Dissertation_Sara Walsh

School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences
University of Birmingham
Barriers to Participation: An Investigation into the
Factors Influencing the Participation of 14-18 year
olds in Physical Activity, in Light of the 2012
Olympic Legacy
Name: Sara Walsh
Registration No: 1229799
Submitted in accordance with requirements for BSc Single Honours in
Geography
I confirm that the number of words is 9,962 excluding abstract, acknowledgements,
table of contents, tables, figures, reference list, appendices and quotations from
primary data
I declare that this piece of work is all my own, and that any work by others
has been acknowledged
Signed: ………..………………………….. Date: ………….………………….

i
Abstract
The 2012 Olympic Games aimed to encourage a new youthful generation
(on a national scale) to participate in more physical activity. Yet, the
population, in this case adolescents, face many intrapersonal, interpersonal
and environmental barriers. This study examines the latter two, with mention
to intrapersonal barriers as they are all interconnected. Further investigation
will identify whether the 2012 Olympic Games proved beneficial to the area,
its physical activity opportunities and adolescent population.
The data was compiled by a mixture of qualitative and quantitative
methodologies, including questionnaires, focus groups, interviews and a
participant observation. This was heavily supplemented with secondary data,
mainly related with Active Essex, the County Sport Partnership (CSP)
responsible for ‘inspiring a new generation’ in Essex.
The main findings illustrate that a wide array of interrelated barriers prevent
the average 14-18 year old participating in physical activity. Socioeconomic
status was not seen to have such a great effect as indicated by previous
studies. The gender division nevertheless, is still recognised as a limiting
factor, for girls in particular. Here, this gender division is viewed by
adolescents in the study and those working in the industry to be narrowing.
The 2012 Olympic Games was said to have increased the status of women’s
sport within society, indicating it has helped reduce this significant barrier. In
the Tendring District alone however, little change was achieved to the
geographical area or the attitudes of the adolescents to encourage them to
participate in more physical activity.

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Acknowledgements
I would like to extend my sincerest thanks to Caroline Haynes (headteacher
of Tendring Technology College), for giving me permission to conduct data
collection with the year 10, 11, 12 and 13 students. Furthermore, a huge
thank you should go to Daniel Woodcock, who helped me arrange the
distribution of the questionnaires and organisation of the focus groups at
TTC.
My thanks also goes to the students involved, Robert Rouse, Michael
Carran, Mick Collins, Colin Garrod, Chris Armstrong, Chris Rowland, Sophie
Southgate, Jarrod Bradfield and those from Inclusion Ventures for their
valuable insight in the physical activity opportunities within the Tendring
District. Without their participation this research would not have been
possible.
Last but not least, I wish to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Jessica
Pykett, for assiting me with valuable guidance throughout my researach
project.

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Abbreviations
CSP – County Sport Partnership
WHO – World Health Organisation
SES – Socioeconomic Status
IMD – Index of Multiple Deprivation
LSOAs – Lower Super Output Areas
TTC – Tendring Technology College
NOO - National Obesity Observatory
DCLG - Department for Community and Local Government
DCMS – Department for Culture, Media and Sport
TDC – Tendring District Council
ONS – Office for National Statistics

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Table of Contents
Abstract........................................................................................................................i
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................ii
Abbreviations............................................................................................................iii
Table of Figures..........................................................................................................1
List of Tables..............................................................................................................2
Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................3
1.1 Research Aims and Objectives......................................................................3
1.2 Contextual Background...................................................................................3
1.3 Rationale ...........................................................................................................4
1.4 Tendring District Profile..................................................................................5
1.4.1 Tendring Technology College (TTC) Profile: ..............................................7
Chapter 2: Literature Review....................................................................................8
2.1 Geography and Sport.......................................................................................8
2.1.1 Sport and place:...........................................................................................9
2.2 Benefits to Physical Activity...........................................................................9
2.4 Barriers of physical activity..........................................................................11
2.4.1 Socio-Ecological Theory:...........................................................................11
2.4.2 Environmental Barriers:.............................................................................12
2.4.3 Interpersonal Barriers:...............................................................................13
2.4.4 Intrapersonal Barriers:...............................................................................14
2.4 Politics, the 2012 Olympic Games and Physical Activity..........................16
2.4.1 Active Essex: .............................................................................................17
Chapter 3: Methodology..........................................................................................18
3.1 Philosophical Approaches:...........................................................................18
3.2 Background to Data Collection:...................................................................18
3.3 Data Collection Methods...............................................................................19
3.3.1 Pilot Study:.................................................................................................19
3.3.2 Questionnaires:..........................................................................................20
3.3.3 Interviews:..................................................................................................22
3.3.4 Focus Groups: ...........................................................................................24
3.3.5 Participant Oberservation: .........................................................................24
3.4 Methods of Data Analysis .............................................................................24
3.4.1 Statistical Analysis Techniques: ................................................................25
3.5 Ethical Considerations..................................................................................27
Chapter 4: Analysis and Discussion .....................................................................29
4.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................29
4.2 Physical activity against Gender..................................................................29
4.3 Physical activity against Socioeconomic Status (SES) ............................30
4.4 Environmental Barriers to Physical Activity...............................................30
4.4.1 Quality of Exercise Provisions:..................................................................32
4.4.2 Location of sports clubs and council owned facilities: ..............................32
4.4.3 SES of an area or individual and the effect this has on the access to
exercise facilities:................................................................................................33
4.4.4 Gender of adolescents and their participation in the local environment and
physical activity establishments:.........................................................................35
4.4.5 Provision of pavements: ............................................................................36

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4.4.6 Access to public and private transport: .....................................................37
4.5 Socio-cultural barriers to performing physical activity.............................39
4.5.1 Schoolwork: ...............................................................................................39
4.5.2 Peers:.........................................................................................................40
4.5.3 Self-efficacy: ..............................................................................................42
4.5.4 Media: ........................................................................................................43
4.6 Olympic Games influence on the Tendring District...................................46
4.6.1 Provision and opportunities for sport leading up to, during and after the
2012 Olympic Games in the Tendring District:...................................................46
4.6.2 Inspiration from the Games:......................................................................49
Chapter 5: Conclusion.............................................................................................51
5.1 Summary of Findings.....................................................................................51
5.2 Further Research............................................................................................53
Reference List...........................................................................................................54
Appendices……………………………………………………………………………….64
Appendix 1: IMD of the Tendring District..............................................................65
Appendix 2: First Questionnaire............................................................................66
Appendix 3: Second Questionnaire.......................................................................70
Appendix 4: Participant Oberservation of Jaywick .............................................73
Appendix 5: Example of One of the Coded Transcripts (with comments)........76
Appendix 6: Coding Frame .....................................................................................92
Appendix 7: Example of Email Correspondance Confirming Permission of
Known Identity..........................................................................................................93

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Table of Figures
Figure 1.1 –Tendring District: OS Base Map……………………………………….6
Figure 1.2 – Tendring District: Ward Boundaries and TTC Coverage…………...7
Figure 2.1 – Socio-Ecological Model……………………………………………….. 11
Figure 3.1 – Formula of TTC’s Student Total………………………………………21
Figure 4.1 – Cross Tabulation: Recommended Physical Activity and Gender….29
Figure 4.2 – Tendring District: OS Base Map with Local Facilities………………30

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List of Tables
Table 2.1 – Benefits of Physical Activity……………………………………………..10
Table 3.1 – Data Methods and Sources Used in this Research..…………………19
Table 3.2 – Qualitative Participants….……………………………………………….23
Table 3.3 – SES Classification Codes………………………………………………..25
Table 4.1 – ANOVA: ‘SES’ and ‘Cannot_Afford’……………………….……..……..33
Table 4.2 – Tukey’s Post Hoc Test: ‘SES’ and ‘Cannot_Afford’………………….. 33
Table 4.3 – Student’s T Test: ‘Rec30mins’ and ‘PA_Places’……………..…….….34
Table 4.4 – Mann-Whitney U Test: ‘Public Transport’, ‘Carneeded’ and
Rec30mins’………………………………………………………………………….......36
Table 4.5 – Student’s T Test: ‘Rec30mins’ and ‘schoolwork’………………….......39
Table 4.6 – Student’s T Test: ‘Rec30mins’, ‘Friends_doPA’ and ‘meetfriends’….39
Table 4.7 – Three Active Essex Initiatives Applied in the Tendring District………48

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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 ResearchAims and Objectives
This research aims to investigate the socio-ecological barriers that
affect adolescents, aged 14-18, living in a rural district from
participating in physical activity1.
Objective 1: Does an adolescent’s gender and socioeconomic status (SES)
impact their decision to participate in physical activity?
Objective 2: How do socio-cultural and physical environmental factors
influence an adolescent’s participation in physical activity?
Objective 3: Has Tendring District Council and the local community utilised
the 2012 Olympic Games and its legacy to “inspire a new generation” in
providing more opportunities for adolescents to increase participation rates in
physical activity?
1.2 ContextualBackground
Contemporary health geography considers obesity to be a preventable non-
communicable disease (The British Geographer, 2014; Babey et al., 2008;
Grow et al., 2008; Bauman et al., 2012). In general, obesity results from a
high-energy intake diet and low-energy expenditure sedentary lifestyle
(Hohepa, 2006; Bedimo-Rung et al., 2005). As such, physical inactivity is the
1
The term‘physical activity’iscentral tothisstudy.Itisdefinedasanybodilymovement
that usesskeletal musclescreatingenergyexpenditure (ArmstrongandWelsman,2006).
This is a broad term that encompasses ‘exercise’ and ‘sport’ within this paper.
Exercise involves structured bodily movementsdone toimprove ormaintainalevel of
physical fitness(Van der Horst, 2009). Sportincludesall formsof organisedphysical
activityaimedtoimprove social relationships,competitivenessandphysical fitness
(Shipway,2007). All three termsare utilisedwithinthispapersince eachmeetsthe basic
goal of physical activity,energyexpenditure.

