This document discusses definitions of religion from substantive, functional, and social constructionist perspectives. It then examines functionalist perspectives on religion from Durkheim and others. Marxism and feminism are presented as conflict theories that are critical of religion. Theories of social change in relation to religion are discussed, including Weber on Calvinism and capitalism. Secularization is analyzed using theories from Weber, Parsons, Wilson, and Berger. Finally, religious choice theories are outlined, such as Davie's concept of "believing without belonging."

1. SOCIOLOGY
SCLY3- BELIEFS IN
SOCIETY
By Sarah Jones

2. DEFINITIONS OF RELIGION
A01 A01 EXPLANATION A02 EVALUATION
Substantive
Definition
Focus on content & substance.
Max Weber- superior supernatural power that is above nature
and can’t be explained scientifically. They are exclusive with a
clear line between religious and non-religious.
It also says that religion must include a belief in God or
supernatural.
 Leaves no room for belief & practice that
perform similar functions to religions not
involving God.
- Accused of Western bias as it excludes
religions such as Buddhism.
Functional
Definition
Define religion in terms of the social/psychological functions it
performs for in individual/society.
Emile Durkheim- the contribution it makes to social integration
rather than any specific belief in God.
Yinger- functions of religion is for the individual eg. Answering the
‘ultimate questions’ about the meaning of life.
 Inclusive- allowing a wide range of beliefs &
practices as don’t specify a belief in God an so
there is also no Western bias.
 Just because it helps integrate, doesn’t make
it religious eg. foot ball matches.
Social
Constructionist
Definition
This is an interprevists approach which focuses on how members
of society define religion. It’s not possible to produce one
universal definition as each individual sees religion differently.
Alan Aldridge- members of scientology believe it is a religion they
are taking part in whereas, legally, it isn’t seen as such.
 Doesn’t assume it involves God/
supernatural.
 Scientology= good case study to support
definition
 Impossible to generalise and so therefore
lacks validity as a definition for religion.

3. FUNCTIONALISM
A01 A01 EXPLANATION A02 EXAMPLE A02 EVALUATION
Durkheim: Totemism
(sacred & profane)
Central Australian Arunta tribe of Aborigines who went through the ritual of
totemism. This is where a totem is a sacred object that is worshipped and is a
symbol of the group/society and so when worshipping the totem their
worshipping society. It acts as the social glue. Durkheim also found that not
all religion is a belief in gods but a distinction between sacred and profane
which is found in all religions.
Worship for good
harvest & create
social solidarity.
Sacred= cross/bible
Profane=TV, social
media, music
 Worley- no sharp division between
sacred & profane e.g. Great Wall of China
 method issues- secondary sources
 No longer use religion to enforce
solidarity.
Collective
Consciousness
Sacred symbols represent society’s collective conscience which is shared
norms, values and beliefs. Shared rituals reinforce collective conscience and
maintain social integration preventing any damaging social change.
Rituals e.g. wedding,
Christmas. Hymn
singing remind that
they’re part of
community.
 Social Change- Rationalisation
Cognitive Functions of
Religion
Durkheim also sees religion as a source of intellectual/cognitive capacities.
Religion is the origin of concepts we need for reasoning and communication
within our world. Religion is the origin of human thought, reason and science.
 Post Modern society- no longer look to
religion to understand world with a
technological worldview(Bruce)
Malinowksi: Life
Crises
Religion reinforces norms and values promoting social solidarity and provides
explanations for events that were hard to explain. Also provides security
when faced with uncertainty. Researched Trobriand Islanders who used
religion where the outcome is uncertain and in times of life crises.
Use to cope with
emotional stress with
afterlife offering
hope.
 Secularisation- religion is outdated and
no longer used in life crises as people look
to friends and counsellors.
 Marxist- idea of the afterlife is used as
an opiate e.g. Hindu Caste System
Parsons: Value &
Meaning
Religion provides and underpins core values of any culture and social norms
which regulate people’s behaviour. Ideas are deeply ingrained through
socialisation. 1. Legitimates society’s central values
2. primary source of meaning
Killing results in a
guilty conscience &
prevents anomie
-10 commandments
 Religion no longer acts as agent of
social control. More likely dissuaded from
crime due to media or surveillance.
Bellah: Civil Religion
Sacred qualities are attached to aspects of society without religious rituals
and ceremonies but performs similar functions. Religion unifies society even
in multi-faith societies and they are unified by the Civil Religion- faith in
America.
American’s share common values over the importance of the American way
of life
Pledge allegiance &
have own sacred
objects e.g. White
House.
 Not all identify with Civil Religion e.g.
Muslims swear allegiance to Allah.
 Doesn’t always unify e.g. 9/11 &
Boston Bombings were religiously
motivated- creates conflict not unity.
 Religion is conservative force- Marx &
fem agree.

