1. Literary Devices
We have looked at the basic elements of the short story: setting, character, conflict,
point of view, plot, and theme. In addition to considering the elements of a short
story we need to understand the various literary devices that an author may use.
These literary devices guide our interpretation and help us to better understand the
story’s complexities and overall meaning. They are IRONY, SYMBOL, FLASHBACK
and FORESHADOWING.
IRONY
There are several types of irony in literature. Three main types are verbal irony,
dramatic irony, and situational irony.
Verbal Irony: This is the contrast between what is said and what is meant. In other
words, sarcasm.
Dramatic Irony: This is the contrast between what the character thinks to be true
and what we (the reader) know to be true. Sometimes as we read we are placed in
the position of knowing more than what one character knows. Because we know
something the character does not, we read to discover how the character will react
when he or she learns the truth of the situation. Think: soap operas!
A form of dramatic irony in which a character who is about to become a victim of
disaster uses words that have one meaning to him and quite another to the spectator
or those who are aware of the real situation is called TRAGIC IRONY. In some
instances the character may not be about to become a victim, but rather their
statement is based on partial knowledge or misunderstanding, and the spectator is
aware of the truth of the situation.
Situational Irony: This is the most common in literature. It is the contrast between
what happens and what was expected (or what would seem appropriate). Because it
emerges from the events and circumstances of a story it is often more subtle and
effective than verbal or dramatic irony.
SYMBOLISM
A character, an action, a setting, or an object representing something else can be a
symbol. Most often, the symbol in a story is an object that represents its owner’s
character or situation, or both. For example, a secluded, near-empty apartment
might represent the alienation and emotional emptiness of the tenant. Symbols are
usually recognizable by the amount of emphasis they receive. Objects intended to
be viewed as symbolic may be described in detail, be included in the title, be referred
to frequently, or emphasized at the beginning or ending of the story. When we
recognize a symbol and understand its meaning or meanings we see more clearly
what the writer chose to emphasize.

2. FLASHBACK: This is a writers’ technique in which the author interrupts the plot of
the story to recreate an incident of an earlier time (goes back in time; like giving the
reader a memory). This device is often used to provide additional information to the
reader.
FORESHADOWING: This is a writers’ technique in which the author provides clues
or hints as to what is going to happen later in the story. It’s like the music in a scary
movie when we know that something bad is about to happen.
Source: http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/engramja/litdevic.html#IRONY
Accessed on: 01 March 2012
Literary Analysis: Using Elements of Literature
Allegory - narrative form in which the characters are representative of some larger
humanistic trait (i.e. greed, vanity, or bravery) and attempt to convey some larger
lesson or meaning to life. Although allegory was originally and traditionally character
based, modern allegories tend to parallel story and theme.
William Faulkner’s A Rose for Emily- the decline of the Old South
Robert Louis Stevenson’s Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde- man’s
struggle to contain his inner primal instincts
District 9- South African Apartheid
X Men- the evils of prejudice
Harry Potter- the dangers of seeking “racial purity”
Character - representation of a person, place, or thing performing traditionally human
activities or functions in a work of fiction
Protagonist - The character the story revolves around.
Antagonist - A character or force that opposes the protagonist.
Minor character - Often provides support and illuminates the protagonist.
Static character - A character that remains the same.
Dynamic character - A character that changes in some important way.
Characterization - The choices an author makes to reveal a character’s
personality, such as appearance, actions, dialogue, and motivations.
Look for: Connections, links, and clues between and about characters. Ask yourself
what the function and significance of each character is. Make this determination

3. based upon the character's history, what the reader is told (and not told), and what
other characters say about themselves and others.
Connotation - implied meaning of word. BEWARE! Connotations can change over
time.
confidence/ arrogance
mouse/ rat
cautious/ scared
curious/ nosey
frugal/ cheap
Denotation - dictionary definition of a word
Diction - word choice that both conveys and emphasizes the meaning or theme of a
poem through distinctions in sound, look, rhythm, syllable, letters, and definition
Figurative language - the use of words to express meaning beyond the literal
meaning of the words themselves
Metaphor - contrasting to seemingly unalike things to enhance the meaning of
a situation or theme without using like or as
o You are the sunshine of my life.
Simile - contrasting to seemingly unalike things to enhance the meaning of a
situation or theme using like or as
o What happens to a dream deferred, does it dry up like a raisin in the
sun
Hyperbole - exaggeration
o I have a million things to do today.
Personification - giving non-human objects human characteristics
o America has thrown her hat into the ring, and will be joining forces with
the British.
Foot - grouping of stressed and unstressed syllables used in line or poem
Iamb - unstressed syllable followed by stressed
o Made famous by the Shakespearian sonnet, closest to the natural
rhythm of human speech
 How do I love thee? Let me count the ways
Spondee - stressed stressed
o Used to add emphasis and break up monotonous rhythm
 Blood boil, mind-meld, well- loved
Trochee - stressed unstressed
o Often used in children’s rhymes and to help with memorization, gives
poem a hurried feeling