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4th leading risk factor of mortality worldwide, attributing to 3.2 million deaths
annually (WHO, 2014). It is predicted that by 2050 direct and indirect costs
relating to obesity will cost the UK economy £59.6 billion (Van der Horst,
2009; NOO, 2010). More importantly, Patrick et al., (2004) predicts that 70%
of obese 10-13 year olds will continue to be obese as adults, indicating that
behaviours and lifestyles adopted at a young age are more likely to be
continued into adulthood.
Furthermore, Sport England (2004) claims 47% of children, aged 11-15, are
members of a sports club, with this figure falling to 17% in the 16-19 year old
category. An adolescent is a person who inhabits the middle ground between
childhood and adulthood, creating a sense of exclusion from society and
places (Weller, 2003). Consequently, identifying and addressing the socio-
cultural and environmental barriers applicable to adolescents enjoying an
active and healthy lifestyle is crucial, for their own health, the UK economy
and NHS. The latter is of importance since the UK is experiencing an ageing
population, placing strain on the healthcare system (Van der Horst, 2009).
1.3 Rationale
The national, and international concern over the economic and health costs
of physical inactivity has attempted to demonstrate the relevance of this
study.
The 2012 Candidate File saw the Olympic Games as the “unparalled
opportunity to achieve – in an integrated way – the sporting, cultural,
economic, social and environmental objectives of the UK, London and its
neighbouring regions” (London 2012, 2004:23). This demonstrates the
commitment that the London Olympic organising body placed on delivering
an holistic event that would have national benefits, implying small rural
settlements and large cities will each have the chance to be transformed
because of 2012. Furthermore, initiatives such as ‘Places, People, Play’

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(resultant from hosting the Games) illustrated the financial investments local
sports clubs and facilities could apply for (Sport England, 2010). Hence,
these are considered within the study to establish the influence that they
have on participation levels.
The interest in this topic therefore derives from the promises policymakers
and sporting organisations have made with regards to creating more
opportunities to enhance an active youthful population. For these initiatives
to succeed, it is crucial that the barriers impacting adolescents are
considered. As will become clear, these can relate to intrapersonal,
interpersonal and environmental factors. The latter two however are of most
concern. First it is necessary to consult the chosen area of study.
1.4 TendringDistrictProfile
Essex, a county adjacent to the Lower Lea Valley, location of the 2012
Olympic Park, and host of 2 Olympic sports, was identified, but was too large
an area to study. Thus, each of its districts were considered. An area with a
mixture of wealth was necessary to illustrate the impact of SES on physical
activity. The Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) showed the Tendring District
to possess this, since its LSOAs rank from 1-26,404, thus, possessing the
most deprived place in England (Green Ward, commonly known as Jaywick)
(English Indices of Deprivation, 2010; DCLG, 2011).
Tendring is located in the northeastern peninsula of Essex. 80% is ‘green
space’ with the average walking distance of 25 minutes to access key
services (the longest time of all Districts in Essex). These factors determine it
as a rural constituency (Crawley, 2014). Myddleton (2010) states the coastal
areas of Frinton-on-Sea, Clacton-on-Sea and Harwich the densest urban
areas, compared to inland places, such as Thorpe-le-Soken in Tendring
(Figure 1.1 and 1.2). Therefore, the density of the area can be considered

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when registering the effect location can have on an adolescent’s
opportunities to exercise.
The reported poor health of Tendring’s population furthered it as a location
for study since,
 26.60% of Tendring’s population is obese, placing it in the top 20% of
Districts nationally.
 48,755 of 16-year-olds are suffering from high blood pressure (the
highest figure of all Districts in Essex).
 9% of Tendring’s population is physically active enough to the extent
that it is beneficial for their health (lowest percentage in all of Essex’s
Districts).
(Local Futures Group, 2010; Crawley, 2014)

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1.4.1 Tendring Technology College (TTC) Profile:
TTC, a mixed comprehensive secondary school split over two sites (Thorpe-
le-Soken and Frinton-on-Sea), has 1,942 students aged 11-19 (Ofstead,
2011). TTC has a large catchment area covering many wards in Tendring
(Figure 1.2) (TTC, 2014). This coverage allows a wide range of
socioeconomic urban and rural areas to be considered within the study
(Appendix 1).
Tendring District: Ward Boundaries and TTC Coverage
¯
0 1.5 30.75 Miles
Figure 1.2 – Tendring District Base Map illustrating the ward boundaries and TTC
coverage across the District. Source:(EDINA UK Data Service, 2012)

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Chapter 2: Literature Review
The previous chapter outlined the contextual background of this research
topic. Key themes, from an array of disciplines, pertinent to this study are
covered to condense the range of literature into topics relevant to the
investigation. Research on the barriers to physical activity is extensive, but
there is a clear gap on the influence the social and physical environment can
have on individuals, especially adolescents. Furthermore, little investigation
has been conducted into the influence an Olympic Games (specifically 2012)
has on these barriers. Therefore this literature review employs a range of
information to promote the importance of understanding the social and
environmental relationships within physical activity. Thus, the geographic and
sporting community, but also the wider political and economic society will
benefit.
2.1 Geography and Sport
In the 1960s Geographers established a Geography of Sport journal. Prior to
this, sport was not recognised as a justifiable area of study. This initial
omission is surprising since sport is a component of cultural, economic and
physical geography (Bale, 1989).
Chapter 1 demonstrated the high status that obesity, has within health
geography, in addition to the huge constraints it places on the economy.
Physical inactivity is of further concern to economic geographers, as Wagner
(1981; cited in Bale, 1989:10) comments “there is nothing natural about a
sports event”. This refers to the dependency sporting and exercise facilities,
and therefore participation levels, have on financial investment. It also relates
to the investment into public services, such as road maintenance, each
impacting on access to exercise opportunities (Romero, 2005).

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Additionally, socio-cultural geography observes the differences an
adolescent’s gender and socio-economic status (SES) has on their level of
physical activity. Alongside this, the influence of peers and the media on an
individual’s attitudes and behaviours towards physical activity are considered
(McEwan and Daya, 2012).
2.1.1 Sport and place:
Lefebvre (1991; cited in Van Ingen, 2003) identifies ‘lived space’, as a social
space where the imagined and real life interact, creating oppressive or
enabling behaviour. For example, a playing field with a football pitch is a
place to play football, but this space may be oppressive to girls, whilst
liberating for boys since football is portrayed as a male activity (Okley, 1996;
cited in McDowell, 1999:57). The social application to space is important
within this study because it addresses the individual’s perception of their
place within physical activity provisions. This demonstrates that exercise
facilities may be present, but other social and cultural components (such as
peers) may affect overall participation.
2.2 Benefits to PhysicalActivity
Table 2.1 lists some economic, environmental and health benefits of
participating in physical activity.

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Economic Benefits  Regenerate areas through the
building of facilities
 Increase the provision of jobs and
income within the area
Social Environment  Reduce crime within
neighbourhoods as there are
more places to socialise
 Increase community cohesion
Physical Environment  Regeneration of the surrounding
area
 Maintenance of playing fields and
pavements
 Provision of pavements and cycle
lanes, reducing pedestrian
injuries from traffic
Health of individuals  Reduces the mortality and
morbidity by decreasing risk of
heart disease, diabetes, cancer,
weight
 Helps strengthen bones, muscles
and joints
 Can build self-confidence and
self-esteem
Table 2.1 - Benefits of Physical Activity (Kavetsos and Szymanski, 2009; Fullinwider,
2006; Berger et al., 2008; De Bourdeaudhuij et al., 2005; Van der Horst et al., 2007)

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2.4 Barriers of physicalactivity
2.4.1 Socio-Ecological Theory:
The socio-ecological model is based on Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
(SCT), which determines the impact self-efficacy has on an individual’s
behavior. Self-efficacy is a form of anxiety individuals suffer from if they lack
confidence in their abilities (Allison et al., 1999; Sallis et al., 1999). Deforche
et al., (2010) comments that such characters will possess lower levels of
physical activity than those with high self-efficacy. This is an area well
researched by academics. Socio-cultural and physical environmental factors
however are not as well discussed, but are posed to affect and be effected
by an individual’s psychological and biological traits (Bandura, 1989; Sallis et
al., 1996). Therefore, the socio-ecological theory combines intrapersonal
(biological and psychological), interpersonal (socio-cultural interactions) and
environmental factors (built or natural facilities) (Figure 2.1) (Van der Horst,
2009; McLeroy et al., 1988; Allison et al., 1999).
Behaviour
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Environment
Figure 2.1 – Socio-Ecological Model believes that all intrapersonal, interpersonal and
environmental factors are interlinked todetermine a behaviour

