Documento científico

1. Research Paper
GIS-based groundwater potential mapping within Dengi area, North
Central Nigeria
O.A. Adeyeye a,b,⇑
, E.A. Ikpokonte a
, S.A. Arabi c
a
Global Geosolutionz, Typesetters Biz Complex, Department of Geology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
b
Department of Geology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zara, Nigeria
c
Department of Geology, Faculty of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 19 July 2017
Revised 5 April 2018
Accepted 15 April 2018
Available online 28 December 2018
Keywords:
Crystalline rock-sedimentary rock contact
RS
GIS
Contact proximity
a b s t r a c t
The need for integration of various methods with Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information
System (GIS) techniques to increase accuracy in water exploration is undeniable. Spatial observation of
the translation of effluent rivers to influent rivers as the flow across the crystalline rock-sedimentary rock
contact (CRSRC) led to the incorporation contact proximity thematic layer into the GIS-based model for
this research. RS Digital Elevation Model data was used for generation of the thematic maps of slope, lin-
eament and elevation while conventional maps were used to generate the thematic maps of soil, drainage
density and drainage proximity. Geological field mapping and ground truthing gave rise to the thematic
maps of geology and contact proximity. Weighting of thematic layers was consequently done by pair-
wise comparison even as modeling was done by weighted overlay technique in a GIS environment.
Groundwater potential modeling of the area revealed three zones: low potential zone coinciding with
rugged and high relief areas; medium potential zone coinciding with areas on the crystalline basement
with lower relief; and high potential zone which occur in the sedimentary terrain within the study area.
In terms of areal extent the low, medium and high groundwater potential zones cover 249, 391 and 130
square kilometers respectively. Groundwater potential map agrees reasonably with field conditions.
However, the need for drillers including government agencies to keep data such as pumping test is rec-
ommended as it will aid in validating models like this.
Ó 2018 National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-
nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction
Groundwater is the most feasible alternative as the cost of
exploitation via hand-dug well and boreholes is far cheaper when
compared to conventional surface water programmes that will
require construction of impounding reservoirs, piping network, et
cetera. Nonetheless, a major constraint is the complex and erratic
nature of groundwater occurrences in crystalline basement ter-
rains with attendant high rate of well/borehole failure in the
absence of proper and adequate pre-drilling hydrogeological inves-
tigations (Fashae et al., 2014). Geophysical techniques along with
other conventional methods such as geological, hydrogeological,
and photogeological techniques have been employed to delineate
groundwater potential zones (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1994; Teeuw,
1995; Edet and Okereke, 1997; Sander et al., 1996; Taylor and
Howard, 2000; Srivastava and Bhattacharya, 2006). However, inte-
gration of various conventional methods with Remote sensing (RS)
techniques and Geographical Information System (GIS) technology
helps to increase the accuracy of results in delineation of ground-
water potential zone and also to reduce the bias on any single
method (Rao and Jugran, 2003). RS and GIS hold great potential
in improving our ability to explore for groundwater. Also, the
incorporation of local field observations into the conventional
GIS-based models helps improve local results as exemplified by
Adeyeye (2015). However, as pointed out by Jha et al. (2007), it
is evident that groundwater studies using RS and GIS techniques
in developing countries (like Nigeria) is very limited, and most
studies are ad hoc in nature. It is the desire of this research work
to highlight some of the possibilities inherent in the application
of RS and GIS in groundwater studies.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2018.04.003
1110-9823/Ó 2018 National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer review under responsibility of National Authority for Remote Sensing and
Space Sciences.
⇑ Corresponding author at: College of New Energy and Environment, Jilin
University, No 2519, Jiefang Road, Changchun 130021, PR China.
E-mail address: ofemiadeyeye@gmail.com (O.A. Adeyeye).
The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences 22 (2019) 175–181
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com