4.  While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a
tapping,
Anapest - unstressed unstressed stressed
o Often used in longer poems or “rhymed stories”
 Twas the night before Christmas and all through the house
Dactyls - stressed unstressed unstressed
o Often used in classical Greek or Latin text, later revived by the
Romantics, then again by the Beatles, often thought to create a
heartbeat or pulse in a poem
 Picture yourself in a boat on a river,
With tangerine trees and marmalade skies.
The iamb stumbles through my books; trochees rush and tumble; while anapest runs
like a hurrying brook; dactyls are stately and classical.
Imagery - the author’s attempt to create a mental picture (or reference point) in the
mind of the reader. Remember, though the most immediate forms of imagery are
visual, strong and effective imagery can be used to invoke an emotional, sensational
(taste, touch, smell etc) or even physical response.
Meter - measure or structuring of rhythm in a poem
Plot - the arrangement of ideas and/or incidents that make up a story
Foreshadowing - When the writer clues the reader in to something that will
eventually occur in the story; it may be explicit (obvious) or implied (disguised).
Suspense - The tension that the author uses to create a feeling of discomfort
about the unknown
Conflict - Struggle between opposing forces.
Exposition - Background information regarding the setting, characters, plot.
Rising Action - The process the story follows as it builds to its main conflict
Crisis - A significant turning point in the story that determines how it must end
Resolution/Denouement - The way the story turns out.
Point of View - pertains to who tells the story and how it is told. The point of view of
a story can sometimes indirectly establish the author's intentions.
Narrator - The person telling the story who may or may not be a character in
the story.
First-person - Narrator participates in action but sometimes has limited
knowledge/vision.
Second person - Narrator addresses the reader directly as though she is part
of the story. (i.e. “You walk into your bedroom. You see clutter everywhere
and…”)

5. Third Person (Objective) - Narrator is unnamed/unidentified (a detached
observer). Does not assume character's perspective and is not a character in
the story. The narrator reports on events and lets the reader supply the
meaning.
Omniscient - All-knowing narrator (multiple perspectives). The narrator knows
what each character is thinking and feeling, not just what they are doing
throughout the story. This type of narrator usually jumps around within the
text, following one character for a few pages or chapters, and then switching to
another character for a few pages, chapters, etc. Omniscient narrators also
sometimes step out of a particular character’s mind to evaluate him or her in
some meaningful way.
Rhythm - often thought of as a poem’s timing. Rhythm is the juxtaposition of
stressed and unstressed beats in a poem, and is often used to give the reader a lens
through which to move through the work. (See meter and foot)
Setting - the place or location of the action. The setting provides the historical and
cultural context for characters. It often can symbolize the emotional state of
characters. Example – In Poe’s The Fall of the House of Usher, the crumbling old
mansion reflects the decaying state of both the family and the narrator’s mind. We
also see this type of emphasis on setting in Thomas Mann’s Death in Venice.
Speaker - the person delivering the poem. Remember, a poem does not have to
have a speaker, and the speaker and the poet are not necessarily one in the same.
Structure (fiction) - The way that the writer arranges the plot of a story.
Look for: Repeated elements in action, gesture, dialogue, description, as well as
shifts in direction, focus, time, place, etc.
Structure(poetry) - The pattern of organization of a poem. For example, a
Shakespearean sonnet is a 14-line poem written in iambic pentameter. Because the
sonnet is strictly constrained, it is considered a closed or fixed form. An open or free
form poem has looser form, or perhaps one of the author’s invention, but it is
important to remember that these poems are not necessarily formless.
Symbolism - when an object is meant to be representative of something or an idea
greater than the object itself.
Cross - representative of Christ or Christianity
Bald Eagle - America or Patriotism
Owl - wisdom or knowledge
Yellow - implies cowardice or rot

