Article: The Neuroanatomy, Neurophysiology, and Neurochemistry of Pain, Stress, and Analgesia in Newborns and Children 1. Pain felt at: a. If the article specifically asserts unborn children feel pain, at what post­ fertilization age? b. Page: 2. Nociceptors: a. Ifthe article states nociceptors are present, at what post-fertilization age? b. Page: 798, Third Paragraph. "Thereafter, the thalamocortical nociceptive connections via the posterior limb of the internal capsule and corona radiate undergo complete myelination by 37 weeks of gestation." 3. Thalamus link: a. If the article states nerves link nociceptors to the thalamus, at what post­ fertilization age? b. Page: 4. Subcortical plate link: a. If the article states nerves link to the subcortical plate, at what post-fertilization age? b. Page: 5. Noxious stimuli reaction: a. Does the article refer to reaction to noxious stimuli? At what post-fertilization age? b. Page; 6. Stress hormones: a. Does the article refer to increase in stress hormones with noxious stimuli? At what post-fertilization age? b. Page: 809, Third Paragraph. :We might well carry their thesis further, to state that the anatomic substrates for opioid actions in any physiologic system ­ nociception and stress hormone secretion being but two examples - bear st riking parallels and at point literally coincide." 7. Long-term effects: a. Does the article describe long term harmful effects from exposure to noxious stimuli? b. Page: 8. Fetal anesthesia: a. Does the article refer to use of fetal anesthesia and its effect? At what post­ fertili zation age?
  • 2. b. Page: 811, Second Paragraph. "Based on these data, it is reasonable to expect that similar beneficial effects may be obtained by decreasing the stress responses of neonates and children. Page: 813, First Paragraph. "Thus aggressive anesthesia not only decreased the stress responses of neonates undergoing surgery but also improved their postoperative clinical outcome." 9. Cortex: a. Does the article relate to the asserted need for cortical involvement to experience pain? How? b. Page: 10. Other:
  • 3. lEIL L. SCHECHTER Acute Pain in Children 0031-3955/89 $0.00 + .20 I sUTVey of U.S. bum letter]. N Eng} J Med r1 The Neuroanatomy, Neurophysiology, b, and Management. and Neurochemistry of Pain, Stress, tUldren. J Dev Behav and Analgesia in Newborns 1001: A comparison of 15,1986 and Children he neonate and fetus lin North Am 52:131­ local anesthetic during K. J. S. Anand, MBBS, D Phil, * and D. B. Carr, MDt id analgesics. J Pediatr reduction of pain and with cancer. J Pediatr In recent years, broad similarities between the experience of pain in children and adults have become increasingly evident. Although recognition of these parallels carries great weight for clinical practice, for example, in mandating aggressive analgesia for the young, essential differences exist between the pain experienced by children and adults. These differences reBect the unique biologic and behavioral characteristics of newborns, infants, and children in different stages of development. Craig and colleagues48 have stated that "the challenge for adults is to understand just what it is that children are experiencing. Adults do not think and feel like children." This volume is evidence for evolving concern for pain issues in pediatric patients, and its contents are testimony to the numerous scientific advances and changes in clinical practice presently occurring in this field. Another article in this issue describes the cultural indifference with which pain in newborns and children has been treated until the recent past, Clinicians long have been misguided by the premise that neonatal and pediatric patients do not experience pain as severely as adults, and that the magnitude and duration of its impact may be less than in adults. This article presents the scientific foundations for the physiology of pain as expressed in the pediatric age group, its clinical correlates, and implications for clinical outcome. The present discussion therefore may provide a physiologic rationale for the treatment of pain described in subsequent articles. ·Clinical Fellow in Pediatrics and Research Fellow in Anesthesia, Harvard Medical School and The Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts. tAssociate Professor of Anesthesia, Harvard Medical School; Co-Director, Anesthesia Pain Unit Staff Physician, Massachusetts General Hospital and Shriners Burns Institute, Boston, Massachusetts. PediDtric ClinicS of North America-Vol. 36, No. 4. August 1989 795
  • 4. K. J. S. ANAND .... ND D. B. CARR NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, .... NO NEUROCHEMISTRY OF PAI N 797 J: NEUROANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A Dynamic Process in the Central Nervous System Pain has been depicted as a process in which the activation of specmc !ptors in the periphery evokes reproducible responses within spinal 1 dorsal horn neurons that in turn send projections to well-demarcated I CEI1E811AL COflfl',A' halad loci. 9] This "hard-wired" model, along with other straightforward 'gorizations of pain mechanisms, has been abandoned by researchers in THALAMUS field because overwhelming evidence has accumulated that the phe­ lenon of pain reflects remarkably adaptive neural and chemical processes Figure 1. Pain pathways from the .spinal . Cord to the sensory t.lIOiJRJlIIi lin networks, the elements ofwhieh may grow or dwindle in number.l78 cortex, including connections to Wall recently has critiqued traditional c1assi6cations of nociceptive affective and 8ssociative areas. (Ab­ rons.178 Based on the absence of fixed relationships between excitation breviations follow slllndard neuro ­ PONS leripheral fibers and sensory or behavioral outcome, or between input anatomJca1 nomenclature.) output of individual dorsal horn neurons, Wall argues persuasively that ut-output schemes within pain pathways are context dependent. For t.lE1XII.J.A mple, painful inputs bigger widespread increases of neural excitability 08lt)Nt;A'" hin the spinal cord, . and expansion of these spinal neurons' cutaneous eptive fields. 4.5, 179. 191 The description of constantly shifting patterns of !rneuronal communication within pain pathways recalls Sperry's seminal :ure of consciousness itse1P61 and is a far cry from "the dassical expec­ on of hard-wired dedicated systems monopolized in the service of a I ~le sensation. "178 Nonetheless, certain areas of the nervous system are SPiN.tI. C O CIII ognized to be particularly dense foci of processing and modulation of 'iceptive inputs 187, 19f; these are summarized in Figure 1. Within each d, convergence and summation of incoming signals occurs in multiple e frames through both excitatory and inhibitory afferent projections. jtatory and inhibitory descending projections to spinal and supraspinal I ; are interwoven with ascending circuits to produce exquisitely variable I. but, in contrast to somatic afferents, reach the spinal cord through sympa­ i ~ring or enhancement of potentially painful afferent stimuli. thetic, parasympathetic, and splanchnic nerves . Upon reaching the spinal cord, afferent nociceptive signals are ampli­ .ture Anatomic Pathways: A Pr~cis fied or at.tenuated within the layers of the dorsal horn. Nociceptive-specific Acute pain relevant to the hospitalized child typically reflects the ivation of nociceptors ,is, 187, 19f In broad terms, these are of two major 1 (NS) neurons within the substantial gelatinosa of the superficial dprsal horn respond only to pain. Wide dynamic range (WDR) neurons, particularly in ,es: high-threshold mechanoceptors and polymodal nociceptors. The deeper layers, respond.to various input modes (e, g" mechanical, thennal, mer do not respond to heat or chemical irritation but do respond to or chemical) even at a low, non-noxious intensity. Multiple incoming and lng pressure applied to a wide area of skin. Axons of high-threshold descending stimuli combine to modulate the discharge patterns of dorsal chanoceptors are myelinated and conduct in the A-delta velocity range, horn cells . . Woolf has shown that under conditions of stimulation , such as .0 25 meters per second. Polymodal nociceptors respond to heat and produced by peripheral tissue injury, the threshold of NS neurons is esic substances as well as to pressure. Being unmyelinated, the axons of conSiderably lowered, thereby converting them to WDR neurons. tal . 139 ymodal nociceptors conduct slowly, in the C-fiber range (less than 2 This hypersensitivity, associated with alteration in the receptive fields of ters per second). Nociceptors project to the spinal cord through primary I such neurons, .is exquisitely sensitive to treatment with opioid analgesics. 130 ~rents with cell bodies in dorsal root ganglia and increase in sensitivity Such nociceptive discharges are conveyed via axons that largely cross ~r injury. to ascend in the contralateral spinal cord, The spinothalamic tract, in the , Classically, selective stimulation offast, myelinated A-delta fibers yields anterolateral cord, ascends to ventroposterior arid medial thalamic nuclei ;1 J):Lin: rapid in onset after injury, slwp, localized, and pricking. Second and thence to associative and somatosensory areas of cerebral cortex that tn-slower in onset, prolonged, dull, aching, and poorly localized-is mediate the discriminative and localizing aspects of pain, Spinoreticular ~ ntiRed with C-nber effects. Visceral ail'erents may be of A. or C-caliber neurons project to the limbic system (including hypothalamus), and mediate arousal, affective responses, and neuroendocrine and autonomic sequelae