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2.4.2 Environmental Barriers:
2.4.2.i Local Sports Clubs and Schools
Pate et al., (1994) deduces that the majority of physical activity is performed
in the local environment, in sites such as parks, local leisure centres and
local sports clubs. Fullinwider (2006) reports that 40 million 5-18 year olds
participate in recreational physical activities. The physical environment is
therefore important when considering why people are not physically active.
Here, focus is placed on local built facilities, such as sports clubs and leisure
facilities, with mention to schools.
School PE lessons have the ability to teach students the importance of an
active and healthy lifestyle (Van der Horst, 2009). More prudent however is
the ability they have to form school-club links. DCMS (2012) supports this
opportunity since 6,000 links are hoped to form by 2017. These interactions
are important as they promote and introduce the activities to their students,
reducing anxiety felt upon starting. The sessions will motivate and encourage
the students to learn new skills, make relationships with the coach and
hopefully join the club, resulting in lifelong activity (Bandura, 1989; DCMS,
2012).
Community sports clubs however often rely on the culture of volunteerism
(Atherley, 2006; Sport England, 2015a). This is increasingly apparent in the
face of contemporary economic challenges, for example, restricted funding
(Charlton, 2010; Shipway, 2007). The large workloads many employed
people face and the legal regulations required, prove volunteering to be time
consuming (Sport England, 2015b). Hence, investigating volunteering in local
clubs is necessary to determine whether this influences the number of
sessions than can run.
2.4.2.ii Transport
Little research has been conducted on the relationship between rural areas
and participation in physical activity. Atherley (2006) suggests that local

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sports clubs should be dissipated across rural localities, as long-inter
destination distances are witnessed, compared to urban areas. Thus, poor
access to transport options makes it harder to exercise in such areas (Sport
England, 2004).
Active transport includes walking and cycling. Consequently, areas need to
boast enough pavements and roads in good conditions. Rural communities
however are typically associated with long inter-destinations and low street
connectivity, placing a reliance on public or private transport (Deforche et al.,
2010). National and regional (including Essex) public spending cuts has
limited transport provisions (Smith, 2010). Therefore, private transport is the
main option for rural residents, where adolescents will be reliant on lifts from
adults (specifically parents) (Trost et al., 2003).
2.4.3 Interpersonal Barriers:
2.4.3.i Socioeconomic Status
Macintyre et al., (1993; cited in Jones and Duncan, 1995:223) states
“whatever one’s personal characteristics, the opportunity structures in the
poorer area are less conducive to health or health promoting activities than in
the better off areas”. Thus, suggesting that those in poorer areas within the
Tendring District should have fewer opportunities to physical activity than
those in wealthier places.
There are few studies however on the relationship specifically between an
individual’s socioeconomic status and the effect it has on their ability to afford
an active, healthy lifestyle (Brodersen et al., 2007; Packer et al., 2014).
Deprivation affects those suffering from a lower quality of life than the
majority in society, implying low SES individuals may not be able to afford
physical activity sessions (Townsend, 1979; Jones and Duncan, 1995).
Hence, identifying whether people can afford to participate in physical activity
and the area in which they live is necessary for policy makers and provision
providers to ensure the local population can be involved in the activities.

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2.4.3.ii Peers
Adolescents are at an age where they are gaining independence away from
their parent’s preferences (Sport England, 2004; Hohepa et al., 2006; Weller,
2003). They form social groups with foundations that do not lie solely on age,
gender or where they live. They are instead strongly associated with
assimilation, whereby adolescents seek a group that shares their own values
and interests. These peer groups may, for example, be classified as athletic,
social or academic (Harris, 1995). The interpersonal theory of development
establishes these new ties, as adolescents have a need for a feeling of
belongingness. They will therefore behave in ways that conforms them to
that social group (Daniels and Leaper, 2006). Consequently, people who
may have once enjoyed physical activity may participate less because they
relate more to other interests and people. It does not mean the group forbids
them from partaking in physical activity, it means the individual may feel
excluded from social experiences if they continue (Steinberg and Morris,
2001). As such, it is important to investigate how peer relationships amongst
adolescents can influence the participation in sport (Ding et al., 2011).
2.4.4 Intrapersonal Barriers:
2.4.4.i Self-efficacy
This lack of psychological confidence reinforces perceived barriers, such as
being judged (Hohepa et al., 2006). The lack of cognitive self-belief is
contributed to by environmental and interpersonal factors, and thus should
be considered alongside these when concluding the reasons as to why
people do not participate in exercise.
2.4.4.ii Gender relations in sport
There is a substantial amount of research that finds adolescent girls to be
less proactive than boys (Berger, 2008; Woodhouse, 2010). Sport England’s
Active People Survey (year 2013/2014) found 40.4% of men, whilst only

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21.2% of women (each aged 16-25) physically active three times per week
(Sport England, 2014c). This discrepancy indicates it necessary to discover
why young girls are less physically active than boys; perhaps by determining
their socio-cultural and physical environment.
Gender is a biological form developed through sex-typing, which refers to the
cultural understanding of the terms masculine and feminine (Maccoby, 2000;
Bussey and Bandura, 1999; Lipsitz Bem, 1981). Consequently, an array of
research has been conducted into gender and its place within society.
Victorian society believed sport to be medically unsafe for women, thus
creating a gender division that continued throughout the 20th century. Since
the 1980s, this gender division was questioned with an increasing number of
women playing sports, such as rugby and football (Vertinsky, 1994;
Hargreaves and Tiggemann, 2004; Engel, 1994). Today, it is not uncommon
to see women playing sport, but it is still not fully accepted within society. For
instance, two Sky Sports commentators made sexist remarks about a female
referee (Packer et al., 2014).
2.4.4.iii Media
Media plays a large role in gender differentiation in physical activity during
adolescence (Weed et al., 2009). In recent years media has expressed and
reported sexism in sport. For example, only 2% of sports coverage was on
women’s sports in 2008 (Packer et al., 2014). It is believed that if women’s
sport was publicised more then participation would increase since they would
see it as an excepted activity within society and, in particular, by men,
reducing the anxiety felt (Packer et al., 2014).
2.4.4.iv Body Image
Body image is a multifaceted psychological experience of embodiment
(Cash, 2004). Over the last century, more media attention has been directed
towards this, a lot of which focuses on the weight of young women. This has
expressed adolescent girls to the opinion that physical appearance is “the

16
most important component” of self-esteem (Levine and Smolak, 2002; cited
in Hargreaves and Tiggemann, 2004:77). Emma Watson (2014) said “at 15
my girlfriends started dropping out of their beloved sports teams because
they didn’t want to appear muscly”. This signifies that girls are conscious that
sport gives them the imperfect body.
Celebrities, who often act as role models for young girls, illustrate this
idealised ‘slender and toned physique’ in the media. Yet few girls see their
role models participating in exercise. The sweaty-look exercise encourages
does not meet this ideal (Daniels and Leaper, 2006; Hargreaves and
Tiggemann, 2004). Sport England introduced the ‘ThisGirlCan’ campaign to
tackle this feeling of inadequacy after identifying that:
“You never get campaigns like this. They don’t exist. Women are usually
spoken to through beauty or fashion, it’s very rare that they are spoken to as
human beings.” (Kim Gehrig, producer of the advertisement) (Parker, 2015)
This identifies that females feel uncomfortable participating in physical
activity. Considering it is beneficial to encourage people at a young age, this
study will help distinguish whether adolescents, in particular girls, feel self-
conscious when participating in physical activity and whether this is affected
by media representations.
2.4 Politics, the 2012 Olympic Games and PhysicalActivity
Declining participation in physical activity in the UK encouraged the formation
of many models theorising ways to reinvigorate participation. Many identified
that for an initial and continued participation in physical activity the
community needs to be involved (Sport England, 2004; Weed et al., 2009).
From the 1970s, local authorities began with the provision of community
sport facilities to widen participation (Sport England, 2004). This had little
success, and contemporary public sector cuts have limited the funding local
authorities can provide for leisure facilities (Sorensen and Sagaris, 2010).

17
Sport England (2004:123) postulated “grassroots participation remains a
core concern for Government, particularly in terms of failure of provision”.
The 2012 London Olympic Games bid aimed to address this with the added
achievement of a legacy “to inspire a generation” (Pappous, 2012). The
youth were the focus, recognising the importance of changing attitudes
towards physical activity.
No previous Olympic Games had focused on increasing physical activity
levels before, especially in the younger population (Weed et al., 2009 and
2012). Governmental and NGBs quickly identified that for success, initiatives
should target grassroots level clubs (Woodhouse and Cannings, 2013;
Spaaiji, 2009).
2.4.1 Active Essex:
Active Essex is a County Sport Partnership, with aims to work with local
authorities to “inspire a new generation”. They have six initiatives and
funding available to community clubs across Essex to enhance their ability to
offer physical activity opportunities to their communities. In particular they
focus on 11-25 year olds, identifying their commitment to young people.
Therefore some of their schemes are considered within Chapter 4 to identify
the effect the 2012 Olympic Games has had on participation in the Tendring
District (Active Essex, 2014a).
Overall, there are many reasons to consider physical activity and sport in
geography since they have prominent impacts on a range of geography sub
disciplines (health, economic, social and cultural). Although a large amount
of research has been conducted into the psychological barriers to physical
activity, little has concerned the social-cultural and environmental barriers.
Considering the ambition of the 2012 Olympic Games, investigation into
barriers influencing adolescents leading a sustainable active lifestyle is
crucial for their own and the future economy’s health, so policies can be
implemented that support adolescent’s involvement in exercise.