2. 2. The study area
The study area is located in Kanam Local Government Area of
Plateau state and lies between latitudes 09°150
and 09°300
N and
longitudes 009°500
and 010°050
E, respectively [part of Wase NE,
Sheet 191; and Bashar NW, Sheet 192 (Fig. 1)].
The climate of the area is Northern Guinea Savannah zone with
mean annual rainfall of about 1941 mm/a. The annual average
temperature is 26.5 C, while mean relative humidity is 23% (Lower
Niger Basin Development Authority, Makurdi, Longkat Station).
The area is underlain by Precambrian rocks of the Migmatite–
Gneiss Complex (banded gneiss and granite gneiss) which are
intruded by the Older Granite suite (fine grained and medium-
to-coarse grained granite). Palaeocene continental sandstones of
Duguri formation overlie these Precambrian rocks in the south-
eastern portion of the study area. Major lithological layer types
that occur in the study area include: topsoil, alluvial sands, clayey
sands, weathered overburden, weathered/fractured overburden,
fine sand, weathered sandstone and fresh basement (Adeyeye,
2015).
The onset of rainfall in and around the study area is in April and
ends in October. Precipitation reaches its peak in August and
September (Table 1) (NIMET, 2015). In the study area, water short-
age severity is normally experienced between February and May
during which most residence turns to surface water as their source
of water supply. Temperature variation in the area ranged between
30–37 °C (warmest) and 18–25 °C (coldest) (Table 1).
3. Methodology
The procedure adapted for this work comprised of desk studies,
field work and evaluation of field data. The steps involved are also
presented (Fig. 2). Desk studies involved the studying of literature
and maps of the area. Field work involved geological mapping on a
scale of 1:50,000. Strike and dip of foliation/bedding were mea-
sured where present with compass-clinometer and plotted on
the base map. Measurements of the depth to the water table were
done from hand-dug wells and the readings obtained used for
groundwater configuration maps. Vertical Electrical Sounding
(VES) was undertaken using standard procedure using the PIOS
resistivity meter.
3.1. Groundwater potential modelling
The analytic hierarchy approach (AHP) developed by Saaty
(1980, 1992) which is a type of multi-criteria decision analysis
technique (MCDA), was used for this work. The analytic hierarchy
approach (AHP) developed by Saaty (1980, 1992) which is a type of
Fig. 1. Map of Dengi Area displaying Topography and Drainage (Modified after Directorate of Colonial Surveys, 1953).
Table 1
Average days with precipitation, temperature, and precipitation per month around
the study area (NIMET, 2015).
Temperature Precipitation
Month Warmest Coldest Normal
January 34.8 °C 18.4 °C 0
February 36.9 °C 22.0 °C 0
March 37.0 °C 24.7 °C 1
April 35.0 °C 25.0 °C 5
May 32.6 °C 23.6 °C 8
June 31.2 °C 22.9 °C 10
July 30.0 °C 22.5 °C 12
August 30.0 °C 22.6 °C 13
September 30.7 °C 22.3 °C 13
October 31.7 °C 22.5 °C 7
November 33.5 °C 20.3 °C 0
December 34.2 °C 17.6 °C 0
176 O.A. Adeyeye et al. / Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. 22 (2019) 175–181

3. multi-criteria decision analysis technique (MCDA), was used for
this work. Factors that affect this goal were noted to be elevation,
slope, geology, lineament density, contact proximity, drainage den-
sity, drainage proximity and soil. The relative importance of the
features of each individual theme (factor) to the groundwater
potential was determined intuitively. Pair-wise comparison on a
scale from 1 to 9 (Table 2) as developed by Saaty (1980, 1992)
was used to create a matrix comparing features within each theme
based on its importance to groundwater potential following the
approach of Saraf and Choudhary (1998), Rao and Jugran (2003),
Prasad et al. (2008), Jha et al. (2010), Machiwal et al. (2011),
Mukherjee et al. (2012), Singh et al. (2013) and Fashae et al.
(2014). The weights of features associated with individual themes
were done by the Saaty’s AHP and the eigenvector technique.
3.2. Integration of thematic maps
Eight different thematic maps were integrated to generate the
groundwater potential model (GWPM) for the study area using
the raster calculator feature on ArcMap 9.3 software. It was pro-
duced by Weighted Linear Combination (WLC). The technique
has been associated with the study of locations of geographic phe-
nomena together with their spatial dimension and associated attri-
butes (Prasad et al., 2008) and is given by
GWP ¼ RWiXicf
where GWP = Groundwater potential; Wi = Weight for each map
score; and Xi = Individual map.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Thematic maps
Eight thematic maps of geology, soil, drainage, lineament, slope,
elevation, contact proximity, and water body proximity were
respectively categorized and weighed (Table 3; Fig. 3), and subse-
quently used to generate the groundwater potential map (GWPM)
(Fig. 4).
4.2. Groundwater potential map
Areas with low, medium and high groundwater potential were
delineated. Areas with low, medium and high groundwater poten-
tial cover 249 Km2
(32%), 391 Km2
(51%) and 130 Km2
(17%) of the
study area respectively (Fig. 4). Water tends to store at lower
topography than at higher topography (Godebo, 2005; Hammouri
et al. 2012). The influence of elevation on the final groundwater
potential map (GWPM) is evident as most of the areas with low
REMOTE SENSING (RS) DATA CONVENTIONAL MAPS AND DATA
ASTER DEM
Topographical and Pedological Map
Slope Map Soil Map
Elevation Map Drainage Map
Lineament Map
Lineament Density Map Drainage
Density Map
Geological Map
Digitization
Generation of Thematic layers in GIS Platform
Normalization of Weights using AHP (Saaty Approach)
Data Modelling
Groundwater Potential Map
Validation with Well Locations, Lithologs, VES and
Groundwater Configuration Map
Water Body
Proximity
Contact
Proximity
FIELD MAPPING
Geological Map Displaying Crystalline Rock
/ Sedimentary Rock Boundary
Crystaliine / Sedimentary
Boundary
Digitization
Fig. 2. Flow Chat Showing Summary of Methodology Adapted for Work.
Table 2
Saaty’s Scale for Assignment and its Interpretation showing Pair-Wise Comparison process (Saaty, 1980, 1992).
Less Important Equally Important More Important
Extremely Very Strongly Strongly Moderately Equally Moderately Strongly Very Strongly Extremely
1/9 1/7 1/5 1/3 1 3 5 7 9
2, 4, 6 and 8 are intermediate values that denote comprise.
O.A. Adeyeye et al. / Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. 22 (2019) 175–181 177