  • 5. 798 K. J. S. ANAND AND D. B. CARR NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, AND NEUROCHEMISTRY OF P AJN 799 of nociceptive input. Pain sensations may persist or recur even after MATURATION a: PAIN PATHWAYS IN Tt£ HUMAN FETUS AND NEONATE sectioning of both these ascending tracts owing to persistence of spinomes­ encephalic projections. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ---- I i I l i t i I I r I I It' Development of the Anatomic Substrate for Pain Cutaneous Sensoryl aa}tI.,r.es The development ...... ~'l:tiiredfOi"- pain transmission Perception occurs mainly during fetat ~. "_~lb11t ltlQIl'fha of~CYt The gross ~/~TiON.~~~:;~~;;;;~~ri~~~~======~~-- ",1I""n!:=:er""na=;:'~C<i=p=sut~e=::====~ elements of the pain system may be traced from sensory receptors in the skin to the sensory cerebral cortex: this linked array serves as a framework Nerw Troatl in me Spinal !Cord _ crd Brain Stem ICorona Radicla CORTICAL M4TilRAT.t:;W_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ for describing the development and integration of its components. Anatomic studies have shown that ~q'-_U.i.llt~II~.~~~&Veen~ Neuronal M"'9fO!rQ!!Sk~ArbarizDtion __ _ __ m the late fetus and newbditi 'nll1' ~'.- · eMIeeid. that of adult skin. 73 Recent recordings from single cutaneous afferents in newborn and [S)!OOptoqenesIl with Thal~n~:!~== fetal rats also have shown that the receptive field sizes are similar to those ££6 PATTERNS. in the adult. S8 EarJy ~~· oIM_. _ _ OGIHe.es showed that ~ten.t cutaneous sensory perceptieftlppt!sis ''i& tire ~ . . of the human fetus in the seveR,tit week of._'liu ._~' apreadsto all cutaneous and mucous surfaces by 20 WoIIbof~ae ,sprea8 of cutaneous sensation is preceded by ae4:,,~Dized with the development of POtTem4ffG -~ [ Corricol ElIOked Potentials synapses between inG.QmiBg~ fUa~, and receptiv.e oeurones in the dorsal hom of the spinal coni, ~, .firJtappear during the sixth week of gestation. us, 19~ Rizvi and cAi....... have $how» that mpr.phologic differ­ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I entiation of dorsal horn neur-QUS in thespiaal cord begins around 13 weeks ~ ~ M ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ of gestation. I4S Further development proceeds with their arrangement into H££K.S' OF GESTATION Rexed's laminae, together with formation of synaptic interconnections and Figure 2, Overview of the development of nociceptive functiOns and their physiologic specific neurotransmitter vescicles to form a mature dorsal horn in some basis dUring the third trimester of fetal life, (From Anand KS. Hickey PH; N Engl J Med 317:1321, 1987; with permission,) regions of the spinal cord by 30 weeks of gestation. Traditionally, lack of myelination has been proposed as an index of immaturity in the neonatal nervous system 1tlll and used frequently to support neocortex begins at 8 weeks' gestation; by 20 weeks the cortex has a full the argument that neonates and infants are not capable of pain perception. 8 complement of 108 neurons. The dendritic processes of cortical neurons As described above, nociceptive impulses in adult. peripheral nerves also undergo profuse arborization and develop synaptic targets for the incoming are conducted via unmyelinated and thinly myelinated fibers. The slower thalamocortical fibers and intracortical connections. 117. 143 The development conduction velocity in neonatal nerves or central nerve tracts resulting of these connections is of crucial importance for cortical perception because from incomplete myelination is offset by the shorter interneuronal and most sensory pathways to the cortex have synapses in the thalamus. From neuromuscular distances ' that the impulse has to travel in neonates and studies on primate and human fetuses, Rakic et a1. I-LJ have shown that :;mall infants. Is< Furthermore, ~ quantit,ative neuroanatomic methods, afferent neurons in the thalamus produce axons that grow into the cerebrum Gilles et al. have shown that .~ tracts associMed with nociception in prior to midgestation and "wait" just below the neocortex until migration the spinal cord and brain steIB (die lateral spinothalaniic, spUlal trigeminal, and dendritic arborization of cortical neurones is complete. Finally, the spinoreticular, dorsal cervical, ~ ~ocerebellar) are completely myeli­ thalamocortical connections are established with synaptogenesis occurring nated up to the thalamus byao weeks of gestatioo. 1I Thereafter, the between 20 and 24 weeks' gestation. 98. 118 thalamocortical nociceptive connections via the posterior limb of the internal Several types of observations speak for the functional maturity of the capsule and corona radiata undergo ~ myelinati(m by 37 weeks of cerebral cortex in the fetus and neonate. First are reports of fetal and gestation. Formation and myelination of the nerve tracts linking nociceptive neonatal EEG patterns, including cortical components ofvisual and auditory centers in the brain stem, thalamus, and sensory cortex, with the limbic evoked potentials, that have been recorded in preterm babies of less than' system. hypothalamus. and associative areas of the cerebral cortex, have 30 weeks' gestation. 80. 170 Recent studies also have identified the cortical , . not been studied and may occur during early infancy and childhood. components of somatosensory evoked potentials.- Second, in vivo meas­ It is clear from the above that the neuroanatomic apparatus for urements of cerebral glucose utilization have shown that the maximal rates cunducting nociceptive impulses from the periphery to the sensory cortex of metabolic activity occur in sensory areas of the neonatal brain (sensori­ is intact even in the newly born, infant (Fie:. 2), Develonment ofthp. fp.tal motor cortex, thalamus, midbrain-brain stem regions) .41 Thil·rt wpl.,rl ..Il" ....l
  • 6. 800 K. J. S. AN....ND ~D D. B. CJRR NEURO~""TOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, AND NEUROC HE MISTRY O F P AIN 801 periods of sleep and wakefulness are present in utero from 28 weeks' the central nervous system (CNS) of multiple peptide fam ilies, termed gestation, in addition to various cognitive, coordinative, and associative "neuropeptides." Studies from a variety of disciplines delineating the capabilities demonstrated by newborn infants together with their specific behavioral, biochemical, and ' pharmacologic effects of such peptides in behavioral responses to pain. Thus, human newborns do have the anatomic humans began to appear only within the last decade but are now quite and functional components required for appreciation of painful stiinuli. numerous. Taking as criteria for neurotransmitter function 1) the presence Further development of the paiD pathways during infancy and child­ of a peptide as assessed by radioimmunoassay, 2) its localization within hood involves the refinement of these sensory modalities and intracortical discrete neuronal populations by immunohistochemistry, 3) its release from c:onnections with the limbic system and the affective and associative areas neurons in vivo or in vitro in a calcium-dependent manner, and 4) the located in the frontal cortex, parietal cortex, and the insula. The develop­ presence of specific receptors and cellular actions triggered by receptor ment of descending inhibition of nociceptive neurons and interneurons in occupancy, it is now accepted that a