18
Chapter 3: Methodology
3.1 PhilosophicalApproaches:
Inductive research was utilised to evaluate the implementation of the 2012
legacy in Tendring, since little research has covered this. Therefore
theoretical propositions could be generated from identifying regularities in a
dataset. Generally, a deductive approach was adopted, as previous research
had been conducted on possible barriers to physical activity, so theories
could be investigated (Kitchin and Tate, 2000).
Positivist and humanistic approaches were adopted in this study. Positivism
follows the empirical naturalist approach, additionally aiming to verify and
falsify the data. Humanism believes empirical evidence to be flawed and that
subjective thoughts and values of people offer a better understanding of the
social world (Kitchin and Tate, 2000; Johnston, 1986).
3.2 Backgroundto Data Collection:
With the combination of the positivist and humanistic approaches, data
collection orientated around triangulation. Here, quantitative and qualitative
data was mutually corroborated to enhance each dataset. This meant that a
hypothesis-testing approach, via quantitative data deduced statistical
tendencies, whilst qualitative research was undertaken to support or offer
contradictions to the quantitative dataset. A major issue of combining
research techniques is finding unrelated information (Bryman, 2008). As
such the interview and focus group questions were structured on the format
of the initial questionnaire, whilst the second questionnaire was based on the
questions in the qualitative techniques. An amalgamation of primary and
secondary data was collected via quantitative and qualitative techniques to
answer the aim and objectives of this study (Table 3.1).

19
Table 3. 1 – Data Methods and Sources Used in this Research
3.3 Data Collection Methods
3.3.1 Pilot Study:
Previous to any data collection, a pilot study was conducted (Bryman, 2008).
One consisting of 14-18 year olds of both genders was preferred, but due to
a lack of access to the age group it was not possible. Instead, four 17-year-
old boys provided feedback on the questionnaire, reporting no issues. In
actuality, this questionnaire did house problems.
Primary Secondary
Quantitative  Questionnaire  Sport England’s Active People
Survey
 Local government documents
relating to Tendring District’s
demographic
Qualitative  Focus groups
 Interviews
 Participant
observation
 Local government documents
relating to Tendring District’s
opportunities to participate in
physical activity
 Regional Government documents
via Active Essex
 National Government documents
relating to initiatives adopted to
encourage participation in physical
activity. From Sport England, DCMS,
DH.

20
3.3.2 Questionnaires:
Barbour (2008) recommended that questionnaires should be distributed to
the students, prior to the focus groups, as the range of answers might
indicate topics to be considered in greater depth in qualitative techniques.
This method of data collection did not work however, as the qualitative
techniques provided information not originally covered in the first
questionnaire. Thus, avenues of research were missed that were thought to
improve the study. Consequently, a second questionnaire with changes to
the content and style of the questions was designed. Moreover, participants
alerted the researcher to a lack of understanding to some of the questions.
For example, pupils gave their parent’s name, not their occupation (Q.4
Appendix 2). This particular question was tackled in the second survey by
using ‘job’ instead of ‘occupation’ (Q.4 Appendix 3).
A major change was the use of the Likert Scale, as it requires a mark
contiguous with the respondent’s opinion on each statement. Responses
such as ‘YOLO’ (You Only Live Once) were no longer appropriate for any
answer, unlike questions 9, 13 and 20 in Appendix 2. Additionally, the data
came in a more empirical rather than subjective form, prompting easier
coding and statistical analysis (Bryman, 2008).
Furthermore, Burns (2000) posited the idea that answers lacking seriousness
may result from the lack of motivation the respondents had towards
answering the questions honestly. Therefore, an introduction to the study
and the reason for it was provided (Appendix 2 and 3).

21
3.3.2.i Sample Size
It was not possible to find out the number of adolescents aged 14-18 living in
the Tendring District. Consequently, the school’s population of those in years
10, 11, 12 and 13 were used. This figure was enumerated by:
Rees (2000) states that a sample size can be generated by considering
those used in similar investigations. Here, Sallis et al., (2000) states previous
investigations into adolescent’s barriers to physical activity used sample
sizes between 51 and 7,302. Rice (2010) considers the reduction of bias
necessary for a good sample size. Here, TTC ensured each tutor group had
a relatively equal number of each gender and SES. This was believed to
have been achieved since only five fewer females did not respond. Ideally,
students would have been chosen by stratified sampling to ensure different
SES were included. TTC was unwilling to provide this information however,
due to their duty of care to their students. The study thus relied on the
subjective classification given in response to the parent’s occupation.
(1,942−373)
5
= 313.8
314 ∗ 2 = 628
628 + 373
= 1,001
Formula:
1,942 refers to the number of students on roll at TTC (Year groups 7-13)
373 refers to the number of students in sixth form (Year groups 12 and 13)
5 refers to the year groups 7-11
314 refers to the rounded up value of 313.8
Page 5 refers to TTC’s profile (Ofstead, 2011)
Figure 3. 1 - The formula on how the number of students in years 10, 11, 12
and 13 at TTC was calculated

22
Considering 10% of students equated to 101 (higher than some previous
investigations) this was selected as a minimum. TTC was happy to distribute
200 questionnaires (50 to two tutor groups in each year group), since
assurance could not be guaranteed for full participation. This was beneficial
since only 113 of the second questionnaire were answered (40 less than the
first). This difference was noted because fewer year 12 and 13 respondents
answered, as their timetable was not compatible. Hence, the first can be
deemed to have had less sampling error since the sample size was larger. In
hindsight, a larger sample may have proved more precise, but the second
questionnaire was more appropriate to the study and its objectives (Bryman,
2008; Rice, 2010).
3.3.3 Interviews:
Opinions were gathered by people who work within sport and with
adolescents of a range of SES to discuss opportunities in the area, and the
influence of the 2012 Olympic Games on these. This allowed reasoning to be
given to the quantitative data.
Each interview was recorded, allowing in depth discussions, as making notes
were not a priority. These were beneficial to the study since information
presented in previous literature was discussed, as well as new avenues of
research considered (Bryman, 2008). All involved gave permission to use
their name within the study, yet their initials are used indicate their
contributions (Table 3.2).
A stratified random sampling technique was used to sample local sports
clubs (Kitchin and Tate, 2000). TDC’s website listed clubs in the area. The
final clubs were randomly chosen dependent on their location, since deprived
and affluent and rural and urban areas were necessary (Appendix 1 and
Figure 1.1). Harwich Hockey Club was selected in particular because of their
successful satellite club (Active Essex, 2014b).

23
After a month of persistent contact with TDC’s sports development manager,
Michael Carran, Operation Manager of TDC responsible for overseeing
leisure facilities and events, responded. Jarrod Bradfield, aged 17 was
known to the author in a professional capacity. He had previously stopped
competing internationally in swimming, so was asked if he would discuss the
reasons why. Robert Rouse, Sports Coordinator and PE teacher at TTC,
liaises with local schools and clubs to engage more physical activity within
the area.
Participant Henceforth referred to as
Chris Rowland and Sophie Southgate –
Harwich and Dovercourt Hockey Club:
(C.R.: and S.S.:)
Chris Armstrong – Frinton Cricket Club: (C.A.:)
Mick Collins – Frinton and Walton Youth
Football Club:
(Mick.:)
Collin Garrod - Clacton United Rugby Club: (C.G.:)
Michael Carran (M.C.:)
Jarrod Bradfield (J.B.:)
Robert Rouse (R.R.:)
Male Students (Focus Groups) Boy,Y followed by
(10,11,12,13) to represent the
corresponding year
Female Students (Focus Groups) Girl,Y followed by
(10,11,12,13) to represent the
corresponding year
Table 3. 2 – Those interviewed and how they are referred to in Chapter 4

24
3.3.4 Focus Groups:
It was hoped that eight focus groups consisting of eight students of one
gender in each year would form, an ideal number according to Barbour
(2008). Separating the genders was thought necessary, incase students felt
uncomfortable talking in front of those of the opposite sex. This format was
impractical for the school, as their tutor time or P.S.H.E. lessons clashed and
the school was not prepared to take them out of any other lessons. This
shows the difficulty of working within an institution when collecting data.
Therefore the format of four girls and four boys from each year group for an
hour was agreed. Despite initial reservations, these groups worked well and
vast insights were provided through the group discussion, which provided
material that had not been considered, creating added depth to the
investigation (Stewart et al., 2007).
3.3.5 Participant Observation:
Participant observation aimed to identify the opportunities in Jaywick, whilst
speaking to adolescents to discover what prevents them participating in
physical activity. The researcher-participant stance was undertaken upon
visiting the youth club (Inclusion Ventures) in Brooklands Estate. Alongside
this, an unstructured observation technique enabled the researcher to take
part in the session. This was a better method of collecting data, since it
would help the respondents feel comfortable when talking to the researcher
(Appendix 4) (Bryman, 1998 and 2008; Gerson and Horowitz, 2002).
3.4 Methodsof Data Analysis
These methods were used to analyse the quantitative data collected from the
second questionnaire. Before starting, the occupations provided were
classified into a SES, using the 3-tiered ONS classification (ONS, 2014a,b).
Here, each band was subjectively interpreted into managerial, skilled or non-
skilled manual by the researcher for consistency (Table 3.3).