6. Tone - the implied attitude towards the subject of the poem. Is it hopeful, pessimistic,
dreary, worried? A poet conveys tone by combining all of the elements listed above
to create a precise impression on the reader.
Source: http://www.roanestate.edu/owl/ElementsLit.html
Abridge- To reduce the scope; to shorten by means of the omission or words without
sacrificing their meaning
Accent- in poetry, the vocal force or emphasis placed on a syllable or word. The
regular, orderly repetition of accent contributes to the poetic quality of writing and
fixes the rhythm of the line.
Acronym- A word formed from the initial letters or syllables of other words; for
example, radar (Radio Detecting and Ranging)
Action- The events that take place in a work of literature. In drama, stage action
refers to any event that occurs on the stage. The action of a novel, short story or
narrative poem is usually both external and internal. External action comprises those
physical events that actually occur in relation to the characters, actions that affect
them or in which they participate. Internal action refers to a character’s thoughts and
feelings as they are reported by the author
Acts- Divisions of plays or operas. On the contemporary stage, the three-act play is
most common.

7. Adage- a proverb or wise saying made familiar by long use
Adaptation- 1) The rewriting of a work written in a different genre or medium than it
was originally written. For example, turning a novel into a play would be an
ADAPTATION 2) the translation of a work from one language to another
Address- a speech or written statement, serious in intent and somewhat formal in
style. Frequently, for example, the political head of a nation gives an address to the
country’s citizens.
Allegory- Prose or verse in which the objects, events or people are presented
symbolically, so that the story conveys a meaning other than and deeper than the
actual incident or characters described. Often, the form is used to teach a moral
lesson.
Alliteration- The repetition of the initial letter or sound in two or more closely
associated words or stressed syllables. Alliteration is not restricted to poetry.
Allusion- A figure of speech making casual reference to a famous historical or
literary figure or event.
Ambiguity- The expression of an idea in such a way that more than one meaning is
possible
Anachronism- The utilization of an event, a person, an object, language in a time
when that event, person, or object was not in existence.
Analogy- An extended comparison showing the similarities between two things.
Anagram- A word or phrase made by transposing the letters of another word or
phrase.
Example: cask in an anagram of sack
Argument- A form of discourse in which reason is used to influence or change
people’s ideas or actions
Aside- Words spoken by a character in a play, usually in an undertone, not intended
to be heard by other characters on stage.
Assonance- The repetition of similar vowel sounds, usually close together, in a
group of words.
Autobiography- A person’s account of his or her own life.

8. Ballad- A story told in verse and usually meant to be sung. The earliest ballads,
known as folk ballads or popular ballads, were composed anonymously and
transmitted orally for generations.
Biography- An account of a person’s life written by another person.
Blank Verse- Verse written in unrhymed iambic pentameter, where each line usually
contains ten syllables and every other syllable is stressed.
Catastrophe- The tragic denouement, or unknotting of a play or story.
Characterization- The personality a character displays; also, the means by which an
author reveals that personality
Characters- Persons-or animals, things, or natural forces presented as person-
appearing in a short story, novel, play, or narrative poem.
Climax- That point of greatest emotional intensity, interest, or suspense in a
narrative.
Comedy- In general, a literary work that is amusing and ends happily.
Complication- A series of difficulties forming the central action in a narrative.
Conflict- A struggle between two opposing forces or characters in a short story,
novel, play, or narrative poem. Conflict can be internal or external, and it can take
one of these forms:
1. Person against another person
2. Person against society
3. A person against nature
4. Two elements or ideas struggling for mastery within a person
5. Person against supernatural
Connotation- The emotion or association that a word or phrase may arouse.
Connotation is distinct from denotation, which is the literal or dictionary meaning of a
word or phrase.
Conventions- Unrealistic devices or procedures that the reader (or audience) agrees
to accept.
Couplet- Two consecutive lines of poetry that rhyme
Crisis or Turning Point- A point of great tension in a narrative that determines how
the action will come out.