4. MARXISM(CONFLICT THEORY)
A01 A01 EXPLANATION A02 EXAMPLE A02 EVALUATION
Opium of the people
Religion is used as a form of consolation to alienation suffered. The W use
religion like a drug hence “opium of the people”. This suggests that religion
is there to make them feel better about their poor lives on earth. Religion
masks the pain by promising rewards in the afterlife.
Lenin- “Religion is a spiritual gin”
 Neo-Marxists- not an opiate but a force
for social change such as counter
hegemony.
 Functionalist- ignores positive functions
of religion where religion unifies society
into shared values and goals.
Religion & Ideology
Reinforces the power and profit of RC and make the WC feel exploitation is
fair. Religion is a belief system that distorts perception.
Religion= ideological weapon to justify suffering with being poor being
celebrated in Religion. This creates a false class consciousness.
Hindu Caste System-
previous life
determines where
they are in society
due to belief in pre-
destination
Religion Justifies
position
Justifies power and privilege of RC by making their position appear divinely
ordained.
The Divine Right Of Kings says the King’s chosen by God not the people with
king being a representation of God on Earth and so if you disobey the king,
you disobey God.
Religion is just another way to manipulate and control the proletariat.
 Post modernism- no single ideology
controlling WC as they’re free to choose
their own religious identity (Leger &
Spiritual Market place)
Alienation
Not only exploited but also suffer alienation as they don’t own what they
produce, have no control over work and can’t express their true human
creative personalities.
Religion is a product of alienation as it’s used by WC as a form of consolation
to their exploited, alienated, working class lives.
Religion legitimises both the suffering of WC and RC privileges
WC jobs= repetitive,
simple and no
freedom e.g. factory
jobs are the same
again and again.

5. FEMINISM
A01 A01 EXPLANATION A02 EXAMPLE A02 EVALUATION
Religious
Organisations
Organisations are mainly male dominated.
Karen Armstrong- women’s exclusion from priesthood
is marginalisation of women.
Catholicism forbid women
from becoming priests.
Karen Armstrong- not always been subordinate as women
used to be centre about 6000 years ago. The rise of
monotheism has led to religion becoming patriarchal.
Nawal El Sadawi- Religion isn’t a direct cause of
subordination. Patriarchy began to influence and reshape
religion and now it contributes to oppression.
Places Of Worship
Segregated sexes and marginalised women such as
sitting behind screens with men central to place of
worship.
Jean Holm- the devaluation of women in contemporary
religion
Menstruating women in
Islam are not allowed to
touch the Qur’an as they
are seen as dirty.
 Jean Holm- subordination in religion of religion with
teachings stressing the inequality but rarely happens or tries
to change. E.g. Buddhist monks are superior to nuns,
Extreme Muslims ban women from Mosques, Christianity
has male domination.
Sacred Texts
Largely feature male Gods and written/interpreted by
mean. Stories also include anti-female stereotypes
Eve who caused humanity
to fall from grace and the
expulsion from the Garden
of Eden.
Woodhead- Traditional religions are patriarchal but not true
of all. There are “Religious forms of feminism” with women
using religion to gain freedom and respect. Gender
differences show more women take part in religions such as
the holistic milieu to gain autonomy.
Religious Laws &
Customs
May give women fewer rights with divorce and
marriage as well as giving a dress code. Influence
cultural norms such as genital mutilation or
punishments for sexual transgressions.
It legitimates female’ traditional domestic role.
Woodhead- exclusion of women from priesthood is
evidence of the unease about the emancipation of
women generally.
Catholics banning abortion
and contraception
 Woodhead- hijab is a symbol of resistance not oppression
as they wear to escape confines of home and enter
education and employment- symbol of liberation.
 Helen Watson- veiling benefits women and is a reaction
against Western style. It is also seen in men who reject too
by not wearing ties. It’s the rejection of western cultural
imperialism.
Religion is a patriarchal institution that reflects women’s inequality.
Religion functions as a patriarchal ideology and legitimates female
subordination