25
Socioeconomic Class
Grouped codes in SPSS:
Low Socioeconomic Class:
Unemployed and low-skilled
0, 0.5, 1, 1.5
Middle Socioeconomic Class:
Skilled manual employment
2, 2.5, 3
High Socioeconomic Class:
Professional and managerial
occupations
3.5, 4
According to Bryman (1998), coding can be conducted in qualitative analysis.
Here, information was gathered to act as evidence supporting or disputing
claims made by observations from the quantitative data. An array of subjects
were presented throughout the data collection process (Appendix 5 and 6
demonstrates a coded transcript and the coding frame). This made it easier
to conceptualise and analyse, facilitating the answering of each objective
(Walliman, 2001).
3.4.1 Statistical Analysis Techniques:
Once the information was inputted into SPSS, each variable’s skewness was
calculated to ensure normal distribution was not assumed, otherwise
inaccurate results would manifest (Burns, 2000; Hinton, 2004). Those with a
Table 3.3: The classification of each socioeconomic study relevant to this
study

26
normal distribution were analysed using a parametric test, whilst those with a
skewness of less than +1 or more than -1 used a non-parametric test (Burns,
2000).
Generally the level at which a result was considered significant and the null
hypothesis rejected was at the p=0.1, p=0.05, p=0.01 level (90%, 95% or
99% certainty the result did not occur by chance). The 90% level is not
usually considered accurate enough, but since the sample size was quite
small this was accepted as significant in this study (Kitchin and Tate, 2000;
Hinton, 2004). Chapter 4 will not present a hypothesis for each statistical
comparison. Instead, the following statistical tests provide the comparison
they are measuring between each factor being tested.
3.4.1.i Test of association
The Chi-Square test is a non-parametric statistical test that tells the
Goodness of Fit between two categorical data sets (Burns, 2000). Data
analysed via this method is concerned with whether an association is
recognised between two variables.
The test cannot be performed on data that has more than 20% of its cells
with less than 5 categories (Bryman, 2008). This was an issue when trying to
discover the association between the area adolescents live with the amount
of physical activity performed. The students were shown to live in a wide
range of areas within Tendring, but not enough areas claimed five or more
people. A larger sample may have reduced this issue.
3.4.1.ii Tests of Similarities or differences
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Student’s T test are both parametric
tests, whilst the Kruskall-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U test are the respective
non-parametric tests. Each aim to discover the mean differences or
similarities of a dataset. The main difference between the ANOVA and
Kruskall-Wallis and the Student’s T and Mann-Whitney U test is that, the
former two can compare two or more conditions (Kitchin and Tate, 2000;

27
Hinton, 2004; Burns, 2000). For example, the comparison of each ward (as
there were more than two) with another variable. For the latter two tests, only
variables with a maximum of two categories (gender) could be compared
with the Likert Scale.
Furthermore, ANOVA allows Tukey’s Post Hoc test to narrow the results
down to identify the variable causing the significance (Kitchin and Tate,
2000).
3.4.1.iii Descriptive Statistics
These were typically used to portray the number of adolescents who
participate in the recommended amount of physical activity against the
different barriers (Holiday, 2002).
3.5 Ethical Considerations
Each researcher participant was asked if they would be happy to undertake
the investigation once an outline of the study was provided to them, via email
or over the phone (Kitchin and Tate, 2000; Matthews et al., 1998).
In relation to the interviews, respondents were given control over the place
and time convenient to them. These ranged from their homes, workplace or
club. The focus groups however, were located in a room, the school thought
appropriate (Kitchin and Tate, 2000; Matthews et al., 1998).
Before starting the discussions the researcher informed the participants of
the nature of the investigation and encouraged any questions. Additionally,
permission to record the session was given, after assuring confidentiality
(Appendix 7) (Bryman, 2008; Walliman, 2001).
For the focus groups in particular, ethical considerations were of great
importance since the students were in the care of the school. First, the
students were presented with the choice of participating in the study, once

28
the investigation was explained and they were assured anonymity (Matthews
et al., 1998).
Once the data was collected from each participant, the interviewee(s) were
thanked and offered the chance to read the finished result if they wished to
(Matthews et al., 1998).

29
Chapter 4: Analysis and Discussion
4.1 Introduction
As said in Chapter 3, the quantitative and qualitative data analysis is
combined to provide an empirical result, including opinions to help provide
reasons and explanations to the numerical data.
The Socio-Ecological Model emphasises the interactions environmental,
interpersonal and intrapersonal factors share. In this chapter the
environmental and socio-cultural factors will be investigated in a greater
depth than the psychological factors. Nevertheless, self-efficacy is
considered to an extent, as it adds to the understanding of the research.
The recommended amount of physical activity (30 minutes three times a
week) is referred to in this chapter as ‘Rec30mins’, ‘exercise’ or ‘physical
activity’.
4.2 Physicalactivity againstGender
This investigation aims to discover whether the gender of an individual
affects the amount of physical activity they perform. Here, no association
was found between these factors in the Chi-Square test, as 0.310 was
revealed. Therefore, gender does not have an effect on adolescents
participating in physical activity. Further inspection however illustrates that
fewer girls responded ‘Yes’ to participating in physical activity than boys
(Figure 4.1). This hints that a larger sample may produce a significant result
proving Berger (2008), Woodhouse (2010) and Hopeha et al’s., (2006) claim
that girls are less physically active than boys.
As will be seen below, gender is measured against environmental and socio-
cultural factors, where significant levels were found, establishing that gender
does have an indirect influence on physical activity levels.

30
4.3 Physicalactivity againstSocioeconomicStatus (SES)
This study aimed to discover the affect ‘SES’ has on ‘Rec30mins’. An
insignificant 0.960 result was obtained, whilst performing the Chi-Square test
to the 0.1 confidence level. This disagreed with Atherley’s (2006) belief that
class excludes individuals partaking in exercise. Further consideration is
given to SES in this chapter since it is believed by academics that it can
influence socio-cultural and environmental barriers.
4.4 EnvironmentalBarriers to PhysicalActivity
Physical activity can be performed in the local environment (Pate et al.,
1994). Hence the opportunities (local clubs, council owned facilities, schools
Figure 4. 1 - Cross Tabulation: Recommended Physical Activity and Gender

31
and transport options) different wards in the Tendring District presented were
considered.
Chi-Square analysis of ‘Area’ and ‘Rec30mins’ could not be performed
(stated in Chapter 3). Instead, secondary data (Figure 4.2), focus groups and
interview information illustrated the opportunities each ward of Tendring
offered to adolescents.
Figure 4.2 – Tendring District OS Base Map with local sports clubs, secondary
schools, local council leisure facilities and playing fields illustrated. Source:
(EDINA Digimap Ordnance SurveyService, 2014; EDINAUK Data Sevice, 2012;
TDC, 2015a,b; Essex County Council, 2015)
¯
0 1.5 30.75 Miles
Tendring District: Physical Activity Opportunities

32
4.4.1 Quality of Exercise Provisions:
Little academic research targeted the need for good quality exercise
provisions to enhance participation rates. Active Essex first highlighted the
issue with its Inspired Facilities programme (Active Essex, 2014c).
Interviewees further clarified this as a barrier to participation:
M.C: “I think it is probably more advantageous to actually improve the
facilities you’ve got, People want to go somewhere that’s the same level as a
private gym or club”.
Girl, Y11: “Yeah, a lot of them are really run down and just don’t make you
want to go there”.
So far, Inspired Facilities has helped four clubs within the Tendring District
(Table 4.7) (Active Essex, 2014c). Additionally, Tendring District Council’s
Dovercourt Bay Lifestyle Centre has seen a £900,000 renovation, which
resulted in a 400% rise in inductions since reopening (TDC, 2015c). This,
with the quotes above, shows that good quality physical activity
establishments result in higher participation figures than poorer facilities.
4.4.2 Location of sports clubs and council owned facilities:
Kruskall Waliis analysis of ‘Area’ (difference between wards) against
‘local_sports clubs’ (‘there are enough local sports clubs for me to use in my
local area’) offered a statistically significant difference of p=0.1. Additionally
‘Area’ to ‘Council_ owned’ (‘there are enough council owned facilities for me
to use in my area’) presented a significant difference of p=0.05. These
findings illustrate that wards in the Tendring District offer a differing number
of physical activity facilities affecting adolescent exercise levels. Figure 4.2
supports this claim, with clusters of facilities located in the urban areas of
Harwich, Frinton-on-Sea and Clacton-on-Sea. In particular, the focus groups

33
specifically mentioned Jaywick, Walton, Kirby-le-Soken and Tendring as
having few facilities:
Boy, Y10.: “There is nothing in Jaywick”
Boy, Y10.: “I’d say the same. There is nothing in Tendring”
Overall, individuals living in an urban ward within a predominantly rural
district, for instance, Clacton-on-Sea in Tendring, have greater opportunities
to access community sports clubs and council owned facilities, than those in
sparsely populated villages, supporting (Deforche et al., (2010) and Atherley
(2006).
4.4.3 SES of an area or individual and the effect this has on the access
to exercise facilities:
Appendix 1 and Figure 4.1 demonstrates Jaywick and Walton as two of the
more deprived wards in Tendring, whilst possessing fewer facilities than
other wards. Thus supporting Macintyre et al.’s (1993 cited in Jones and
Duncan, 1995) and Romero’s (2005) view that poorer areas have fewer
physical activity opportunities than wealthier wards.
Furthermore, low SES individuals are believed to not be able to afford
physical activity sessions (Jones and Duncan, 1995). As mentioned, no
association was found between ‘Rec30mins and ‘SES’. Each sports club
however, recognised cost as a potential barrier to participation in activities
and reported that allowances were made to those struggling to pay. The
Hockey and Rugby Clubs in particular were more understanding after noting
that they are located in relatively deprived areas.
C.R.: Cost is the biggest thing around here. In this area, people just can’t
afford it. … There are just very few facilities in this area and what there is, it