4. groundwater potential are located on topographic highs while
areas with medium to high potential are located on topographic
lows. This is because, the gentler the slope, the lower the runoff.
Therefore areas with steepest slopes are seen to have low GWP
in agreement with earlier workers (Godebo, 2005; Talabi and
Tijani, 2011; Arkoprovo et al., 2012; Hammouri et al., 2012;
Chuma et al., 2013; Fashae et al., 2014).
The type of soil formed in an area also plays an important role
on groundwater recharge through infiltration and loss through
run-off. The type of soil and permeability affects the water holding
and infiltrating capacity of a given soil (Godebo, 2005). Clayey soils
are known to impede infiltration because of their low permeability,
while sandy soils often allow increased infiltration because of their
higher permeability. Conversely, the more clayey soils have the
least GWP.
Geology determines the aquifers where groundwater is stored.
Porosity and permeability of a formation determines its quality
as an aquifer. Sedimentary rocks are known to have a far higher
primary porosity and permeability in comparison to crystalline
rocks which have less than 3% (Bouwer, 1978). However, fracturing
can greatly increase the ability of crystalline rocks to serve as aqui-
fers (Davis and De Weist, 1966) and indicators of secondary poros-
ity and permeability are commonly sought when prospecting for
groundwater in such terrains (Gupta, 2003). A comparison of the
geology of the area to the GWP map of the area reveals that areas
underlain by alluvial sands have the highest groundwater potential
(Fig. 5). This is in agreement with results displayed by Owen and
Dahlin (2004) and field observations.
The areas within the crystalline rock terrains that have high
groundwater potential are influenced by lineament and drainage
proximity. The importance of drainage proximity to groundwater
potential was shown by the location of boreholes in most cases
very close to streams in the study area. Scientist have observed
that yields of wells on lineaments are about 14 times than that
of wells away from lineaments (Kumar, 2014) indicating better
groundwater potential. Though this could not be verified due to
lack of well yield data for boreholes, a careful look at borehole loca-
tions relative to lineaments shows that apart from the boreholes in
Kingyal and that between Gyambar and Yamani, lineaments were
not the major influence to locating favourable sites for boreholes
but an integration of other factors. Hand-dug wells for their part
yield somewhat satisfactorily (field observation) in both wet and
dry seasons though not cited closely to lineaments. This is probably
caused by the fact that they are tapping from the overburden aqui-
fer (mostly shallow wells less than 15 m deep with an exception of
a well in Jiblack with static water level up to 39 m below ground
level). Though MAB CONSULT (2015) made use of closeness to lin-
eament as an indicator of increased groundwater potential, the
thematic lineament map was created on the premise that the
greater the degree of secondary porosity (which is proportional
to the lineament density), the greater the groundwater potential
in consonance with several workers (Godebo, 2005;Talabi and
Table 3
Normalized Weights of Features of Themes for the Delineation of Groundwater Potential.
Categories Criterion Normalized Ranks Weight Area Covered (Km2
) Percentage of Study Area Covered (%)
Elevation 265–336 m 39 19 263.49 34.22
336–401 m 29 186.70 24.24
401–473 m 15 168.07 21.83
473–586 m 9 121.61 15.79
566–803 m 8 30.19 3.92
Slope Low 53 19 447.93 58.17
Moderate 23 204.86 26.59
High 12 75.28 9.77
Very High 7 31.48 4.09
Extremely High 4 10.61 1.38
Geology Alluvial Sands 42‘ 13 92.04 11.95
Duguri Sandstone 20 63.95 8.30
Fine-Grained Granite 9 81.33 10.56
Coarse-Grained Granite 9 226.11 29.36
Granite Gneiss 10 205.06 26.63
Banded Gneiss 10 101.59 11.19
Lineament 0–0.61 Km/Km2
6 13 597.29 77.56
0.61–1.33 Km/Km2
11 66.98 8.70
1.33–2.03 Km/Km2
32 87.18 11.32
2.03–3.7 Km/Km2
51 18.61 2.42
Contact Proximity 0–500 m 45 10 4.69 0.61
500–1000 m 30 4.96 0.64
1000–2000 m 16 10.75 1.40
>2000 m 9 749.66 97.35
Drainage Density 0–0.781Km/Km2
45 9 423.05 54.94
0.78–1.57 Km/Km2
26 267.75 34.87
1.57–2.35 Km/Km2
17 72.79 9.45
2.35–3.13 Km/Km2
12 6.48 0.84
Drainage Proximity 0–75/0–25 m 52 9 22.87 2.97
75–150/25–50 m 26 21.89 2.84
150–250/50–100 m 14 32.98 4.28
>250 m/>100 m 9 692.32 89.90
Soil Luvisols 8 8 477.34 61.99
Leptosols 30 157.79 20.49
Gleysols 41 75.48 9.80
Regosols 16 20.60 2.67
Vertisols 5 38.84 5.04
178 O.A. Adeyeye et al. / Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. 22 (2019) 175–181