6. SOCIAL CHANGE
A01 A01 EXPLANATION A02 EXAMPLE A02 EVALUATION
Weber: Calvinism
& Capitalism
Calvinists believe in pre-destination meaning God has already decided whether
they’re going to heaven and they’d be rewards for sticking to religious principles
through economic success. Calvinism encouraged asceticism and so while they
weren’t spending money so invested it leading to the rapid accumulation of Capital
and a Calvinist Capital Class emerged. Religion has encouraged social change of
Capitalism.
 Hinduism- ascetic but not this worldly
 Confucianism- this worldly but not
ascetic
 Scotland- Calvinist but no capitalism-
skilled workforce?
 Other influences- piracy slavery etc.
Steve Bruce:
Religion & Social
Protest
Martin Luther King- Respected Reverend with the black clergy being the back bone
to the CRM. He provided beliefs and practices believer could draw upon and
respected his message of being equal in the eyes of God. He was able to use
religion to bring around social change.
 The New Christian Right- aim to “take
America back to God” seeing
homosexuality as a sin, should teach
creationism & ban sex ed. Views not
supported- no social change occurred.
NEO MARXISM
Otto Muduro:
Liberation
Theology
Combination of Christianity and Marxism has encouraged people to actively
change society in Central America. It’s essential that the poor themselves organise
and overthrow the oppressive regimes that exploit them.
Archbishop Oscar
Romero- fighting
for justice in El
Salvador led to him
being shot in the
middle of mass.
Gramsci:
Hegemony
Religion is a force of hegemonic control which is similar to RC ideology but won’t
influence everyone as works through religion. It’s the same with the WC influence
and maybe the reason WC has largely rejected religion.
MORE INFO NEEDED!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
 Engel- Religion has a dual character
where it can inhibit change or challenge
the status quo and encourage social
change.
 Turner- RC don’t use religion due to
secularisation. Fear of money is enough to
control.
Billings: Coal
Miners Vs Textile
Workers
Both were WC protestant but experienced different levels of striking.
Miners= militant and benefitted from leader of preachers who were also miners.
They used independent churches which offered supportive sermons to keep their
morale high.
Textile workers= uncomplaining an accepting of status quo. They lacked leadership
and lacked pace remaining in company churches. Workers that engaged in union
activity were branded as communist.
This case study shows religion is an important factor in the struggle and shows the
same religion can both defend status quo and/or change it.

7. SECURALISATION
A01 A01 EXPLANATION A02 EXAMPLE A02 EVALUATION
Crockett: Statistics
1851 census= 40% attend church. 1960s= 10-5% now=5-6%.
Average age increased, baptisms and weddings decreased, decrease in
traditional beliefs & greater religious diversity.
Bruce: whatever way measure, there’s a steady decline
Wilson- undergoing long term process of
secularisation- starting to lose social
significance. Smaller religions rising but
not enough to counterbalance.
Martin- remove term from sociology.
Weber:
Rationalisation
Rational ways of thinking are replacing traditional one after 16th
Cent.
Protestant reformation. It undermines religious narrative & leads away from
supernatural beliefs. It’s the start of “disenchantment”. Rather than god
regularly interferes, he just works through nature & laws leaving room for
science. Only pray when science has no answer.
Bruce: technological world view- no longer blame evil spirits for disasters.
 Lyon- religion has just become
disembedded- re-enchantment is actually
taking place.
 Voas & Crockett- whether measure
attendance or belief, religion is declining
Parsons: Structural
Differentiation
Process of specialisation that occurs with development of industry. Society
is compartmentalised and religion performs a smaller role-
“disengagement”.
Bruce: privatisation of religion. Religion is deemed second to secular state.
 Davie- Believing without belonging.
 Feminism- still transmits patriarchal
ideology & legitimises female
subordination
Bryan Wilson: Social
& Cultural Diversity
Change to an industrialised society has seem religion as having less of a hold
over people in diverse communities.
Bruce: Cultural Diversity with increased social and geographical mobility
leads to increase understanding of multiple beliefs and leading original
beliefs to be weakened.
 Woodhead- Holistic milieu & evangelical
churches- shift to new age but doesn’t take
into account all decline.
 Global context- rising
Berger: Religious
Diversity
More religions have led to secularisation due to the sacred canopy being
broken & there no longer being a monopoly of the truth. The breakdown
has caused a crisis in credibility and people questioning their religion
Catholicism in Britain. Criticises himself- diversity actually
stimulates interest and religious
participation.
Byrant: The Golden
Age
At one time, the Catholic church could rival kings. It employed 1 in every 30
men and providing stain glass windows for illiterate. The church however,
lost its control with priesthood halving and schools becoming secular.
.  Myth of the Golden Age
 Functionalism- still influence society
e.g. Parsons/10 commandments.