variety of neuropeptides do serve as the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and the sensory brain stem nuclei also authentic neurotransmitters. Pep tides function in excitatory (e.g., substance occurs during this period. The importance of this phase of development in P) and inhibitory (e.g., enkephalins) roles at spinal and supraspinal levels. the maturation of the pain system is underscored by the high index of All peptides are biosynthesized from larger precursor forms that are cleaved "brain plasticity" present during this period. Clearly, the cellular, synapti~, and otherwise processed to yield active daughter forms . and molecular mechanisms determining brain plasticity are highest during Although the opioid peptides are certainly the best-studied group of iniancy and early childhood. lll5 Painful and other experiences during this neurotransmitters in the context of pain, much effort recently has been period therefore may determine the final architecture of the adult pain directed to extending the results found with endorphins to other peptide system, with subtle and presently undefined characteristics responsible for neurotransmitters. It is already clear that certain forms of environmental the clinically evident individual variation. stress evoke analgesia that is unaccompanied by endorphin secretion and is not reversed by naloxone. Such stress-induced analgesia has been termed nonopioid, and certain features suggest mediation by monoamines; yet the NEUROCHEMISTRY roles of many possible nonopioid peptides that might subse rve such analgesia remain to be defined . The candidates are myriad ~ecause dozens Taxonomy of Pain Mediators and Transmitters of peptide neurotransmitters, many originally identified outside the eNS (e.g., in gut). Several stand out as most deserving of attention. Pain's complex neurophysiology is the result of mediator molecules or Calcitonin was discovered by Copp and co-workers in 1962, and named other stimuli acting on nociceptors that evoke subsequent responses within on the basis of its functional antagonism of the hypercalcemic effects of many neural circuits. Dozens of neurotransmitters act within these diverse, parathyroid hormone. 19. 87 It is derived from "c" cells of the thyroid gland, multilevel circuits. In the microenvironment of the nociceptor, mediators and inhibits osteoclastic activity in bone and calcium resorption by the of injury or inflammation range in size from mere ions such as potassium kidney. After it was located in the brain, its brain receptors were demon­ or hydronium, to simple monoamines such as histamine, to eicosanoids, to strated and physiologic effects of intracerebral administration were exam­ peptides such as bradykinin, to protems such as. lymphokines. Each class ined. Apart from its effects on bone, calcitonin has produced analgesia in of mediator occurs centrally in pain pathways, too, as a primary neurotrans­ patients with cancer and nonmalignant pain such as causalgia or pancreati­ mitter or as a modulator of underlying synaptic transmission. tis. m Prolonged analgesia in tail pinch but not tail flick assays was Monoamines active in central pain pathways include dietary amines demonstrated after intracerebral administration of calcitonin to animals. (e.g., glycine) or enzymatically produced derivatives. Tyrosine-derived Derived from the same precursor as calcitonin is calcitonin gene-related catecholamines (particularly those such as norepinephrine) that act on peptide (CGRP), which has been localized in dorsal root ganglia and presynaptic alpha-2 receptors, and tryptophan-derived serotonin both con­ substantia gelatinosa, trigeminal ganglion, and other areas that modulate vey inhibitory brain stem signals to the spinal cord dorsal horn and also pain. H9 There is some, but not complete, competition between calcitonin contribute to analgesia after opioid administration. Drugs such as clonidine, and CGRP for brain receptors. an alpha-2 agonist, or monoamine oxidase inhibitors, are recognized to be Neurotensin, although its structure was elucidated from hypothalamic analgesic by virtue of their stimulatory actions upon monOlUIline analgesic extracts, is present outside the CNS in the gastrointestinal tract, and pathways . GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), or drugs such as baclofen or outside the hypothalamus in areas of the CNS important for pain processing midazolam that act on GABA sites, have likewise been found to produce such as the periaqueductal gray and superficial laminae of the dorsal hom. analgesia, largely by acting on the spmal cord. As is the case for calcitonin, neurotensin produces modality-specific anal­ Peptides have a primary structure made up of a chain of ammo acids. gesia in rats: hot plate and acetic acid writhing tests give positive results, These chains twist to produce three-dimensional structurel that 6t specific but not tail pinch. In mice, neurotensin produces comparable analgesia receptors in assorted bodily cOmpartments. Understanding of pain and its after intracisternal injection as beta-endorphin. relief has been revolutionized in . the past 15 years by the isolation within CorticotroDin-releasinsz factor (CRF) is understood to mean the 4J
  • 7. 802 K. J. S. ANAND AND D. B. CARR NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, AND NEUROCHEMISTRY OF P AlN 803 amino acid hypothalamic peptide characterized in 1981 by Vale and col­ tazocine) produced excitation but little analgesia and was deemed "sigma' leagues on the basis of its stimulation of ACI'H and beta-endorphin release receptor selective. from the pituitary. Many other compounds, such as vasopressin or interleu­ Martin's classification, based on work in his laboratory at an addiction kin-l, possess such stimulatory activity but are not the "authentic" CRF.l96 research facility in Kentucky, was extended by results obtained by another CRF neurons are widely distributed in brain areas concerned with auto­ long-standing addiction research group in Aberdeen, Scotland. The Scottish nomic regulation and its intracerebral administration activates the sympa­ investigators had isolated and characterized the structure of two pentapep­ thetic nervous system and produces behavioral arousal. Recently Har­ tides, leucine and methionine enkephalin, by tracking opiate activity of greaves, Dubner, and colleagues have shown that peripheral administration successively purified pig brain fractions. 84 To monitor opiate activity they of CRF induces analgesia in rats and human subjects. TT measured analytes' inhibition of electrically induced smooth muscle con­ Somatostatin was isolated in 1973 from hypothalamic extracts by traction. Armed with a test drug panel composed of the enkephalins, related Brazeau and colleagues in a search for inhibitors of growth hormone release. peptides, and morphine, they found different potency rankings for drugs Somatostatin inhibits the release of multiple pituitary hormones besides tested in their bioassay, depending on whether the smooth muscle was growth hormone, and its high concentration within the nervous system, harvested from guinea pig ileum or mouse vas deferens. 106 They deduced particularly [n the superficial dorsal hom of the spinal cord, led to tests of that opiate receptors in mouse vas deferens must be distinct from those in its analgesic potential. 66 Rats are more sensitive to the toxic effects of guinea pig ileum (which were already recognized to be mu-like), and gave somatostatin than are species such as the dog, rabbit, or (apparently) human the name delta to this newly recognized opiate receptor. because a number of studies in postoperative pain in humans have pro­ By the start of the 1980s, laboratories throughout the world had ceeded apparently without incident.·1 Analgesia produced by somatostatin confirmed the division of opiate receptors into at least four major categories is more pronounced for pinprick testing than cutaneous thermal pain and by methods such as numerical analysis of drug-receptor binding, displace­ is not reversed by naloxone nor associated with respiratory depression. ment of reference reagents by test compounds, susceptibility to naloxone Substance P was isolated decades ago by von Euler and characterized reversal of drug effects, and quantitative autoradiography. 35. 201 These 20 years ago by Leeman and colleagues. Its importance as a neurotrans­ methods, increasingly removed from Martin's clinical starting point, bave mitter for primary nociceptive afferents is by now well accepted and has further disclosed subtypes within major receptor categories. 