9. Denotation- The literal or "dictionary" meaning of a word
Description- Any careful detailing of a person, place, thing, or event. Description is
one of the for major forms of discourse. Descriptions re-create sensory impressions:
sights, sounds, smells, textures, tastes.
Dialect- A representation of the speech patterns of a particular region or social
group. Dialect, naturally, changes from location to location
Diction- A writer’s choice of words, particularly for clarity, effectiveness, and
precision. A writer’s diction can be formal or informal, abstract or concrete. In
attempting to choose the "right word", writers must think of their subject and their
audience. Words that are appropriate in informal dialogue would not always be
appropriate in a formal essay.
Drama- A story acted out, usually on a stage, by actors and actresses who take the
parts of specific characters. Dramas are usually divided into two types, those being
tragedies (serious play in which the central characters meet an unhappy or
disastrous end) and comedies (humorous plays that end happily). The stories are
told through dialogue and stage directions, which tell the actors how they should
move and react to certain happenings.
Dramatic Irony- A device whereby the audience (or reader) understands more of a
situation or of what is being said than the character is aware of. Such speech or
action has great significance to the audience or reader and little significance to the
character speaking or performing the action.
Dramatic Poetry- Poetry in which one or more characters speak
Dynamic Character- A character who undergoes an important and basic change in
personality or outlook.
Epic- A long narrative poem that relates the deeds of a hero. Epics incorporate myth,
legend, folk tale, and history, and usually reflect the values of the society from which
they originate.
Epithet- A descriptive adjective or phrase used to characterize someone or
something.
Essay- A piece of prose writing, usually short, that deals with a subject in a limited
way and expresses a particular point of view.
Exposition- The kind of writing that is intending primarily to present information

10. Fable- A brief story or poem that is told to present a moral, or practical lesson. The
characters in fables are often animals who speak or act like human beings.
Falling Action- All of the action in a play that follows the turning point. The falling
action leads to the resolution or conclusion of the play.
Farce- A type of comedy based on a farfetched humorous situation, often with
ridiculous or stereotyped characters.
Fiction- Anything that is invented or imagined, especially a prose narrative. Although
fiction may be based on actual events or personal experiences, its characters and
settings are invented. Even if a story is set in an actual place and involves
recognizable characters or details, we understand the story itself to be fictitious.
Figurative Language- Language that is not intended to be interpreted in a literal
sense. Figurative language always makes use of a comparison between different
things. By appealing to the imagination, figurative language provides new ways of
looking at the world.
Figure of Speech- A term applied to a specific kind of figurative language, such as a
metaphor or simile. Everyday language abounds with many different figures of
speech, in which we say one thing and mean another.
Flashback- A scene in a short story, novel, play, or narrative poem that interrupts the
action to show an event that happened at an earlier time.
Foil- A character who sets off another character by contrast. For example, having an
angry character talking to a happy one.
Folk Ballad- A story told in verse that is by an unknown author and meant to be
sung.
Folk Tale- An account, legend, or story that is passed along orally from generation to
generation. Folk talks are of unknown authorship.
Foreshadowing- The use of hints or clues in a narrative to suggest what action is to
come. Foreshadowing helps to build suspense in a story because it suggests what is
about to happen.
Framework Story- A narrative that contains another narrative. Both the framework
story and the inner story add meaning to one another, and one is usually important to
the outcome of the other. Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales is a famous example of
several stories within a story.

11. Free Verse- Poetry that has no fixed meter or pattern and that depends on natural
speech rhythms. Free verse may rhyme or not rhyme; its lines may be of different
lengths; and like natural speech, it may switch suddenly from one rhythm to another.
Heroic Couplet- Two consecutive lines of rhyming poetry that are written in iambic
pentameter and that contain a complete thought. In a heroic couplet, there is usually
one pause at the end of the first line, and another heavier pause at the end of the
second line.
Homeric Simile- An extended comparison that mounts in excitement and usually
ends in a climax. The Homeric simile is also known as the epic simile.
Iambic Pentameter- The most common verse line in English poetry. It consists of
five verse feet, with each foot an iamb-that is, an unstressed syllable followed by a
stressed syllable. Shakespeare’s plays are written almost exclusively in iambic
pentameter.
Imagery- Language that appeals to any sense or any combination of the senses.
Inversion- A reversal of the usual order or words to receive some sort of emphasis.
Irony- A contrast or an incongruity between what is stated and what is really meant,
or between what is expected to happen and what actually does happen. Two kinds of
irony are: 1) verbal irony, in which a writer or speaker says one thing and means
something entirely different; and 2) dramatic irony in which a reader or audience
member perceives something that a character in the story does not
Literal Language- A fact or idea stated directly. When a writer intends something to
be understood exactly as it is written, he or she is using literal language.
Literary Ballad- A story told in verse in which a known writer imitates a folk ballad.
Lyric Poetry- Poetry that expresses a speaker’s personal thoughts or feelings. The
elegy, ode, and sonnet are forms of the lyric.
Metaphor- A comparison between two unlike things with the intent of giving added
meaning to one of them. Metaphor is one of the most important forms of figurative
language. Unlike a simile, a metaphor does not use a connective word such as like,
as, than, or resembles to state a comparison.
Meter- A generally regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry.
Monologue- A long, uninterrupted speech (in a narrative or drama) that is spoken in
the presence of other characters. Unlike a soliloquy and most aides, a monologue is
heard by other characters.