8. RELIGIOUS CHOICE
A01 A01 EXPLANATION A02 EXAMPLE A02 EVALUATION
Davie: Believing
without belonging
Religion is becoming more privatised as no longer feel the need to go to
church to worship. We no work through a vicarious religion where there’s a
smaller number of priests to a larger number of people. We are drawn back
to religion in times of tragedy.
Bibby: 25% Canadians attend church with 80% saying they believe.
Modern tech- bible
apps and mass on TV
 Malinowski- use religion in times of life
crisis.
 Bruce- tech advancements have caused
secularisation.
Leger: Spiritual
Shopping
Religion is personal choice. There has been as cultural amnesia where less
children are being socialised into religious ways and can choose themselves.
Religion is based on consumerism and we are now spiritual shoppers.
1) Pilgrims- self-discovery 2)converts- religions that offer sense of
belonging e.g. evangelical
 Heelas & Woodhead- increase in holistic
doesn’t compensate tradition decline.
 Voas & Crockett- however measured,
religion is declining.
Lyon: Jesus in
Disneyland
Shifted to post modernity where increased globalisation and increased
interconnectedness has led to growth of consumerism. Religion has become
disembedded.
There’s a decline in meta- narratives but re-enchantment took place.
Harvest day parade
no just in church but
Disney land.
 Nancy Ammeram- American’s are use
different churches for different reasons at
the same time.
 Weber & Disenchantment.
Stark & Bainbridge:
Market theory/
Rational choice
theory
Secularisation is Eurocentric and religion is thriving in America. People
maybe naturally more religious and so demand remains and/or it’s human
nature to seek rewards. Religion offers rewards and goes through a cycle
where some religions decline while some grow depending on needs.
Religion is now a competition to offer best “goods” which is unlike Europe
that’s dominated by C of E
 Berger- diversity causes the spiritual
canopy to shatter and less and less believe.
Norris & Inglehart:
Existential Security
theory
More religious if have lower levels of security as it makes them feel safe and
secure. Poor societies have more risks of famine, disease & disaster and are
more religious. Rich societies have a higher standard of living but less risk.
The USA is still divided and unequal with very poor communities and lack of
healthcare and so lack of security. There are natural disasters especially in
the South states.
 China- high levels of poverty and
insecurity and risks of natural disasters but
are a non-religious country.
Religion isn’t declining but growing. There are no
absolute truths and believe in a number of ideologies

9. RELIGION ON A GLOBAL CONTEXT
A01 A01 EXPLANATION A02 EVALUATION
Meera Nanda: God &
Globalisation in India
Increased wealth in India was due to globalisation with MC, wealthy Indians not becoming
less religious but actually more as they want to defend beliefs and keep Hinduism superior.
Hinduism is traditionally ascetic but wealth is now used in ceremonies to stop guilt as turn
away from tradition- give spiritual balance & modern tele gurus saying wealth is part of
God’s plan.
 Norris & Inglehart- extistential security theory
is the reason as experience natural disasters.
 Bruce- cultural defence as next to nuclear
armed Pakistan
Hindu Ultra-
Nationalism
93% Indians agreed that “our people aren’t perfect but our culture’s superior”
Their global success has led to their superiority & the worship of Hindu God’s has become
the worship of one state (Civil Religion).
 Negatives of Hinduism- nationalistic feelings
could cause more instability, risk & fear (
Bauman) with conflict more likely to happen
with Pakistan and China.
Berger: Pent. In Latin
America
Pentecostalism acts as functional equivalent for Weber’s Calvinism- gets people out of
poverty. They encourage an ascetic lifestyle which creates wealth. Because of
Pentecostalism and this worldly asceticism, South Brazil’s becoming more wealthy and
prosperous with a MC developing.
Religion is part of the process of aiding development
 Marxism- this is just creating more wealth for
the Bourgeoisie that they don’t need.
Lehmen:
Pentecostalism global
& local
Christianity has globalised itself by moving to other countries like South America & Africa.
Christianity is imposed of population to supress local religion and Pent. & Christ. Spreads as
found useful.
Pent. Has grown and found followers and it’s able to ‘plug into’ local beliefs- adapt to fit
universal ideas preached. It develops differently in various regions.
Religion seems to decline & countries re more secular
but in some countries, development & globalisation go
hand in hand.