2g• .0 Pasternack's led to synthesis and testing of antagonist compounds. Likewise the "gut" identification of high-affinity mU l and low-affinity mU2 receptor subtypes is peptide cholecystokinin (subsequently identified in brain) appears to be especially promising because of experimental evidence in vivo that opiate hyperalgesic; it is contained in the $JlDle neurons within the dorsal hom as analgesia is mediated by the fonner receptor subpopulation, whereas substance P and antagonizes analgesia produced by opiates. 1M activation of the latter produces undesirable side effects, such as respiratory This summary cannot do justice to a vast and actively evolving depression. 129 literature; for conciseness references are given to recent reviews or mono­ One of the most powerful tools for studying opiate receptors-not to graphs, ISS. 194. 198 each of which deals with multiple nonopioid analgesic speak of endorphin physiology in general-has been the ongoing character­ peptides. ization of their endogenous ligands. Strong homologies in the amino acid sequences of the opioid peptides created initial confusion in the 1970s as Opioid Receptors and Ligands to the number and distribution of opioid peptides. By the early 1980s this Cellular receptors for morphine were postulated some time ago (Por­ confusion was overcome by consolidation of results from peptide chemistry, toghese 1960), and the existence and functions of multiple types of opiate immunologic analyses relying on region-specific antibodies, and, ultimately receptor were deduced with great precision by Martin in the 1970s. 71, 11.3 cloning and sequencing the genes for their precursor molecules ..0. H . Ik. 148 (Martin had himself speculated in the 1960s that "one can assume, for The three precursor molecules, named according to their biologically active argument's sake, that opioids mimic a naturally ongoing process."lU) His fragments, are proenkephalin, pro-AcrHlendorphin (or, synonymously, seminal studies, although performed in dogs, were prompted by clinical pro-opiomelanocortin [POMC]), and prodynorphin. The name of the second impressions of different symptcms displayed by narcotic addicts during ~ precursor derives from the remarkable fact that ACTH and beta-endorphin exposure to or withdrawal from opiates that had different structures. His are cosynthesized from a common parent molecule53 and cosecreted during observations were based solely on in vivo effects: no eBOrt was made to stress (see later). physicochemically analyze any receptor. Nevertheless, his classification is Opioid Analgesia still current, albeit with interim reBnements. Thus, the receptor most readily activated by morphine--to produce analgeSia, mydriasiS, and res­ The likelihood that "morphine appears to enhance supraspinal inhibi­ piratory depression-was named mu. Ketocyclazocine produced analgesia I; tory mechanisms on pain reflexes" was mentioned by Beecher in the with less respiratory depression than morphine by acting on a postulated r I. 195Os. 17 Subsequent work by several groups revealed that morphine does "kappa" receptor. The proprietary compound SKF 10,047 (N-allyl norme- I. activate supraspinal neurons that descend to inhibit pain transmission throum the sDinal cord.116, 166. l~, 111i5 Direct mp.asl1 rp.mp nt~ nf cn;nll! ""rrl
  • 8. 804 K. J. S. ANAND AND D. B. CARR NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, AND NEUROC HE MISTRY O F PAIN 805. neuron responses to pain, their inhibition following systemic doses of within the spinal cord gray matter, particularly in the dorsal horn. us. 129. 19' morphine, and the reduction of this morphine effect after spinal cord Their greatest densities are in substantia gelatinosa, at the "gate" postulated transection 7S further confirmed this view. The identification of opiate by Melzack and Wall to regulate nociceptive input, as well as in deepe r receptors prompted Basbaum and Fields to mold their own and others' layers (Rexed IV-VI) termed the nucleus proprius. Selective activation of findings into a unified "descending opiate-mediated analgesia system. "18 In mu receptors markedly reduces visceral pain, or acute pain caused bv this model, the periaqueducta1 gray of the midbrain and the raphe and exposure to heat, but is less effective against pain from skin (or tail ) adjacent nuclei in the meduUa are densely supplied with opiate receptors, pinch. 172• 173 Kappa agonists (i.e., agents which bind to and activate kappa and in turn descend via dorsolateral tracts to inhibit the dorsal horn. As receptors) in contrast are more potent than mu agonists at redUCing pai.n might be surmised from the above work, opiate receptors in this system caused by pinch, hardly effective at all on thermal testing, and comparably (e.g. , periaqueductal gray) are predominantly mu. Because spinal transec­ analgesic for pain due to peritoneal irritation. Delta agonists are, like mu tion does not reduce kappa agonists' analgesic effect at the level of the agonists, active against thermal pain, but basic and clinical reports point to distal cord (Wood 1981), kappa receptors appear less active in this descend­ their effectiveness against visceral pain as well. 26, 126. 142. 153 ing analgesic pathway. Descending endorphin-mediated analgesic pathways, Despite the above unresolved issues, the recognition of multiple normally quiescent, become active during many fonns of external threat or receptor types has at least shed light on how one might select a narcotic insult to produce "stress-induced analgesia. ''a3. 171 painkiller by matching it to the mode of pain to be treated. A wid e l!9· 81. 1}1 Although the peripheral actions of opiates require more characteriza­ and increasingM·.o· 126 range of clinically useful opiates now includes selective tion, spinal mechanisms of opiate analgesia have been explored in meticu­ agonists of varymg duration (e.g., fentanyl and alfentanil, which selectively lous detail for decades. 1M. 1l1li Just as new findings of the past 15 years have activate mu receptors for longer or shorter intervals); partial agonists (e.g. enhanced (but not overthrown) prior knowledge ofopiate structure-function buprenorphine on mu receptors); and mixed agonist-antagonists. The latter relationships or neuroendocrine stress responses, so have advances in type of compounds, typified by butorphanol or nalbuphine, act as agonists endorphin biology been fruitfully applied to clarify clinical and basic aspects on one opiate receptor type and simultaneously as antagonists on another of spinal opiate analgesia.94• 118. lal For example, all drugs active as opioids Recently the latter compounds have been given to reverse respiratory are now recognized to share key stereotopic determinants. 188 The presence depression following intraoperative use of a mu agonist:' they stimulate of opioid peptides and receptors within the dorsal horn was confirmed as ventilation by blocking mu receptors, yet maintain analgesia through kappa soon as methods appeared for doing SO,12 and considerable detail was added receptor activation.200 Unfortunately, patients habituated to chronic use of as multiple opioid peptides and receptors were distinguished and exploited a mu agonist such as morphine or methadone may undergo acute narcotic clinically.46. 83. 194 There is now no question that multiple opiate receptors Withdrawal when first exposed to agonist-antagonist drugs (including pen­ at the spinal level participate in a complex filtering process, in which ta:zocine). distinct opiate receptors act selectively to impede pain signals arising from different forms of injury.IIID Neurotransmitter Expression in the Fetus Opioids have unique actions in the dorsal horn.51. !12. 79. 156. 