5. Tijani, 2011; Arkoprovo et al., 2012; Hammouri et al., 2012; Chuma
et al., 2013; Fashae et al., 2014).
In groundwater prospecting using GIS, many a worker contend
that the higher the drainage density, the lower the groundwater
potential (Godebo, 2005; Talabi and Tijani, 2011; Arkoprovo
et al., 2012; Hammouri et al., 2012; Chuma et al., 2013; Fashae
et al., 2014). However, a careful observation leads to the inference
that higher drainage density of first order streams is the most accu-
rate indicator of reduced groundwater potential. This is because in
an area having parallel second order or third order streams, a high
drainage density may be recorded leading to the conclusion that
there is low groundwater potential while the fact may be that areas
Fig. 3. (A) Classified Elevation Map; (B) Classified Slope Map; (C) Classified Geology Map; (D) Classified Lineament Density Map; (E) Classified Contact Proximity Map; (F)
Classified Drainage Density Map; (G) Classified Drainage Proximity Map; (H) Classified Soil Map.
O.A. Adeyeye et al. / Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. 22 (2019) 175–181 179

6. Fig. 4. Groundwater Potential Map of Dengi Area.
Fig. 5. Comparison of GWP Map with the Geology of the Area [(A) Groundwater potential map; (b) Geological map with overlay of lineaments and drainage]
180 O.A. Adeyeye et al. / Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. 22 (2019) 175–181

7. close to these streams actually have higher groundwater potential.
Consequently, only first order streams were used to generate the
drainage density thematic layer which was weighted on the basis
that the higher the drainage density, the lower the groundwater
potential.
Noteworthy hydrogeologically is the crystalline rock-
sedimentary rock contact (CRSRC) in the study area. CRSRC are
known to have hydrogeological significance because springs usu-
ally emerge in areas where water flowing through permeable aqui-
fer media encounter an impermeable media. Schoeneich and Garba
(2010) have similarly noted the ‘‘translation” of effluent rivers to
influent rivers as the flow from areas underlain by crystalline rocks
to areas underlain by sedimentary rocks in the Borno Basin while
Owen (1994 in Owen and Dahlin, 2004) and Owen and Dahlin,
2004 observed that alluvial deposits tend to occur preferentially
at geological boundaries. In the study area, a high groundwater
potential of the contact is depicted by a string of irrigated farms,
tubewells and a spring parallel to the CRSRC (Fig. 4).
5. Summary conclusion and recommendation
Eight thematic maps were digitized and prepared based on their
influence on the occurrence of groundwater in the study area
namely: elevation, slope, geology, lineament density, contact prox-
imity, first order stream drainage density, second and third order
stream drainage proximity and soil type maps. Groundwater
potential modelling of the area revealed three zones of groundwa-
ter potential. These include zones of: low potential coinciding with
rugged and high relief areas; medium potential zone coinciding
with areas on crystalline basement with lower relief; and high
potential areas which occur in the sedimentary terrain within the
study area. In terms of areal extent, the low potential, medium
potential and high groundwater potential zones cover 249 Km2
,
391 Km2
, and 130 Km2
, respectively. In relation to field geology
and geophysical investigation, areas of low potential and medium
potential are characterized by overburden and weathered/frac-
tured basement aquifers while zones of high groundwater poten-
tial are characterized by alluvial sand, clayey sand, fine sand and
weathered sandstone aquifers.
It is recommended that groundwater prospects mapping using
GIS and RS be adapted in helping the field geologists to quickly
identify the prospective groundwater zones for conducting site
specific investigations and reasonably thus, significantly scaling
down scope of search. Again, the need for borehole drillers includ-
ing government agencies to keep data such as pumping test is also
recommended as it will aid in giving empirical evidence of the
groundwater potential of an area.
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