10. GLOBALISATION: FUNDAMENTALISM
A01 A01 EXPLANATION A02 EVALUATION
Giddens:
Fundamentalists &
Cosmopolitans
Fundamentalists= traditional, intolerant, one true world view & believe in literal word
of scripture.
Cosmopolitans= embrace modernity, tolerant, reflexive way of thinking.
Post modernity crates risk and fear with tradition undermined. People become
fundamentalists to give them the answers.
 Bauman- fundamentalism is a response to post
modernity as they retreat to these beliefs for certainty.
Castells: Restistant &
Project Identities
Resistant= defensive reaction where people turn to fundamentalism
Project= forward looking view where people engage in new ideas
Both are responses to globalisation
 Beckford- ignores hybrid groups, doesn’t differentiate
between fundamentalists & ignores it’s a reaction to
society and a reflexive way of thinking
 Haynes- not globalisation but due to failures of local
governments to better living standards
Bruce: Monotheism &
Fundamentalism
Those with traditional views see globalisation as a threat. Monotheistic religions create
fundamentalism as believe in one hly book and one God. Polytheistic religions don’t.
Hindu led terror- polytheistic but bomb blasts set by
ultra-nationalists in Muslim areas of India which killed &
injured many.
Bruce: 2
Fundamentalists
Fundamentalism can lead to cultural defence but not always the other way round.
1) Western fundamentalists- reaction to progressive changes e.g. gay marriage
2) Third world- reaction to change forced upon them. React against western
values and turn to fundamentalism.
e.g Islamic revolution: Islam showed resistance to westernisation leading to the Iranian
revolution.
Jackson- stereotypes eastern people & Muslims
(orientalism)
 Casanova- ignores divisions between groups e.g.
Sunni & Shia
 Horrie & Chippendale- grossly misleading as suggests
the whole of Islam is the enemy
 Karen Armstrong- hostility to the West is created by
foreign policy so if political conflict not religious
 Norri & Inglehart- whatever religion, most want
democracy. The real ‘clash’ I attitudes towards sex &
tradition.
Samual Huntington:
Clash of Civilisations
The fall of communism has led to religious conflicts intensifying. Globalisation has
caused civilisation to clash and religious conflict is now more common. The west is
under threat from Islam as they compete for economic & military power. The west must
be assertive in dealing with problems.
e.g. Paris attacks, 9/11, 7/7 attacks)

11. RELIGIOUS ORGANISATIONS
CHURCH
Ernst Troeltsch:
 stable,formal organisation with hierarchy
and paid officials.
 Beliefs are widely accepted
 Relationship between state & monarchy
 Linked to higher classes
 Large organisations- millions of members
 Claim monopoly of the truth
 Worship=formal & ritualised
SECT
Ernst Troeltsch:
 Join through free will
 Led by charismatic leader- chosen ones
who have been ‘saved’
 Appeal to poor and oppressed
 Claim monopoly of the truth- conflicts
society’s beliefs
 Strong claims on loyalty
 Repress individuality
 Members given new names & restricted
contact to family
 Strict rules
DENOMINATION
Neihbur:
 Midway between church & sect e.g.
Methodism
 Beliefs & values widely accepted but no
state connection
 Worship= less formal & less developed
hierarchies
 Impose minor restriction e.g. alcohol
 Not strict
 Don’t claim a monopoly of the truth &
tolerant of others
CULTS
 Similar to sects but achieve some practical
end
 Individualistic & usually small grouping
around some shared themes
 Exclusive belief system
 Tolerant
 Don’t demand strong commitment
AO2 Support: Wallis- churches and sects claim a
monopoly of the truth where denominations and
cults don’t.
SECTS & CULTS
Sects = result of schism-splits in existing
organisations- a group choose to breakaway from
church usually due to a disagreement.
Cults= new religion all together e.g. scientology &
Christian science.
Don’t usually challenge norms and usually appeal
to the social privileged
STARK & BAINBRIDGE:TYPES OF CULTS
Audience Cults = unorganised e.g. astrology
Client cults= unorganised but proved a service
Cultic movements= organised and demand
stronger commitment e.g. moonies. These has the
most enthusiastic followers

12. NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
New Religious Movements (A01) Why The Growth? (A01) A02 Evaluation
Roy Wallis- three groups
World Rejecting- reject secular world and see as
corrupt. They abandon world & attempt to
transform e.g. Moonies. Reject materialism &
encourage asceticism. They have a clear notion of
God and are highly critical of outside world. They
believe you must break away from old life and live
communally e.g. Jones Town
World Accommodating- neither fully accept
values and goal nor entirely reject. Exist on margin
of church and denominations. Response to
increasing secularisation. Members lead
conventional lives e.g. Pentecostalism &
Methodism
World Affirming- accept values & goals but aim to
provide new means to achieve. They’re not highly
organised and accept world as it is and are tolerant
of others. Most are cults whose followers are
customers with financial investment needed
e.g. scientology
New Age Movements- similar consumer
orientated e.g. sell herbal remedies. Contains
elements of World Rejecting in the focus on
‘alternatives’
Since 1960s, there’s been a rapid growth in sects
and cults with 800 NRMs & over ½ million
members.
Weber: Marginality- Sects among poor and may
develop a ‘theodicy disprivileged’ where religion
explains why they’re in the position they’re in and
offer the promise of ‘salvation’ e.g. Jones Town &
Pentecostalism. Moonies attracted young MC who
felt marginalised.
Glock & Stark: Relative Deprivation
Social Deprivation- lack power e.g. job satisfaction
(Mormons)
Organismic- physical/mental problems e.g hope
to be healed
Ethical- World in moral decline & so retreat
(People’s Temple)
Psychic- search for more dominant value system
Social Change- Sects are a product of this and may
create anomie as undermine/disrupts tradition.
Wilson: world accommodation e.g. Methodist was
a reaction to anxieties of industrialisation and
rationalisation
Bellah: increase in sects due to Mc youth
experiencing crisis of meaning. Many turn to
drug/pop culture. Moonies recruited large
numbers.
 Bruce- response to social change in
modernisation & secularisation means traditional
churches are less attractive as demand too much
commitment.
Heelas- World affirming NAMs appeal to more
affluent, education and generally successful MC
groups. Members find something missing in their
lives and seek techniques to receptive themselves.
Wallis- World affirming e.g. Scientology are likely
to appeal to Mc groups as claim to offer
knowledge, techniques and therapies that enable
people to unlock spiritual powers within
themselves.
Weber- the world is becoming more rational,
spiritual elements have disappeared with Churches
and denominations becoming watered down and
focus more on worldly issues e.g. poverty
Giddens- lack of spiritual meaning in traditional
religions has led to many finding comfort and
sense of community in smaller religious groups
Stark & Bainbridge- World rejecting sects offer
deprived the compensation for poor to break away
from church and form new sect. The WC turn to
world rejecting where the privileged turn to world
accommodating.

13. SECTS & CULTS
A01 EXPLANATION A02 EVALUATION
Dynamics of Sects
& Cults
Sects become short lived as over time will turn to denominations or disappear altogether.
E.g. Methodist= world rejecting but abandon ideas to become a denomination.
Some manage to stay world rejecting e.g. Jehovah’s
Witness’ but some do disappear e.g. People’s Temple
Why short lived?
Barker: Heavy commitment is hard to maintain fro W-Rejecting.
Niebuhr: commitment is hard to sustain after first generation. They become less protestant
and wither away if don’t become denomination
Becker: denomination= sects that’s cooled down- more tolerant & accommodating
Aldridge- many sects have existed for a long time while
still retaining the same features. Jehovah’s Witness’ still
maintain strict standards. Having a successful sect is in
the socialisation of the children. Also, not all depend of
charismatic leader & many socialise children &
maintain strict standards
Neihbur:
Denomination or
Death
Sects are W-R and form from schisms. They will die out within the next generation if they
don’t become a denomination. This could happen if:
Loss of charismatic leader- if they die
Second generation- lacks commitment of parents
“protestant ethic” effect- those practicing ascetic become more prosperous
People’s original reasons for joining e.g. marginalisation
may become irrelevant
Barker- younger grow older and start to look for normal
lives. Why they disappear or become denominations
Stark & Bainbridge
Organisations move through a cycle:
1) A Schism- tension between needs of deprived & privileged
2) Initial fervour- charismatic leader and great tension between sect & wider society
3) Denominationalism- “protest ethic” effect and coolness of 2nd
gen
4) Establishment- sect becomes world accepting & tension reduced
Wilson- questions whether W-R can ever survive as
denomination. They will have to convert people by
going outside the sect which could be a pollution and
corrupting experience and would compromise/destroy
fundamental beliefs.
Wilson: Conservist
& Introversionist
Rejects disappearance or denomination are the only alternatives.
Conversionist sects- most likely to become denomination. They need to convert others e.g
Salvation Army
Introversionist- Amish believe the only route to salvation is total withdrawal from corrupt
influences & trying to covert would corrupt their beliefs
Revolutionary- Jehovah’s Witness’ who hold millenarian beliefs believe only their sect will
be saved when imminent destruction hit. May try and spread beliefs but no compromise is
made otherwise they’re be counted amongst sinners on Judgement Day
Wilson- Globalisation will make it harder for sects to
keep themselves separate from the outside world. It
will also make them open to criticism.