198 Applied Several mediators, including the various classes of neuropeptides . systemically or spinally, opioids reduce neurotransmitter release (e.g., of monoamines, and catecholamines, described above, act as neurotransmitter substance P) into synapses of primary afferents and also shrink the size of and neuromodulator substances in the central nervous system. Thus, A­ cutaneous receptive fields evoked by A-delta and C-fiber impulses, without delta and C-fibers related to afferent pain pathways may contain substance affecting responses evoked by A-beta afferents. Opioids inhibit responses P, somatostatin, .CGRP, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), and glutamate. to C-fiber stimulation more so than to A-delta stimulation. Most signifi­ Enkephalin-containing fibers are localized in the dorsal horn of the spinal cantly, opioids reduce the rate of rise of the excitatory postsynaptic potential cord, whereas 5-HT, norepinephrine, and dopamine are contained in fibers (EPSP) that normally results from prolonged C-fiber input, thereby blocking descending from the brain stem that terminate in the dorsal horn. In the dorsal horn neuronal excitation in response to this input. This action on l.wunan fetus., Abers containing CGRP. somatostatin, and substance P appear EPSPs occurs at low doses of morphine and is manifest in vivo as the in ~the doi-ttd horn at ·8 to 10 weeks' gestation.:MI·:I8· 111 Mediators such as prevention of Bexor reBex conditioning by C-Bber afferent stimuli.4:I Tenfold en kephalin lWd VIP appear later, at 12 to 14 weeks ' gestationY· Ja The higher doses of morphine are required to reverse this C-fiber facilitation of density of all these peptides increases gradually dUring gestation with reflex withdrawal once it is established. lei Opioid inhibition of dorsal horn marked increases around the perinatal period . On the other hand, S-HT EPSPs may underlie two recent important clinical observations; first, h. s not been detected in the spinal cord of human fetuses or neonates and a recruitment of additional dermatomes of sensory anuthuia by systemic is thought to develop some time after the first 6 postnatal weeks. 111 morphine dUring epidural infusion of local anesthetic,108 and second, Catecholamines and other monoamines were observed in the dorsal horn forestalling of postoperative pain by the combined technique of opioid during late gestation and early infancy, having appeared earlier in the p'remedication plus local anesthetic nerve blocks. 11" l7V ventral and intermediate regions of the spinal cord. llI Substance P-positive ·A .. t.,,~..,.... ...~,t +n Q , _ ". . . . -'acn-_ rl...lta .......... nmrc ~r... ('OnlY'ntrlltp.rl ~h.a. ..", '.InA no.l1 .. 1':'-1«,,,,, . " . 0....0 ,..hr"o _,,o,.l .:_ .....e. ,..,.. ,...( Jot.. ,.. L._:_ ... "' .... _____ .J l..:_.. __
  • 9. 806 K. J. S. ANAND AND D. B. CARR NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOCY. AND NEUROCHEMISTRY OF P AIN 80~ ~~~w centers associated with nociception and endogenous antinociception, al­ '~ ~. '~ "Jr, 'J:~: though the significance of this distribution is unclear. 50. 1113. 130. l.37 t Endorphinergic cells have been observed in the anterior and inter- ,N.. <~ mediate lobes of the fetal pituitary gland18. lOf and were responsive to CRF , ~; stimulation in vitro by 20 weeks' gestation. 70 Increased production of beta ­ ,.'} endorphin during fetal and neonatal life was demonstrated subsequently by U OH 0 'DOH A B C D E ; a beta-endorphinlbeta-lipotropin molar ratio of 0.36 in adult pituitary ! glands, 1. 04 iii neonatal and 2.13 in fetal pituitaries. 117 Endogenous opioids Figure 3. CommOJl ltructural features of morphine (a), morphinan (b), benzomorphan (c). are released in the human fetus at birth and higher levels are found in phenylpiperidine, (d) fentanyl, and enkephalin, (e) molecules. (From Carr DB: Opioids. IntI Anesth Clin 26:273, 1988; with permission.) response to fetal and neonatal distress, birth asphyxia, infections, and in . newborns of drug-addicted mothers. Ill. ltB. 1311. 182 It has been speculated that ,i elevated beta-endorphin levels may be responsible for decreased anesthetic and integrate nociceptive inputs , From these pathways emanate neural requirements in neonates,l03 although we may caution that the concentra­ outflows to distinct organs and circulatory beds, and nociceptive signals tions of beta-endorphin during analgesia after injection into the CSF of that ascend rostrally to influence emotion, perception, and hormone secre­ ., human adults SO were more than 10,000 times greater than the highest tion from the pituitary and adrenal glands. Some evidence suggests analgesic ""' . values recorded in neonatal CSF or plasma. effects of opiates in the periphery as well, outside the CNS. It is Dot .' surprising, then, that in broad terms the effect of intraopera,tive opiate analgesia is to diminish the magnitude of stress hormone secre­ CUNlCAL IMPUCATIONS tion-particularly adrenocortical and adrenomedullary-by diminishing 00­ ciceptive input, as well as the centrally mediated neuroendocrine response The above background has significance primarily as a biologic frame­ to a given level ofsuch input. The introduction of modem radioimmunoassay work within which the management of pain in pediatric patients can be methods, beginning in the late 1960s as opioid "anesthesia" was devel­ defined. The detailed clinical application of this information is elsewhere oped,I07 was indeed soon followed by reports that stress ho~onal responses in this volume, in which pharmacotherapy, behavioral approaches, and to surgery were more effectively suppressed by high doses of opioids than special settings such as the neonate or postoperative period are discussed. by inhalational agents. 20. 68. 75, l22. 136, 163 To describe the clinical sequelae of analgesia or its absence, this section In fact, morphine was employed decades ago to p robe pituitary describes the context in which stress responses are evoked by nociceptive physiology. IS. 21 It was given by itself or with barbiturates to inhibit eNS mechanisms or blunted by analgesics, and exert their clinical effects through input to the pituitary gland and thereby pharmacologically to isolate the a variety of physiologic systems, such as neuroendocrine and cardiovascular. latter from its hypothalamic nerve supply, lOIS For this reason, and also from In this context the results of a variety of studies arguing for aggressive pursuit of explanations for endocrine dysfunction in narcotic addicts. 21 analgesia in pediatric patients may then be reviewed. abundant knowledge already existed in the pre-endorphin era concerning Pain, Analgesia, and the Global Stress Response the hormonal effects of narcotics. l99 Morphine, for example, provokes Clinical management of two hallmarks of the global stress response is prolactin release in humans, and inhibits the secretion of pituitary gona­ key to the optimal outcome of illness in the neonate, infant, and child. dotropins~tions that mimic the pituitary response to environmental First is its neuroendocrine dimension, in which a coordinated outpouring stress. Morphine's effects are mediated not by direct actions upon the of pituitary, adrenal, and pancreatic hormones may grossly disturb protein pituitary, but rather on its neural input (i. e.• the hypothalam us).33. 199 and carbohydrate metabolism in the perioperative period. Second are Once opiate receptors and their endogenous ligands were recognized cardiovascular reactions manifest as arrhythmias and diminished perfusion as the biologic basis for prior findings based on morphine, research in this of vital or healing organs. Other aspects of the global response, such as area promptly advanced along several avenues. First, responses to naloxone altered immunity or respiratory effects, are of course significant, but the at baseline and dUring a variety of stressors by subjects who were narcotic first two areas stand out as those in which integration of basic and applied free permitted inferences as to the actions of endogenous opioids and their science has had an impact on daily clinical practice. Since these two types receptors in such circumstances. 22, 118, l4l Naloxone, like morphine, is an of response are known from clinical studies (see later) to respond favorably alkaloid (in contrast to endogenous opioids that are peptides) and hence has to the administration of opioids, we shall focus on the mechanisms by which some biologic effects not mediated solely through opiate receptors. ~2 opioid analgesia produces its favorable clinical effects in these contexts. Nonetheless, responses to naloxone, morphine, and synthetic opioid pep­ tides are for the most part consistent and complementary. so. us. 141, 152. 165 How Do Opioid Analgesics Blunt Neuroendocrine Responses? Second, echOing events in pain research, the anatomic substrate of mor­ Morphine and fentanyl exert their global effects at multiple levels phine's endocrine effects-particularly the hypothalamus-was found to within hi2hlv orszanized. often , intricate retru1atorv oathwavs that receive have high concentrations of opioid receptors, which were of multiolp.