34
is important it is cheap, we lend them equipment, we never expect them to
buy their own”.
C.G.: we are in a socially deprived area. We bear that in mind, we do get
instances where the kids can’t pay the £2 match fees. We don’t ban them
from playing, we accept that it is difficult. So yeah we try to be as inclusive as
possible”.
ANOVA
Cannot_Afford
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 6.412 2 3.206 2.499 .087
Within Groups 136.010 106 1.283
Total 142.422 108
Multiple Comparisons Tukey’s Post Hoc Test
Dependent Variable: Cannot_Afford
Tukey HSD
(I) SES (J) SES
Mean
Difference (I-
J)
Std.
Error Sig.
95% Confidence Interval
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Low Middle -.179 .260 .769 -.80 .44
High -.648 .300 .083 -1.36 .07
Middle Low .179 .260 .769 -.44 .80
High -.469 .269 .194 -1.11 .17
High Low .648 .300 .083 -.07 1.36
Middle .469 .269 .194 -.17 1.11
Table 4.1 - ANOVA: ‘SES’ is Socioeconomic status of the questionnaire
respondents and ‘Cannot_Afford’ is 'I cannot afford to take part in physical
activities'
Table 4.2 – ANOVA Tukey’s Post Hoc Test:‘SES’ is ‘Socioeconomic status of
the questionnaire respondents’ and ‘Cannot_Afford’ is 'I cannot afford to take
part in physical activities'

35
Furthermore, an ANOVA test between ‘SES and ‘Cannot_Afford revealed a
significant value of p=0.1 (Table 4.1), whilst Tukey’s Post Hoc Test
performed on the two variables discovered a significant (p=0.1) difference
between those in the lower and higher classes (Table 4.2). This disagrees
with Atherley (2006). Instead, the analysis supports Jones and Duncan
(1995) as the affluent population is expected to afford the activity.
Therefore, the SES of an adolescent and the wealth of different areas are
proven to have a large effect on the number of facilities available to the
population to conduct exercise. In addition, the rurality of the Tendring
District is identified to offer fewer opportunities for adolescents to participate
in physical activity.
4.4.4 Gender of adolescents and their participation in the local
environment and physical activity establishments:
Physical activity can relate to any form of exercise performed in the local
environment to access a location (active transport) (Deforche et al., 2010).
Considering this, the Student’s T test, ‘Rec30mins’ against ‘PA_places’
identified the significant value p=0.01, concluding a similarity between
physically active adolescents who only do it to access desired locations
(Table 4.3). All the focus group respondents supported this, as they
themselves all performed active transport.
Girl, Y13 “I don’t enjoy walking, but it is a way to get around and see
friends”.
One-Sample Student’s T Test
Test Value = 0
t df Sig. (2-tailed)
Mean
Difference
95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
Rec30mins 30.587 112 .000 1.248 1.17 1.33
PA_places 26.504 110 .000 3.270 3.03 3.51
Table 4.3 – Student’s T Test:‘Rec30mins’ is ‘Recommended physical activity’
and ‘PA_Places’ is 'I do physical activity to get me to places’

36
Moreover, from looking at the physical activity performed by the focus group
students (collected at the start of the discussion), it was possible to
determine that the majority of the boys performed active transport, whilst
participating in informal and organised sports, in community clubs, leisure
centres and playing fields. The girls however, typically, conducted active
transport alone, demonstrating that female adolescents are unlikely to
perform physical activity in the sporting context.
Although ‘local_sports clubs’ relates to awareness and not actual
attendance, it can be speculated that those with an awareness will more
likely attend the club. Therefore this speculation against ‘Gender’ (‘the two
gender types, girls and boys’) concludes a Mann-Whitney U difference of
0.040 (p=0.05), supporting the previous statement that girls attend fewer
local sports clubs than boys. Only Harwich and Dovercourt Hockey Club
contradicts this, by reporting a strong female membership, ‘50-50 split’ (C.R),
distinguishing that boys attend sports clubs more than girls in the Tendring
District.
4.4.5 Provision of pavements:
Pavements cater for active transport or organised physical activity.
‘Rec30mins’ to ‘Pavements’ (‘there are enough pavement in a good quality
allowing me to walk or run to places’) in the Mann-Whitney U test, found a
significant similarity (p=0.05), demonstrating that the provision of such
facilities is critical for physical activity in the local environment. The focus
groups voiced concern over the quantity and quality of pavements in the area
to perform physical activity.
Girl,Y12.: “If you wanted to run or walk from Frinton to Clacton you would
have to do it on the road as there are no pavements”.

37
Hence, concern was placed on the lack of pedestrian facilities in the
Tendring District enabling physical activity. This was especially prominent in
explaining the similarity witnessed between ‘Area’ and ‘Pavements’ (p=0.01).
Boy, Y 11.: “quieter places, where there aren’t as many businesses or
houses there are fewer pavements, which also have more potholes”,
Thus, it can again be agreed that adolescents living in quieter and more rural
areas will have less access to pavements than those in more built up places.
Subsequently, it can be judged that access to public or private transport
provisions is necessary to access a range of physical activity institutions.
4.4.6 Access to public and private transport:
The Mann Whitney U test claims a statistically significant score of p=0.1,
indicating a similarity existing between ‘Rec30mins’ and ‘Public transport’
(Table 4.4). Year 13 focus groups fortifies this,
“S.W (researcher).: do any of you use the public transport to get to places?
[All laugh whilst saying no, its awful, its so bad].

38
“S.W.: Does that factor stop you from doing physical activity?
Girl,Y13.: Yeah [other people nod)”.
This establishes that a lack of public transport limits the adolescent
population in the Tendring District to access physical activity facilities, thus
restricting their ability to participate.
Alongside this discussion, the focus groups stated the need for a car (private
transport) to access facilities,
Boy,Y13.: “I’d say there are fair amount dotted about, but if you don’t have a
car you won’t be able to get there”.
No significant difference however was noted by the Mann-Whitney U Test
with a result of 0.512 being found between ‘Rec30mins’ and ‘Car_needed’
(Table 4.4). An explanation for this could relate to the use of the term
‘physical activity’ and its definition that it includes formal and organised
activities as well as everyday jaunts, like walking to school. Hence, access to
a car is not needed, as the exercise is done as a transportation technique.
Interestingly, the adolescents within the focus group reported that they would
stop walking or cycling as much upon obtaining a driving license and car:
S.W.: Do you think any active transport you do now, like walking or cycling will stop
and you will drive instead?
Girl,Y13.: Yeah, probably.
Boy,Y13.: Yeah, I think so.
Boy,Y13.: Definitely.
Thus, a component of their physical activity quota will be replaced by
sedentary transport. Further investigation may therefore wish to study
whether being able to drive encourages more use of structural facilities, such
as community clubs or leisure centres, since the individuals will have the
ability to access the provisions themselves.

39
4.5 Socio-cultural Barriers to PerformingPhysical Activity
4.5.1 Schoolwork:
Schoolwork, not a factor discussed within previous research, was highlighted
by each focus group highlighted as an issue. Consequently it was placed into
the second questionnaire to seek statistical recognition of its impact on
participation.
Boy,Y11 “Lower school probably would because they don’t have as many
homework commitments and deadlines. I think our age group would rather
go play football with a group of mates for an hour because they know they
will enjoy it, they know they will have fun and can stop when they want. They
can then go and do all of their work and other stuff”.
Girl,Y13 “I think studying and A levels, they take up a lot of time”.
The Student’s T test on ‘Schoolwork’ to ‘Rec30mins’ achieved a similarity of
p=0.01 (Table 4.5). Thus, the time adolescents spend on schoolwork is
concluded to be an important limitation to their quota of participation in
exercise.
Considering this, future investigation into the effect schoolwork has on
physical activity of adolescents, but also different age groups, from primary
to university level will benefit the research pool. This is because it will identify
age groups where further techniques need to be implemented to encourage
physical activity to be habitual, and not a factor that can be substituted when
time is scarce. As a result, a young population will adopt lifelong activity,
beneficial to their own and the economy’s health (Patrick et al., 2004).