12. Narration- The kind of writing or speaking that tells a story.
Narrative Poetry- Poetry that tells a story. One kind of narrative poem is the epic, a
long poem which sets form the heroic ideals of a particular society.
Narrator- One who narrates or tells, a story. A writer may choose to have a story told
by a first person narrator, someone who is either a major or minor character. Or, a
writer may choose to use a third person narrator, someone who is not in the story at
all. Third person narrators are often omniscient, or "all knowing"- that is, they are able
to enter into the minds of all the characters in the story.
Nonfiction- Any prose narrative that tells about things as they actually happened or
that posses factual information about something. Autobiography and biography are
the most common forms.
Novel- A fictional narrative in prose, generally longer than a short story. The author is
not restricted by historical facts but rather is free to create fictional personalities in a
fictional world.
Octave- The first eight lines of a Petrarchan (or Italian) sonnet.
Onomatopoeia- The use of a word whose sound in some degree imitates or
suggests its meaning. The names of some birds are onomatopoetic, imitating the cry
of the bird named. For instance, cuckoo, whippoorwill, owl, crow.
Parallelism- The use of phrases, clauses, or sentences that are similar or
complementary in structure or in meaning.
Paraphrase- A summary or recapitulation of a piece of literature. A paraphrase does
not enhance a literary work. It merely tells in the simplest form what happened.
Personification- A figure of speech in which an animal, an object, a natural force, or
an idea is given personality, or described as if it were human.
Persuasion- The type of speaking or writing that is intended to make its audience
adopt a certain opinion or pursue an action or do both.
Petrarchan Sonnet- A fourteen-line lyric poem consisting of two parts: the octave (or
first eight lines) and the sestet (or last six lines). The Petrarchan, or Italian sonnet,
originated in Italy in thirteenth century and was much used by the Italian poet
Francesco Petraarch. Its rhyme scheme is abbaabba cdecde.
Plot- The sequence of events or happenings in a literary work. Plots may be simple
or complex, loosely constructed or close-knit. But every plot is made up a series of
incidents that are related to one another.

13. Poetry- Traditional poetry is language arranged in lines, with a regular rhythm and
often a definite rhyme scheme. Nontraditional poetry does away with regular rhythm
and rhyme, although is usually is set up in lines. The richness of its suggestions, the
sounds of its words, and the strong feelings evoked by its line are often said to be
what distinguish poetry from other forms of literature. Poetry is difficult to define, but
most people know when they read it.
Point of View- The vantage point from which a narrative is told.
Pun- Usually, the humorous use of a word or phrase to suggest two or more
meanings at the same time.
Quatrain- Usually a stanza or poem of four lines. However, a quatrain may also be
any group of four lines. Unified by a rhyme scheme. Quatrains usually follow an
abab, abba, or abcb rhyme scheme.
Refrain- A word, phrase, line, or group of lines repeated regularly in a poem, usually
at the end of each stanza.
Repetition- The return of a word, phrase, stanza form, or effect in any form of
literature. Repetition is an effective literary device that may bring comfort, suggest
order, or add special meaning to a piece of literature.
Resolution- The outcome of the conflict in a play or story. The resolution concludes
the falling action.
Rhyme- The repetition of sounds in two or more words or phrases that usually
appear close to each other in a poem. For example: river/shiver, song/long,
leap/deep. If the rhyme occurs at the ends of lines, it is called end rhyme.
Rhyme Scheme- The pattern of rhymes in a poem. The rhyme scheme is indicated
by a different letter of the alphabet for each new rhyme of the stanza.
Rhythm- The arrangement of stressed an unstressed syllables into a pattern.
Rhythm is most apparent in poetry, though it is part of all good writing.
Rising Action- Those events in a play that lead to a turning point in the action.
Satire- A kind of writing that holds up to ridicule or contempt the weaknesses and
wrongdoing of individuals, groups, institution, or humanity in general.
Sestet- The last six lines of a Petrarchan (or Italian) sonnet. The sestet, from the
Latin word for six, usually has a rhyme scheme of cdecde. A thought or idea that is
introduced in the first eight lines, octave, of the poem is sometimes further developed
in the sestet.