  • 10. I" 808 K. J. S. ANAND AND D. B. CARR NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, AND NEUROCHEMISTRY OF PAIN 809 functional types.33, 1Z9. 133. WI Each receptor type and subtype had sOQlewhat administration mimic the actions of endorphins on their receptors,27 and different actions on hormone secretion, making it possible to tease apart, through feedback controls tYlJical of endOCrinology reduce endogenous using selective agonists or antagonists, the regulation of individual stress opioid secretion during stress. Endorphins participate in many instances of hormones within the global stress response. 88. ~. 131. 13l!. 134. 182 Third, the stress-induced autoanalgesia, and measurements of plasma endorphin con­ discovery that beta-endorphin and ACTH arise from the same parent centrations at times prOVide a rough index of activity within central opioid molecule:13 suggested that endogenous analgesia, and the autonomic and pathways. 110. 121 Clinical reports have related such plasma measurements to endocrine responses to stress were one seamless garment with common pain after surgery or trauma,'" 167 but the many dynamic components of molecular threads. Unfortunately, although the foregoing may be true in a the endorphin system, intricately arrayed within many compartments, general sense, levels of one · and the same opioid peptide may change in frustrate unidimensional "dipstick" measurements or reductionist attempts the same or opposite directions in separate compartments (e.g. , cerebro­ to depict their role in simple tenns. spinal fluid, plasma, brain nuclei. .. ) or have no apparent relationship, depending on the particular stress or species studied. 31. 110 Furthermore, Pain, Opioid Analgesia, and Cardiovascular Stability the anatomic distributions of the three opioid peptide families l48 do not Holaday has pointed out that the cardiovascular actions of opioids wert' coincide: neurons containing ACTH and beta-endorphin are found in the probably first noted when someone who had received opium stood up and hypothalamic arcuate nucleus, and brain stem vagal nuclei, whereas the felt dizzy.82 Cardiovascular sequelae of opioid use have bee n analyzed for uther two families of neurons are more diffusely distributed throughout the over a century, and the continuing appearance of reviews from differing nervous system. 89• 94, 116, 1:13 perspectives shows the area is still a thriving one. 27, 57, e.z. ea. 147 As traced A major source of confusion in interpreting opioid effects on stress above for pain and hormone secretion, research in the last 15 years has hormone secretion, enunciated over 30 years ago, is "the apparent paradox extended earlier work without negating it. For example, Gann and associates that morphine can stimulate, as well as depress, the release of ACTH."21 If had earlier mapped with great precision the central pathways linking one considers, however, that pituitary secretion of any hormone normally cardiovascular afferents with ACTH secretion.s. reflects a balance between stimulatory and inhibitory signals from hypo­ Based on a review of studies such as these, and their own results thalamus, and that the hypothalamus itself receives dual inhibitory and Randich and Maixner have convincingly argued that "systems controlling stimulatory projections from multiple brain areas, this apparent paradox is more understandable. 13. 31 , l~ For example, .surgical stress85 activates brain stem and limbic neural pathways, which stimulate the hypothalamus to secrete CRF and other hormones (e.g., vasopressin) that act to trigger ! cardiovascular function are closely coupled to systems modulating the perception of pain. "1" We might well carry their thesis fu rther, to state that the anatomic substrates for opioid actions in any physiologic system­ nociception and stress hormone secretion being but two examples--bear pituitary ACTH and beta-endorphin release,11I8 Opioids, as analgesics, striking parallels and at points literally coincide. In each instance example~ reduce nociceptive afferent traffic reaching the hypothalamus U8 • 188. 187. lQ3. may be cited of 1) excitatory effects of exogenous opioids given to resting Jl.I; opioids as hypothalamic hormones les'sen the CRF response to such subjects contrasting with inhibitory effects when identical drugs are given neural traffic as remains. 138. ~ In the latter context opioicls alter synaptic during stress; 2) dense concentrations of opioid receptors and opioid transmission in monoaqtine circuits of the hypothalamus,l80 an action termed " peptides centrally, at sites of intense afferent integration; 3) separate roles neuromodulation.1IO Thus 'in crude terms opioids may be likened to a car's ~. for individual opioid peptides and receptor types; and 4) neurally based ~ brakes: unimportant unless the car is moving. circuitry that relies heavily on opioid pre- and postsynaptic inhibition of These dual, superficially contradictory inBuences of opioids on hormone underlying monoaminergic excitatory synapses. How well do opioid cardio­ secretion are evident for most pituitary stress hormones as well as plasma vascular effects fall within this scheme? catecholamines.32 Systemic opioids stimulate CRF (and hence adrenocorti­ Morphine, if given to normal subjects in the basal state, may produce cal) secretion when given to unstressed subjects54, 131 but inhibit the tachycardia and increase ventricular contractility via a reflex sympathetic corticosteroid increase during surgical or other stresses. Interestingly in activation that can be prevented by beta-adrenergic blockade. 141, 176 In view of vasopressin's physiologiC action as a CRF-like hormone, morphine contrast, under conditions of high initial sympathetic tone, morphine and other opioids tend to raise its leve4 in basal subjects but inhibit its decreases blood pressure by producing a centrally mediated sympatho­ stress-induced rise. Systemic opiates, or intracerebral beta-endorphin, lysis. lOT, 108 These effects may be exaggerated by morphine's propensity to increase plasma catecholamines if given under basal conditions l74 but act release histamine if administered quickly, but similar findings occur with upon stimulatory circuits in hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce the fentanyl, for which histamine release is not an issue. 146 The excitatory effect normal catecholamine rise produced by a variety of stresses, of morphine in unpremedicated normal subjects may refl.ect acute CRF Thus, in their dual roles during stress, endogenous opioids regulate release, which is known to produce sympathetic activation, or effects on the responses of many hormones and themselves are secreted to produce a spinal sympathetic effector neurons. 62. 1&5 The inhibitory effect of morphine ho~t of biologic effects. Morphine, fentanyl, or synthetic opioid peptide on preexisting sympathetic activation may reside in the paraventricular nllr.1""l11' nt th&o hvnnth"I" ....... ~ /'" 1,... , ~'~ ft l'~ _ ._.~~_..: __ _ c __ .. __ __ .I .'