40
One-Sample Student’s T Test
Test Value = 0
Mean
Difference
Difference
Lower Upper
Rec30mins 30.587 112 .000 1.248 1.17 1.33
Schoolwork 24.603 112 .000 2.982 2.74 3.22
4.5.2 Peers:
Peer pressure encourages certain behaviours to be adopted (Daniels and
Leaper, 2006). A statistically significant similarity (p=0.01) between both
‘Rec30mins’ and ‘Friends_doPA’ and ‘Rec30mins’ to ‘meetfriends’ was found
when doing the Student’s T test (Table 4.6). Thus, peers are proven to have
a large influence on an adolescent’s participation in physical activity.
One-Sample Test
Test Value = 0
Mean
Difference
Difference
Lower Upper
Rec30mins 30.587 112 .000 1.248 1.17 1.33
Meet_friends 24.683 112 .000 2.558 2.35 2.76
Friends_doPA 22.584 112 .000 1.478 1.35 1.61
Table 4. 6 – Student’s T Test:‘Rec30mins’ is ‘Recommended physical activity’
‘Friends_doPA’ is ‘My friends do physical activity’ and ‘meetfriends’ is ‘I meet
up with friends to do physical activity’
‘Gender’ to ‘meetfriends’ presented a confident difference, more than 99%
(p=0.001). The focus groups supported this since all the boys voiced their
Table 4. 5 – Student’s T Test:‘Rec30mins’ is ‘Recommended Physical
Activity done’ and ‘Schoolwork’ is ‘I do not take part in physical activity
because I have too much schoolwork to do’

41
willingness to conduct recreation with friends, whilst the girls disagreed
completely.
S.W.: “Would you ever go down to the local playing field and kick a football
about or run around there with friends?” {all boys say yes, whilst all the
girls say no} (Y13).
Steinberg and Sheffield (2001) believe that peers can be coercive and
unpleasant through judgment and bullying. Girls in this study were found to
be subjected to this more than boys if they participated in physical activity.
S.S.: “There is a lot of peer pressure, I mean you can see them getting
embarrassed if they are good at it. It is sometimes seen as very uncool to be
good at sport.”
C.R.: “There was one girl, who played because her mum did, but she started
to go off wanting to play because she was being bullied for playing”.
Therefore, girls have been specifically noted to be subjected to more
unpleasant instances for participating in physical activity compared to boys,
preventing their involvement.
Daniels and Leaper (2006) on the other hand, suggest that friendships form
on mutual interests. This study supports this theory since a significant
similarity was found amongst adolescents of both genders and friends
performing physical activity. Thus, further study focusing on the effect peer’s
actions and opinions can have on an individual’s lifetime participation will be
interesting as it will determine whether peer’s act as a barrier to exercise no
matter an individual’s age, or whether is it prominent in adolescence when
friendships start to form from shared interests (Hohepa et al., 2006; Weller,
2003).

42
4.5.3 Self-efficacy:
Self-efficacy relates to an individual’s confidence in their own ability. A
similarity confident to p=0.01 was witnessed between ‘Rec30mins’ and an
individual’s ‘confidence’ (‘I am confident in my sporting ability’) meaning that
the level of physical activity performed is reliant on an individual’s level of
self-confidence. R.R.: listed the five main reasons he thinks adolescents do
not participate in physical activity:
R.R.: “I think some of the biggest things include, being labeled as not good
enough in the past and they therefore feel they aren’t good enough to play.
For example they have tried to get into a team but can’t and I have seen that
at primary school as well. Er (…) can’t pick up the skills, in terms of their
aptitude, they just can’t retain the information and can’t put it into practice.
They have a fear of failure. I think we can all vouch for that, none of us like
failing in front of people, but this can affect some more from others. Some
people don’t like competitiveness and some are self-conscious. I think they
are probably the top 5 for me and the rest in my department”.
Four of these relate to confidence, supporting the belief that feeling judged or
lacking confidence will result in low activity levels (Hohepa et al., 2006;
Deforche et al., 2010). Thus, psychological barriers can be thought to have a
significant impact on an adolescent participating in physical activity.
Furthermore, Mann-Whitney U presented a p=0.01 between ‘confidence’ and
‘Gender’, indicating the difference between girls and boys feeling confident in
their own sporting abilities.
School-club links support this as individuals will likely gain more confidence
in their ability, whilst forming social relationships (DCMS, 2012).
C.R.: “it started off with more boys, but the girls have started to pick it up. But
Sophie does pester”

43
This indicates that, with the encouragement and support of a coach or PE
teacher, the self-efficacy of girl’s in particular, will improve the participation
rates.
The Hockey club’s link with Harwich and Dovercourt High School however,
enabled adolescents (particularly girls) to participate in more exercise than
previous levels. Hence, the introduction of sports clubs by a trusted member,
like a PE teacher, will most likely increase participation rates.
4.5.4 Media:
The gender stereotypes, masculine and feminine have historically played
vital roles in the identity of many individuals in society and sport (Vertinsky,
1994). Media is believed to influence a participant’s levels of physical activity,
especially in adolescence, through the provision of role models (Packer et
al., 2014). These can either promote or discourage exercise (Weed et al.,
2009). Typically, male celebrities or role models are athletic or idealised on
their muscular physique. Thus, adolescent boys are persuaded to perform
exercise to meet this ideal (Hargreaves and Tiggemann, 2004). Female
celebrities, some of who are sportswomen, are not commonly associated
with sport or exercise but possess the slender and toned physique (Koivula,
1999). The following quotes support these points:
S.W.: Do you ever see females celebrities doing physical activity or post
workout pictures?
Girl, Y12.: Only on instagram, but they are posed, so its not really real.
Girl, Y12.: I saw one once, but the headline was about how awful she
looked.
S.W.: interesting. Do you think stories like that then can have an affect on
girls taking part because they think society is judging how good they look
instead of supporting their commitment to an active lifestyle?
[all girls say yes straight away, 2 boys nod]”.

44
Sportswomen, like Jessica Ennis are noted as the unrealistic ideal. Sport
England’s 2015 ‘ThisGirlCan’ campaign however uses real women, of
different shapes and sizes participating in physical activity, whilst mascara
runs down their face and they appear sweaty to demonstrate that it does not
matter what they look like whilst exercising (Parker, 2015). As (Walsh, 2015)
says “Nothing should ever be about how to simply achieve narrow beauty
standard. But finally, it seems like more people in positions of influence are
realising this”.
The female students of this study confirmed this unattainable ideal to be an
issue for them with a Mann-Whitney U test formulating a p=0.01 difference
between ‘Gender’ and ‘like seeing’ (‘I don’t like people seeing me exercise’),
supporting the self-consciousness adolescent girls can feel in trying to meet
the ‘perfect’ image through physical activity. (Hargreaves and Tiggemann,
2004). A few girls (Y12) reported that “looking sweaty and horrible” prevents
participation in sport. In the participant observation specifically, one girl
noted, whilst others agreed, “we won’t get a boyfriend if our hair and make-
up does not look nice” indicates that girls are pressurised by society to look a
certain way, which is not met by the immediate outcomes of exercise, for
example, sweat. Furthermore, boys are socialised to expect the ‘beautified’
look, so will not be attracted to those who do not meet this.
Although efforts like ‘ThisGirlCan’ are being introduced by Sport England, the
media, (leading the parade for the ‘ideal’ body) should instead be concerned
with leading the conversation on women’s exercise. Claire Balding’s
message should be projected:
“This ad is trying to reach out to women who have felt for whatever reason
that exercise or sport is not for them, that it’s an exclusive club they can’t
join. And I think the most powerful way of doing that is to show women who
look like you doing it and don’t be afraid if you wobble. It doesn’t matter. We
all wobble” (Parker, 2015).

45
Thus, it portrays exercise as a domain women should be welcome to join.
Due to the nature of sport and exercise previously being a masculine
domain, few women have been involved (Hargreaves and Tiggemann,
2004). Over recent years however, the boundaries of sports have changed
for women, with an increasing number being seen playing sports:
Girl, Y11 “a lot of sports, like rugby, football and cricket are becoming more
popular with women. Like they have really successful English teams, so I
think the stereotype of sports is changing”.
Here, results demonstrate that 73% of the 55 girls questioned disagreed or
strongly disagreed with the statement ‘doing physical activity makes me look
less feminine”. This, alongside the focus group responses, indicate that
physical activity is no longer thought to make girls look less feminine, and as
such should no longer be a determining factor in their involvement in physical
activity.
“S.W.: Do you think doing sport makes you less feminine?
Girl, Y10.: Not really. I think again, it is changing. I think women are
encouraged and are increasingly expected to do exercise”.
Furthermore, the 2012 Olympic Games promoted women playing sport in the
media to a great extent, enhancing the status of female physical activities.
R.R.: “I think they do the best to portray women’s sport in a better light,
especially since the Olympics… there are more channels showing women’s
sport and women’s sport is gaining a higher status than it has in the past.
Therefore, an increasing number of sportswomen are recognised within the
media, but progress is still needed in encouraging further publicity. More
important is the need for the media to advertise campaigns like ‘ThisGirlCan’
that encourage real women to see physical activity as an activity they can
perform. Consequently, a society that supports both gender types in exercise

46
should result, due to anxiety (psychological barrier) being reduced, building a
healthier and active female population.
4.6 Olympic Games Influence on the Tendring District
As previously concluded, the 2012 Olympic Games has had a positive
influence on the status of women’s sport within society. Generally however,
M.C.: does not believe the Games has had a lasting effect on participation
levels nationally or within the Tendring District:
M.C.: “In the long term I don’t think it has…. I think it has certainly increased
participation for up to 6 months afterwards…. I think that there were and still
are so many initiatives as result of 2012, like free swimming. But umm (…) I
heard somebody say that the free swimming scheme for example was the
‘economics of a drug dealer’…. I mean you give somebody something for
free and you hope they feel compelled to carry it on and then they start to
pay for it. And it just doesn’t tend to work”.
This identifies that initiatives were introduced because of hosting the 2012
Olympic Games, yet indicates that they will not promote lasting effects as
they themselves are not sustainable and are not promoting sustainable
techniques.
4.6.1 Provision and opportunities for sport leading up to, during and
after the 2012 Olympic Games in the Tendring District:
The questionnaire and focus group respondents shared their views on
whether they felt the Tendring District offered more provisions or
opportunities to partake in more sport or physical activity since the 2005 bid.
This was felt appropriate to determine whether the Games organising
committee did succeed in bringing national benefits from hosting the events.
68.1% of the questionnaire respondents did not agree that more
opportunities had been provided, a consensus shared amongst the focus
groups:

47
Boy, Y13.: “I wanted to take rowing up, but there was nowhere around here.
The nearest was Mersea, which is a about an hour away. And I don’t have
time, and can’t be bothered to do that”.
Harwich and Dovercourt Hockey Club however presented an alternative view
because the 2012 Olympic Games provided more funding opportunities for
them. Active Essex works alongside local authorities “to inspire a new
generation”. This CSP is crucial to ensure that the grassroots clubs in Essex
have the support and opportunities to gain funding and meet the 2012
Olympic Games legacy (Active Essex, 2012). Active Essex’s Satellite Club
Programme provided:
S.S.:“a package that allowed us to hire pitches, reward kids if they came to 8
or more sessions… gave us money for kids to come to our club’s normal
training sessions, allowing their membership fees to be subsidised and
money to buy equipment”.
Prior to Active Essex’s investment, the Hockey club was nonexistent, since it
could not afford to run. The Statellite Club’s success further supported their
bid for extra funding to run a hockey session targeting women over 16 years
old. As such, the success allowed the men’s team to reform. For this club the
2012 Olympic Games proved advantageous.
Funding was an issue for all the clubs. C.A.: mentioned that “Sport England
are not interested…ECB claims that it has no funds available to help
Grassroots Cricket”, indicating that the promise of many of the initiatives
aiming to enhance local involvement has not be carried by the main NGBs of
sport.
Another factor crucial to running successful community sports clubs is having
volunteers. C.G.: observed:

48
“I don’t think it is just funding. I think it is down to getting volunteers also. I
think more needs to be done to get more volunteers”.
This view was emphasised by all the clubs, whilst agreeing that it is made
difficult by the regulations, e.g. DBS check,
C.G.: “You have to be so careful, they would happily help out. But when you
say you need to fill out this form and do this, this and this, I think it puts
people off”.
This supports Sport England’s (2015b) aim of making volunteerism within
sports clubs easier, as the regulation and time it takes out of people’s lives is
not practical. Clacton Rugby Club further registered this as a constraint in
offering rugby to girls as they do not have the volunteers to lead the
sessions. Therefore clubs in the Tendring District identified that more efforts
need to be made to encourage volunteers in sporting provisions.
Furthermore, funding initiatives available for local cubs, such as those
provided by Active Essex, will enable more opportunities and further
maintenance of facilities. In achieving this, the facilities can be of good
quality and established across a variety of areas, two factors that have been
identified as necessary for participation by adolescents.
Active Essex have six objectives, many of which centre around promoting
lifelong physical activity opportunities to the younger population (Active
Essex, 2014a). Table 4.7 shows the ‘Inspired Facilities’ scheme to be utilsed
most in the Tendring District, with four clubs being supported. Harwich and
Dovercourt Hockey Club benefitted greatly from the Satellite Club, indicating
that forming links with schools allow local clubs to reach a larger range of
adolescents, thus being able to afford to run. C.G.: however, commented
that schools
“won’t approach clubs, well they never approached us and they want it done
for free, which is not always possible for many clubs”.

49
Hence, participation between clubs and schools can exist, but its contingent
on funding and the time volunteers can provide. This, questions the school-
club links success, since Active Essex is unlikely to fund each application.
Scheme What it involves Where it has been
implementation in
Tendring
Inspired
Facilities
 Old and tired facilities are hard and
expensive to maintain and do not
inspire people to use them
 Offers funding to clubs to renovate
their structures, however the club
needs to demonstrate how it will be
useful to the community
Tendring District clubs;
Harwich Town Sailing
Club, Frinton Lawn
Tennis Club,
Brightlingsea Sailing
Club and Claction
United Football have all
benefited from this
scheme
Community
Games
 This is like a mini Olympics
organised and enjoyed by each
community.
60 have been hosted
across Essex, with 1
being held in
Manningtree (Tendring
District).
Satellite
Club
 £49 million invested into these
community clubs that travel to
schools and college sites.
 It will help to ensure children who
attend the sessions at school
transfer to the club once they leave
education, sustaining lifelong
physical activity
Harwich and Dovercourt
Hockey has been
successful with there’s
attracting 30+ people
aged 11-18 in there 10
week sessions.
Table 4.7: Three Active Essex initiatives applied in the Tendring District
(Active Essex, 2014c,d,b)

50
4.6.2 Inspiration from the Games:
Here, questionnaire and focus group respondents were asked whether they
were inspired to take up more sport or physical activity due to the 2012
Olympic Games. This was to evaluate whether the Games were successful
in achieving, or at least progressing to meet its legacy aim to “inspire a new
generation” (DCMS, 2012:1).
70.9% of respondents were not inspired to participate in more physical
activity because of the Olympic Games. Moreover three clubs, bar Harwich
and Dovercourt Hockey Club, reported no change in participation levels:
C.G.: “I haven’t heard anyone say they were inspired by the Olympics”.
Boy,Y11.: “I think if you were going to be physical active you will be. I don’t
think you need a national event to encourage you. And people like me who
aren’t interested, will not be convinced by watching someone shooting some
arrows on TV. It is the type of person you are and you’re interests”.
82.3% of participants who reported that they did take up a new physical
activity, commented that this had now stopped. R.R.: identified that:
R.R.: “there was a slight peak… We had about 70% of students taking part in
at least one club or more at that time, which was good. Higher than before.
But I don’t necessarily think we have seen a massive sustained increase in it
unfortunately”.
Thus it can be concluded that the government and NGBs have made efforts
to meet the legacy “to inspire a generation”, but little success has been made
in the adolescent population of the Tendring District since few initially took up
new physical activity.

51
Chapter 5: Conclusion
5.1 Summaryof Findings
The investigation found a number of results, which both supported and
disagreed with previous literature. Focus was placed onto the environmental
and socio-cultural barriers adolescents face in participating in physical
activity. Reference was made to the self-efficacy and confidence of
individuals. Therefore identifying the interconnections between intrapersonal,
interpersonal and environmental factors, as illustrated by the Socio-
Ecological Model.
Generally, significant results were found between each of the factors and
adolescents participating in physical activity. The main findings show that
rural and deprived areas do offer fewer built or transport provisions for
physical activity than urbanised or more affluent places. Hence, the SES of
the area affected the access individuals inhabiting the area have to physical
activities. There was no direct impact of the SES of an adolescent and their
level of physical activity, but it was noted that SES did impact on adolescents
being able to afford exercise sessions. This barrier was prominent in those of
a lower SES.
Emphasis was placed on environmental and socio-cultural factors. No
significance was found between gender and physical activity, indicating that
is does not give a direct effect on participation levels. Despite this, many
circumstances saw girls to have different opinions to boys with regards to the
barriers. This shows gender to have an indirect effect on participation levels
in physical activity, as it affects barriers to exercise.
Such instances included fewer girls participating in organised and formal
sports clubs in the area. Peers were seen to have an influence on all

52
adolescents, but girls were specifically subjected to harsher opinions in
response to taking part in physical activity. This demonstrates that strategies
to make exercise an acceptable activity for girls is important. The
‘ThisGirlCan’ campaign aims to do this, but further work was still considered
necessary in encouraging females. What was noted however, was the
narrowing gender divisions in sports due to increased publicity. The 2012
Olympic Games was believed to have enhanced the status of women in
sport on a national scale. The Games effect on the Tendring District did not
however present such positive findings, since few agreed more opportunities
were provided or that an increased number were inspired to participate in
more physical activity.
A major limitation for the clubs involved funding and volunteers. Active Essex
did however offer support and financial investment to clubs to enhance the
quality of their facilities (deemed important by respondents) and the
session’s clubs could provide. Harwich and Dovercourt Hockey Club greatly
benefitted from Active Essex since they were able to start the club up again,
after gaining enough members to pay for the hockey pitches on a sustainable
basis. Therefore, the initial support provided was able to create a community
club that was self-sufficient, which would be able to enhance the activity
levels of its population.
Overall, the environmental and socio-cultural barriers considered did prove to
prevent participation in physical activity for the adolescents sampled.
Moreover, girls were observed to avoid exercise or to not participate in as
many sporting activities compared to boys, signaling that physical activity
does not present the majority of girls with a sense of belonging. This gender
division was believed to be narrowing, but further advancement in combating
this is needed. Hence, further investigation into the reasons why women do
not participate would be interesting. Adolescents should be considered
especially, as this is the age in which decisions on how to lead an active life
are made.

53
5.2 Further Research
Throughout Chapter 4, further research areas were identified. These
suggestions and the research project in general has highlighted an array of
barriers to physical activity for adolescents, as well as the entire population.
One significant barrier identified for adolescents was the school workload.
Since little research has been conducted on this age group, it would prove
beneficial to investigate this further, or as suggested in Chapter 4, over a
range of ages (childhood to adulthood). The result could identify the age
bracket when this becomes a major issue and therefore encourage
strategies to increase physical activity, whilst understanding the lack of time.
The most important consideration for further research into the barriers to
physical activity is interdisciplinarity. This is because these are of interest to
many disciplines, in addition to geography. For efficient and effective
strategies to increase participation in physical activity, each factor on the
socio-ecological model need to be investigated, as well as being combined,
so researchers can understand their broader effect on different areas and
social groups. For example, girls were seen to be affected by media, which in
turn affected their self-efficacy. Understanding these relationships should
result in the implementation of successful initiatives, encouraging an active
and healthy population, reducing the health and economic costs physical
inactivity causes.

54
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