14. Setting- The time and place of action in a narrative. In short stories, novels, poetry,
and nonfiction, setting is generally created by description. In drama, setting is usually
established by stage directions and dialogue. Setting can be of great importance in
establishing not only physical background but also mood or emotional intensity. In
turn, the mood contributes to the plot and theme of the narrative.
Shakespearean Sonnet- A fourteen-line lyric poem consisting of three quatrains
(four line stanza) and a concluding couplet (two rhyming lines). The Shakespearean,
or English, sonnet was NOT invented by William Shakespeare, but is named for him
because he is its most famous practitioner. Its rhyme scheme is abab cdcd efef gg.
Short Story- Narrative prose fiction that is shorter than a novel. Short stories vary in
length. Some are no longer than five hundred words; other run to forty or fifty
thousand words. An extended short story is sometimes referred to as a novelette, or
when slightly longer, as a novella. The major difference between a short story and
longer fictional forms, such as the novel, is that the main literary elements-plot,
setting, characterization- are used with greater compression in the short story than in
the longer forms.
Simile- A comparison made between two dissimilar things through the use of a
specific word of comparison such as Like, as, than, or resembles. The comparison
must be between two essentially unlike things.
Soliloquy- A speech, usually lengthy, in which a character, alone on stage,
expresses his or her thoughts aloud. The soliloquy is a very useful dramatic device,
as it allows the dramatist to convey a character’s most intimate thoughts and feelings
directly to the audience.
Sonnet- A fourteen-line lyric poem, usually written in rhymed iambic pentameter (in
lines of ten syllables with a stress on every other syllable). Sonnets vary in structure
and rhyme scheme, but are generally of two types: the Petrarchan, or Italian, sonnet
and the Shakespearean, or English sonnet. Sonnets usually attempt to express a
singles theme or idea.
Speaker- The voice in a poem. The speaker may be the poet or a character created
by the poet. The speaker may also be a thing or an animal.
Stanza- A group of lines forming a unit in a poem. Many stanzas have a fixed
pattern-that is, the same number of lines and the same rhyme scheme." A stanza
may be as short as the couplet, two rhyming lines. A favorite form of many English
poets has been the heroic couplet, two rhyming lines of iambic pentameter. The
triplet is a stanza of three lines often with one rhyme. The quatrain is a four line
stanza with many patterns of rhyme and rhythm. In ballads, the second and fourth
lines are usually rhymed while the first and third lines are unrhymed.