  • 11. and autonomic responses l118 or the. locus coeruleus,l from which most brain Pain and Metabolism: Clinical Studies noradrenergic projections originate. Studies in adult patients undergoing surgery have shown that injury Opioid receptors w~re early demonstrated in the vagal nuclei,l2. 114. 19:1 triggers the release of "stress hormones" (catecholamines, corticosteroids. and the vagotonia that opioids cause daily in the ope1'8ting room is well growth hormone, and glucagon), which stimulate a cascade of metabolic explained by their binding to these sites to stimulate parasympathetic changes leading to substrate mobilization with the breakdown of protein , outflow.87• 100 A prolonged bradycardia (after an initial transient tachycardial) fat, and carbohydrate stores. These metabolic changes are one component has in fact been observed after intracerebral administration of several opioid of the global response which, in a nonhospital setting, may facilitate wound peptides.74 Vagal outflow appears to underlie the protective effect that repair and eventual recovery. S In a hospital setting these responses serve morphine exerts against ventricular fibrillation, as this protective action is no useful function and following severe trauma may lead to a hypermetabolic lost after atropine or vagotomy.411 Fentanyl also exerts a protective effect state associated with complications such as cardiac insufficiency, dysrhyth ­ against ventricular fibrillation; this effect is significant during stress but not mias, and myocardial infarction, pulmonary insufficiency, impaired immune under basal conditions, is lost after vagotomy, but is unaffected by atro­ responses, thromboembolic complications, gastric stress ulcers, persistent pine.IS1 Fentanyl's actions thus depend on vagal afferent traffic and accord metabolic acidosis, and prolonged convalescence in adult patien ts.9:2 Moyer with the profibrlliatory effect of naloxone,115 as well as the actions of other et a1. measured metabolic stress responses in adult patients with sepsis and protective agents, which likewise appear to enhance the brain stem baro­ trauma and were able to discriminate between patients who survived and ceptor reflex. 34 This reflex receives baroceptor impulses entering via the those who did not survive with 99 per cent certainty up to 9 days befo re vagus and responds to blood pressure rises by decreasing sympathetic and death. lllO In some cases, a severe catabolic drive may persist even after increasing parasympathetic efferent traffic, thereby slowing the heart rate. 183 subsidence of the stressful stimulus that triggered it, and may prevent the Its enhancement by opioids is the basis for these agenu' "vagotonic" action. healing and repair of injured tissues. As this discussion suggests, opioid agonists with different receptor specific­ As a result of these data, anesthetic techniques have been developed ities have distinct cardiovascular actions. Paralleling research on nociception for decreasing the stress responses to major surgery. Suppression of stress and hormone release, a variety of workers have shown that multiple opioid responses in adult patients using high-dose opioid lO7 or epidural anes­ receptors have distinct roles in cardiovascular regulation. This is certainly . thesia,ll17 both of which would abolish perioperative pain, have shown a so in shock states· and has been accepted in basal studies as well.li5-57· 78. 13.5 significant reduction in postoperative morbidity and mortality. Based on As to the last portion of our opioid paradigm, opiofw enhance contrac­ these data, it is reasonable to expect that similar beneficial effects may be tility in isolated myocytes,101. 1011 whereas in preparations in which cardiac obtained by decreasing the stress responses of neonates and children. One innervation ' is preserved, they oppose catecholamine-induced contractility might further surmise that the current practice of limited perioperative and chronotropy,t3-t4. 43, 105, 180 nus anticatecholamine. modulatory effect is analgesia in pediatric patients may result in an exaggerated stress response evident when probed. using the beta-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol,25. 43, and contribute to an increased incidence of postoperative complications and lro and it is associated with a reduction in the normal calcium influx that poor clinical outcome follOwing major surgery. ordinarily follows isoproterenol binding to myocardium. 1 150 Conversely, ot. In pediatric patients, and particularly newborn infants, metabolic peripherally administered opioid receptor antagonists such as naloxone or stability is much more difficult to maintain because of: 1) a relative.ly greater nalmephene acutely increase myocardial inotropy and chronotropy. t3-2II. 105 surface area, necessitating greater heat production; 2) a larger brain-to­ The latter effects are particularly strong after acute bilateral carotid body weight ratio, with increased obligatory requirements for glucose 3) occlusionlS or after tricuspid avulsion and progressive pulmonary artery the need to maintain somatic growth; 4) much smaller reserves of protein , constriction,l05 both conditions in which blood pressure is maintained by carbohydrate and fat ; 5) metabolic adaptation to extrauterine life and enteral sympathetic outflow. These results in the periphery echo morphine's nutrition; and 6) maturation of metabolic enzyme systems and homeostatic lO7 exaggerated, centrallY, mediated reduction of blood pressure in patients mechanisms controlling these systems.~· 14 Given the physiologic and me t­ or animals10l'l with elevated resting sympathetic tone. The circuitry by which abolic immaturity in early life, it is not surprising that a high incidence of these peripheral effects occur-inhibition of underlying catecholamine postoperative complications and mortality have been documented in neo­ neurotransmission-mirrors that in many sites within the eNS, in which nates and critically ill children undergojng major surgery. 9&, 164 Despite their for example opioids inhibit substance P relea$e (in dorsal horn of spinal clinical importance, there are few published data on the stress responses cord), dopamine release (in hypothalamus or bual ganglia). or norepineph­ of pediatric patients undergoing anesthesia and surgery. ll rine release (from locus ceruleus). Whether physiologic levels of opioids Preliminary studies showed that neonates responded to surgical stress confer protection from harmful effects of circulating catecholamines (e.g., with marked increases in plasma catecholamines, glucagon, and glucocor­ patchy necrosis) during circulatory compromise, or decrease inotropy or ticoids, together with suppression of insulin secretion . These hormonal chronotropy enough to exert a protective effect on myocardial oxygen changes precipitated hyperglycemia and lactic acidosis, asSociated with consumption is speculative, although drugs that directly block beta-recep­ other indices of metabolic substrate mobilization. II Older infants and 'tors or calcium channels are given clinically for such purposes. children also had similar hormonal changes, although their catecholamine
  • 12. 812 K. J. S. ANAND AND D. B. CARR NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOGY , AND NEUROCHEMISTRY OF PAtN 813 and glucagon responses were smaller than in neonates, and their cortisol substantially reduced in neonates given high-dose sufentanil. e. 7 Major responses were greater and more prolonged than in neonates. These stress postoperative complications and mortality were more common in neonates responses differed quantitatively, and in their time course in relation to given halothane and low-dose morphine than in neonates given sufentanil, surgery, from those of adults. In general, hormonal-metabolic changes in in whom no postoperative deaths occurred (Anand K]S, Hickey PR: infants and children were greater in magnitude than those of adult patients, Unpublished data, 1988). Thus, aggressive anesthesia not only decreased particularly with regard to the increases in plasma epinephrine, glucagon, the stress responses of neonates undergoing surgery but also improved growth hormone, blood glucose, blood lactate, and other gluconeogenic their postoperative clinical outcome. From the physiologic rationale pre­ substrates during and after surgery. Infants and children mounted uniphasic sented above, it is likely that similar effects may be expected in older cortisol responses which were smaller than the lIl81"ked biphasic