14. NEW AGE MOVEMENTS
AO1 AO2
Growth of New Age (Heelas):
Estimated 2,000 activities & 146,000 practitioner in the UK that are loosely
organised, diverse & eclectic. They include beliefs in UFOs, astrology, crystals
etc. There are 2 common themes:
1. Self-Spirituality- turn away from tradition and instead look inside
themselves
2. Detraditionalisation- rejects spiritual authority of external tradition
sources e.g. sacred texts. Values personal experience and believe we
can discover the truths from within.
Post-Modernist Explanations:
Fragmentation of beliefs and wide diversity of religious/spiritual beliefs.
Beliefs are purely personal matter and they can g spiritual shopping. They
have a greater tolerance of all beliefs today.
John Drane: Loss of faith in meta- narrative and monopoly with science.
Bruce: NAM= latest featre to modern society not post modern. Modern
society values individualism like NA. NA offers softer versions of more
demanding Eastern religions e.g. Buddhism- watered down or self-centred
Westerners
Heelas: New age and modernity link in 4 ways:
 Source of identity- individuals have many different roles but little
overlap between resulting in fragmented identity.
 Consumer culture- dissatisfaction as never get what you want. NA
offers an alternative.
 Rapid Social Change- disrupts norms and values resulting in anomie.
NA provides a sense of certainty
 Decline of organised religion- modernity leads to secularisation
thereby removing traditional alternatives to NA beliefs

15. DIFFERENCES IN SOCIAL CLASSES
GENDER DIFFERENCES ETHNIC DIFFERENCES AGE DIFFERENCES CLASS DIFFERENCES
STATS: women are likely to express
interest in religion. 2005 census- 57%
female/45% male. More women believe
and see as important.
STATS: Modood: 11% C of E(white) said
religion was more important compared
to 71& of protestant. Ethnic minorities=
more religious.
STATS: old attend more.
Brierly- av. Age= 37to 49
no attendees between 15-19 year olds
Weber: Theodicy Disprivilege(WC)-
explains why they’re marginalised and
offers compensation e.g. People’s
Temple
Miller & Hoffman:
Differential socialisation- passive &
submissive
Structural location- housewife
Risk- salvation anxiety
John Bird:
1) Origin
2) Community
3) Cultural identity
4) Socialisation
5) Cope with oppression
Voas & Crockett:
1. Ageing effect- more religious with age
2. Period effect- period when born
2. Generation effect- progressive
decline
AO2: post modernity
Karl Marx –
 Opium of the people
 Alienation
 False class consciousness
AO2: Neo-Marxists
Bruce: “when men wish to achieve,
women wish to feel”. They are less goal
orientated and fit well with spirituality as
in the private sphere.
Bruce: Cultural Defence- identity in
hostile environment. Cultural transition
is when they cope with migration.
Religious will erode when integrated.
Heelas: old face declining health with
fear of death. It offers comfort, support
and coping.
Roy Wallis: MC young turn to religious &
NRMs when feel marginalised e.g.
moonies
Davie: close proximity to birth & death-
bring close to ultimate questions about
meaning of life. See God as loving and
caring not omnipotent.
Herberg: religion= means of transition.
High participation from Us migrants. No
longer will feel isolated e.g. Irish Cath.
Young & Religion: technological world
view, rationalisation, generational
effect, time, work etc.
AO2: young feel marginalised
World- Affirming movements (MC)-
they have the money to spend on
religions that need financial investment
e.g. Scientology
Callum Brown: new age appeals to
women wishing for autonomy.
Emphasise subjective experience.
AO2: fundamentalism- prescribed role.
Ken Pryce: Pentecost. Help adapt & offer
mutual support.
AO2: Rastafarianism- radically reject
wider society.
Other reasons:
 Spiritual market place
 Youth have choice
 Believe without belonging
 marginalisation
Relative Deprivation: MC= deprived.
Social, organismic, ethical & psychic
deprivation can lead to being religious.
Glock & Stark: compensation for
deprivation- organismic, ethical & social
AO2- women now leaving the church
faster- dual burden? Rationalisation?
Jacobson: young GB Pakistanis in East
End, a Muslim identity rather than Asian
appealed to younger as provide
stability& certainty.