15. Static Character- A character who remains the same throughout a narrative. Static
characters do not develop or change beyond the way in which they are first
presented.
Subplot- Secondary action that is interwoven with the main action in a play or story.
Several subplots are not uncommon in a novel. The effect of one or more subplots
maybe to provide some comic relief from a more serious main plot, or to create a
certain atmosphere or mood, such as suspense or intrigue.
Suspense- That quality of a literary work that makes the reader or audience
uncertain or tense about the outcome of events. Suspense makes the reader ask
"What will happen next?". Suspense is greatest when it focuses attention on a
sympathetic character. Thus, the most familiar kind of suspense involves a character
hanging form the lee of a tall building, or tied to a railroad tracks as a train
approaches.
Syllabus- An outline or abstract containing the major points included in a book, a
course of lectures, an argument or a program of study.
Symbol- Any object, person, place, or action that has a meaning in itself and that
also stands for something larger than it does, such as a quality, an attitude, a belief,
or a value. For instance, a rose is often a symbol love and beauty while a skull is
often a symbol of death.
Synecdoche- A form of the metaphor in which the part mentioned signifies the
whole. A good synecdoche is based on an important part of the whole, the part most
directly associated with the subject under discussion.
Syntax- The arrangement of words to form phrases, clauses and sentences;
sentence construction. Syntax is also both the patterns of the aforementioned
arrangements and the function of a word, phrase, or clause within a sentence.
Synthesis- The combination of two or more elements into a unified whole. Synthesis
is the opposite of analysis, which involves detailed consideration of the separate
elements or parts of a work. Synthesis is also the outcome of the dialectic process:
thesis and antithesis combine to produce a synthesis.
Tale- A simple narrative. A tale is a more general term than a short story, since the
latter is applied to a narrative that follows a fairly technical pattern, and the former
denotes any short narrative.
Terza Rima- A three-line stanza form borrowed from the Italian poets. The rhyme
scheme is: aba, bcb, cdc, ded, etc.
Tetrameter- A line of verse containing four feet

16. Tetrapody- A group of words or a line of verse containing four feet
Theme- The main idea or the basic meaning of a literary work. The theme of a work
is not the same as the works’ subject. Not all literary works can be said to express a
theme. Theme generally is not a concern in those works that are told primarily for
entertainment; it is of importance in those literary works that comment on or present
some insight about the meaning of life. In some literary works the theme is expressed
directly, but more often, the theme is implicit-that is, it must be dug out and thought
about. A simple theme can often be stated in a single sentence. But sometimes a
literary work is rich and complex, and a paragraph or even an essay is needed to
state the theme.
Thesis- An attitude or position on a problem taken by a writer or speaker with the
purpose of proving or supporting it.
Tome- A volume forming part of a larger work
Tone- The attitude a writer takes toward his or her subject, characters, and readers.
Through tone, a writer can amuse, anger, or shock the reader. Tone is created
through the choice of words and details.
Tragedy- In general, a literary work in which the central character meets an unhappy
or disastrous end. Unlike comedy, which often portrays a central character of weak
nature, tragedy often involves the problems of a central character of dignified or
heroic stature. Through a related series of events, this main character, the tragic hero
or heroine, is brought to a final downfall. The causes of the character’s downfall vary.
In traditional dramas, the cause is often an error in judgement or a combination of
inexplicable outside forces that overwhelm the character. In modern dramas, the
causes range from moral or psychological weaknesses to the evils of society. The
tragic hero or heroine, though defeated, usually gains a measure of wisdom and/or
self-awareness. There may be more than one central character in a tragedy.
Transition- In a piece of writing, the passing from one subject or division of a
composition to another. A good prose style accomplishes transition between
sentences; paragraphs and chapters by proceeding smoothly and logically from one
point to the next, so that the relationships appear clear and natural.
Triad- A group of three. More specifically, the strophe, antistrophe, and epode of the
Pindaric ode.
Trilogy- A literary composition, usually a novel or a play, written in three parts, each
of which is a complete unit in itself.
Trimeter- A line of verse consisting of three feet.

17. Tristich- A stanza of three lines.
Trochee- A metrical foot consisting of an accented and an unaccented syllable, as in
the word "happy". The trochee is often used as the meter for the supernatural.
Understatement- A form of irony in which something is intentionally represented as
less than it is in fact.
Utopia- A place in which social, legal, and political justice and perfect harmony exist.
Vernacular- The domestic or native language of the people of a particular country or
geographical area.
Verse- A line of poetry. "Verse" is a general term for metrical composition.
Verse Drama or Verse Play- A play written mostly or entirely in verse. Verse plays
are often written in blank verse (unrhymed iambic pentameter).
Vice- An evil habit or wicked tendency present in characters in a literary work or
poem.
Whimsical- A critical term for writing what is fanciful or expresses odd notions.
Xanaduism- Research to discover the sources that have contributed to a work of
art.
Xenophanic- A term used to describe a wandering poet who writes witty, satirical
verse. Xenophanes was a Greek poet who lived in the sixth century B.C., traveled
widely throughout the Greek world and wrote verse satirizing Homer’s mythology.
Yarn- A tale or story. Yarns are usually improbable and most likely exaggerated.
Zeitgeist- The characteristic thought, preoccupation or spirit of a particular period.