responses infants and children undergoing surgery, as well as those subjected to of adult patients undergoing surgery, and plasma insulin decreased to lower artificial ventilation and frequent invasive procedures during intensive 5G . values both during and alter surgery as compared to adult patients. care. , Important differences were therefore evident between the pediabic and Relatively few studies have compared the hormonal-metabolic stress adult stress responses following surgery. responses of older infants and children receiving different anesthetic tech­ The effects of anesthesia on the neonatal and pediatric stress responses niques during surgery; randomized controlled trials to examine these are important and may conbibute to the effects of stress suppression on differences are even fewer, The effects of potent anesthesia on the cortisol postoperative clinical outcome. In a randomized controlled trial, preterm responses of infants undergoing abdominal surgery were investigated in a babies undergoing ligation of the patent ductus arteriosus were given nonrandomized study, which found that infants given nitrous oxide anes­ nitrous oxide and curare, with or without the addition of intravenous thetic mounted significantly greater cortisol responses than did infants given fentanyl. Marked hormonal responses to smgery, as indieated by changes halothane in addition. 1iA in plasma epinephrine, norepinephrine, glucagon, aldosterone, corticoster­ In older children, Sigurdsson and co-workers found that morphine and one, and other steroid hormones, were decreased signHicantly in neonates· hyoscine premedication in addition to diazepam signjficantly decreased receiving fentanyl. The hOnDonai responses of neonates receiving nitrous cortisol, 17-hydroxyprogesterone, and ACTH responses and virtually abol­ oxide alone were associated with significant increases in blood. glucose, ished the catecholamine responses to surgery. 158 A su bsequent randomized lactate, and pyruvate; these were prevented inc neonates given fentanyl in f L : trial showed that the plasma catecholamine responses to adenoidectomy addition. t Increased endogenous protein breAkdown and an increased were significantly greater during halothane anesthesia than during enHurane incidence of postoperative complications after surgery were also noted in f anesthesia. l158 These differences occurred in both intubated and nonintu­ the nitrous oxide group, as compared to the fentanyVnitrous oxide group. bated children undergoing adenoidectomy; lower catecholamine levels in Another randomized controlled trial compared term neonates undergo­ the enflurane anesthesia group were associated with a lower incidence of ing surgery with nitrous oxide and curare with those receiving halothane cardiac arrhythmias during surgery. 157 added to the anesthetic regimen. 10 Neonates given halothane and ·nitrous f In infants and children aged 5 to 60 months undergoing pelvic surgery. oxide anesthesia showed decreased hormonal responses to surgery from the neuroendocrine responses during halothane/nitrous oxide anesthesia those of neonates given nitrous oxide alone, with significant differences in were abolished completely by epidural anesthesia. Measurements of plasma the plasma epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol responses during and beta-endorphin, ACfH, arginine vasopressin, and blood glucose levels at after surgery. Changes in circulating concentrations ofglucose, non esterified 5 and 15 minutes after incision were Significantly different between the two fatty acids and ketone bodies also were decreased in neonates receiving anesthesia. groups. Plasma cortisol concentrations were unchanged from halothane anesthesia, together with a decreased incidence of complications baseline in both anesthetic groups, presumably because of the short period during and after surgery. These investigations showed that lack of potent for blood sampling after the start of surgery.69 In older children receiving anesthesia may be partially responsible for the exaggerated stress responses either epidural anesthetic or etomidate during major abdominal operations, of neonates reported in earlier studies and suggested that giving deeper the former technique abolished intraoperative adrenocortical stress re­ anesthesia to neonates undergoing surgery may improve postoperative sponses. 121 Plasma concentrations of cortisol, aldosterone, and precursor clinical outcome. steroid hormones decreased in children receiving epidural anesthesia, and The latter hypothesis was tested in a randomized trial of high-dose children given etomidate had decreases in cortisol levels, but with substan­ opioids in neonates undergOing cardiac surgery. In this study, 15 neonates tial increases in the precursor steroid hormones consistent with impairment given halothane and low-dose morphine mounted substantial catecholamine, of sterOid biosynthesis by etomidate. Further studies will be required to endorphin, and glucagon responses during and after cardiac surgery; these demonstrate conclusively an improvement in postoperative outcome in responses were Significantly blunted in another 30 neonates given high­ children after aggressive anesthesia and analgesia. Nevertheless the data dose sufentanil. Metabolic stress responses between the two groups were reviewed above have important implications for the practical management aho «rllcinlllv niffp-rent. with mArlcAd hVnP.7'Q'lv~mIA. 11lrlI~ ~nm:k Ann _t" _ ....;_ : __ a"_ ...... Of!" :_t""' ....... co "' ..... ,..l ..... 4:1,..l ... .a...... ... ..... ,1 00-_"'.....: __ P" ... _ _ _ _ "
  • 13. 814 K. J. S. ANAND AND D. B. CARR NEUROANATOMY, NEUROPHYSIOLOCY, AND NEUROCHEMI STRY OF PAIN 815 CONCLUSION undergoing cardiac surgery; effects on the metaboHc stress respon se. AnestheSiology 67:A502, 1987 8. Anand KJS. Hickey PR: Pain and its effects in the human neonate and retus. N Eng! J Studies relevant to nociception and its consequences in the very young Med 317:1321, 1987 have proliferated in recent years and the above review can only survey a 9. Anand KJS, Sippel! WG, Aynsley-Green A: Randomised trial of fe ntanyl anaesthesia In rapidly evolving field. Despite the promise ofcontinued scientific advances, preterm babies undergoing surgery: Effe<:ts on the stress response. Lancet 1:243. 1987 certain fundamental questions lie outside the realm of clinical investigation 10. Anand IC]S. Sippellwe. Schofield NM, et aI: Does halothane anaesthesia decrease the Rtress response of newborn Infants undergoing operation? Br Me<! J 296:668. 1988 per se. For example, questions regarding quality of life are often posed for 11. Anand KJS, Ward-Platt MP: Neonatal and pediatric stress responses to anesthesia and the adult patient with pain, for example, due to cancer. In those settings, operation. Int Anesthesiol Clin 26:218. 1988 the patient's verbal description is heavily weighted, as are his or her 12. Atweh SF. Kuhar MJ: Distribution and physiological significance of opfoid receptors Itl functional abilities as a family member and productive w.dividual within the brain. Br Med Bull 39:47-52. 1983 13. AJelrod J: The relationship between the stress hormo~es, catecholammes, ACTH and society. Defining quality of life in nonnal neonates, particularly if prema­ glucocorticoids. In Usdin E. Kvetnansky R. Axelrod J (eds): Stress: The Role of ture, is infinitely more difficult given their inability to express or otheIWise Catecholamines and other Neurotransmitters . New York, Gordon ~ Breach, 1984 . convey experiences and emotions. Furthermore. "purposeful activity" is a p3 . concept that is irrelevant to the neonatal setting. 14. Aynsley-Green A: The control of the adaptation to postnatal nutrition . Monogr Paedialr 16:59. 1982 Despite these difficulties, one must take into account the neonate's 15. Barraclough CA. Sawyer CH: Inhibition of the release of pituitary ovu latory hormone in potential to grow and develop, to overcome handicaps, and to experience the rat by morphine. Endocrinology 57:329, 1955 life to a degree far greater than in the adult. To foster optimal development, 16. Basbaum A, Fields H: Endogenous pain control systems ; brainstem spinal pathways ami stress during the perioperative period or prolonged intensive care should endorphin circuitry. Ann Rev Neuroscl 7:309, 1984 be minimized.3 The recognition of highly developed nociceptive systems, 17. Beecher HK: The measurement of paln. Pharmacol Rev 9:59, 1957 18. Begeot M. Dubois MP. 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