16. SCIENCE
Open Belief System Closed Belief System Science
Impact of Science: technological advancement are
due to increased faith/understanding of science.
Productivity has increased and led to a widespread
‘faith in science’. We have actual evidence science
works.
However, faith in science has been shaken by too
much advancement e.g. nuclear weaponry.
Robin Horton: difference between science &
religion has many ‘get out clauses’ that prevent
beliefs being challenge e.g. evil= God testing us.
Make’s knowledge claims that can’t be
overturned.
Kuhn’s idea’s been adapted by interprevists with
all knowledge being socially constructed- limited
by facts available at the time.
Karin Knorr- Cetina: experiments are too carefully
controlled to provide realistic results. Science is
limited by tech available at the time e.g. cameras
giving better understanding of Pluto.
Edward Evans-Pritchard: Azande people believe in
witchcraft used the ‘benge’ ritual where if the
chicken dies, the person’s a witch. It encouraged
neighbourly behaviour. They had an answer for
everything causing them to be trapped in own
‘idiom of belief’.
Karl Popper: theories are open to scrutiny,
criticism and testing by others. Falsification is
where people deliberately attempt to disprove
others and search for a replacement theory.
Knowledge is cumulative and built on previous
knowledge. With nothing held sacred.
All ideas are subjected to questioning.
AO2: Immanuel Velikovsky- “world in collision”-
scientists tried to discredit and boycott as the idea
was too different from norm and so rejected.
Little Green Men: Steve Woolger:
ethnomodologists believe scientists are trying to
make sense of the world like everyone else.
e.g. Cambridge astronomy lab 1976 found results
originally interpreted as alien life forms but the
realisation would ruin their careers as others
would reject so labelled it as a star never been seen
as that was more acceptable. Shows scientific fact
is a social construction as needs to be believable
when accepted
Self-sustaining beliefs-Polyani: closed belief
systems have 3 devices:
1. circularity- each idea explained by another
2. subsiduary- if oracle falls, it’s incorrect
benge
3. Denial-reject alternatives e.g. creationism
rejects evolutionists AO2 Evaluation:
Feminism- science serves patriarchy rather than
being the absolute truth e.g. women in science &
bio research.
Marxism- research serves the bourgeoisie’s needs
to drive profits rather than serve humanity.
Postmodernist Jean Francois Lyotard: reject meta-
narratives/ big stories that claim one truth. Science
should be seen as ONE answer not THE answer.
They agree that science is profit driven (techno
science)
CUDOS Norms: Robert K. Merton. Science can
thrive with support from other institutions &
values. There is support & funding for practical
application and rely on an ethical code.
Communism-not private knowledge
Universalism-universal, objective criteria.
Disinterestedness- committed to stopping fraud
Organised Sceptism- no claim of scared knowledge
Science as closed system- Thomas Kuhn: science
has created a paradigm with science being less
devoted to challenging this and more devoted to
understanding how it works- ‘problem solving’-
those are the ones who are rewarded. If
challenged, you’ll be ridiculed. There are some
exceptions that are scientific revolutions.

17. IDEOLOGY
AO1 AO1 EXPLANATION
Ideology
World view/ set of ideas and values which sociologist have a number of meaning for which are often negative. An
Ideology offers a distorted, false idea of the world that is biased where ideas conceal the interests of a particular
group. Ideologies prevent change by misleading people. They are irrational and closed to criticism.
Marxism &
Ideology
Exploit worker labour. RC Ideology and hegemony prevents WC to believe they can overthrow. This ideology
creates a false class conscience.
Feminism &
Ideology: Pauline
Marks
Science regular used to exclude women with the education of women seen as unfeminine and makes them
unable to raise a family.
AO2: some systems benefit women e.g. polytheistic religious (Hinduism) have female deities.
Hegemony &
Revolution
WC= dual consciousness. Needs a political party of intellects o gain through an ant-capitalist struggle.
AO2: Abercrombie: economic factors?
Ideology &
Utopia: Karl
Mannheim
Belief system is one sided.
1) ideological thought- justify keeping same and maintaining status quo (conservative)
2) Utopian thought- social change
Free Floating
Intelligensia
Academics should seek a better society as a whole fusion of ideologies.
AO2: many ideologies that are entirely opposed so with a conflict of interest, they’re be unable to work together.