About Bentham & his doctrines

1. Epicurus (341-270 B.C.E.)
The most important version of ethical
hedonism among the Ancient Greeks is
Epicureanism, which regards ‘
happiness’ as
a mind free from disturbance and a body free
from pain. The good life is secured by
moderation of appetite and desire, and the
pleasures of reason, peace, friendship, and aesthetic
contemplation.
the highest pleasure (tranquility and freedom from
fear) was obtained by knowledge, friendship and living
a virtuous and temperate life.

2. Helvétius' philosophy :
Self-interest, founded on the love of pleasure and the fear of pain, is the sole
spring of judgment, action, and affection. Human beings are motivated solely
by the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. "These two," he says,
"are, and always will be, the only principles of action in man.
Self-sacrifice is prompted by the fact that the sensation of pleasure outweighs
the accompanying pain and is thus the result of deliberate calculation.
We have no freedom of choice between good and evil. There is no such thing
as absolute right – ideas of justice and injustice change according to customs.

3. Utilitarianism : Jeremy Bentham (1784-1832)
English philosopher, who was intent on providing a political theory for the
British Parliament and other governments to use in constructing sound,
rational legislation.
Born into a wealthy, Tory (British) family
Studied law at Westminster School and
Queen’s College, Oxford
Bentham was known as a British
gentleman, political activist, legal
scholar, social philosopher, linguist, and
contemporary of Adam Smith.
Welcomed both the American and
French Revolutions: He was made an
honorary citizen of the French Republic
in 1792.
Known as the father of Utilitarianism

4. Refuted Smith’s principle of utility which rests
on self-interest and natural identity to improve
one’s position via individual attempts to acquire
benefits and avoid costs.
Bentham Two Aim:
Evolve a framework of bring about legal
Political rules –science & social reform to
Of politics evolve political
Institution, which
Is efficient
Social institution should be judged by the
principle of Utilitarianism -
Theoretical practical

5. Bentham’s most famous writing
A fragment on Government (1776)
An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and
Legislation 1781:
(Widely established him as the founder of Utilitarianism)
The Constitutional Code (1830)
(Supposed to be the Magnum Opus – planned 3 vols but
completed only one)

6.  JEREMY BENTHAM - BACKGROUND
 the theory of Utilitarianism was an
attempt to treat ethics as on would a
science – using empirical method to
determine right or wrong.
 Pleasure and pain test was to be
applied to government and their policies
– those that produce greatest
happiness of the greatest number is
certainly the best

7.  BENTHAM’S THEORY
 Bentham stated that humanity was
motivated by pleasure and pain –
Hedonism
 He believed humanity pursued pleasure
and avoided pain
 Pleasure and pain identified what we
should and shouldn’t do – hedonic
utilitarianism.

8. “Pleasure is our first and kindred good. It is the starting point
of every choice and of every aversion, and to it we always
come back, inasmuch as we make feeling the rule by which to
judge of every good thing.”
“When we say, then, that pleasure is the end and the aim, we do not
mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we
are understood to do through ignorance, prejudice, or willful
misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body
and trouble in the soul. It is not an unbroken succession of drinking
bouts and of revelry, not sexual lust, not the enjoyment of fish and other
delicacies of a luxurious table, that produces a pleasant life. It is rather
sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of choice and avoidance,
and banishing those beliefs that lead to the tumult of the soul.”

9.  BENTHAM’S THEORY
 The principle of utility:-
 There are two sovereign masters – given by
nature : Pain and Happiness
 This govern what we ought to do – they
determine what we shall do – what is right
and wrong –
 Normative & Prescriptive: how to act to
maximize pleasure & minimize pain but also
advocate how to achieve it.

10.  BENTHAM’S THEORY
 The principle of utility:-
 The rightness or wrongness of an act is
determined by its usefulness.
 Usefulness refers to the amount of pleasure
or happiness caused by an action.
 Also known as the greatest happiness
principle.
 An action is right if it produces the greatest
good (pleasure or happiness) for the greatest
number.
 Democracy is based on Utilitarianism.

11. Two Formulations of Utilitarian
Theory
Principle of
Utility: The best
action is that
which produces
the greatest
happiness
and/or reduces
pain.
Greatest Happiness:
We ought to do
that which
produces the
greatest
happiness and
least pain for the
greatest number
of people.

12. The Ethical Judgments in Utilitarianism
 Utilitarianism says that the Result or
the Consequence of an Act is the real
measure of whether it is good or bad.
 This theory emphasizes Ends over
Means.
 Theories, like this one, that emphasize
the results or consequences are called
teleological or consequentialist.
 Universalism: The consequences to be
considered are those of everyone
affected, and everyone equally

13.  In determining the quantity of happiness that might
be produced by an action, we evaluate the possible
consequences by applying several values:
 The Hedonic Calculus was Bentham’s method of
weighing up pleasure and pain:
 7 factors to be taken into consideration:
 Intensity – Duration – (Un)certainty – Remoteness
(propinquity) – Fecundity (will more pain follow this
pain?) – Purity – Extent (how many people will it
affect?).
 The balance of pleasure and pain can be compared
and the morally correct action will follow.

14. The utility equation
 Sum over all people (the i’s) — extent
 Sum over all kinds of pleasure/pain (the j’s)
 Six variables for each kind of pleasure or pain:
Intensity Nearness
(propinquity)
Duration Fecundity
Certainty Purity
 Positive for pleasure, negative for pain
U = ∑i ∑j (Iij + Dij + Cij + Nij + Fij +
Pij)

15.  Is it a moral Philosophy? Or promoting the selfish
interest of man?
 It is concerned with the happiness of others too –
not individual alone
 Acc. to Bentham when one decides to act in a
particular manner, ones has to be impartial
between one’s own pleasure and that of those
affected by that act..

16. Community and Society is just membership of
various/several individuals – so interest of community is
the sum of the interest of several members who compost
it.
Action of one individual determines the circle of
individuals affected by it. Thus an individual has to
consider the pleasure and pain of those few around him
who may be affected by his action.
Human being is guided by four motives
Social
Semi Social
A Social
Dissocial

17. Human being seeks happiness of their own and that of
others – how can they obtain what they seek – for
Bentham human happiness depends on the service men
rendered to each other
Society: When number of person are in term of
conversing with each other and not in habit of paying
obedience to a person or assemblage of person they are
said to be in a state of natural society...and when
number of person are supposed to be in the habit of
paying obedience to a person or assemblage of person
such person all together are said to be in a state of
political society.

18. Need for State: Action of men produce unhappiness
– but govt cannot be exercised with coercion or
force – bound to produce more unhappiness –
-- without govt there would be more unhappiness –
so reason of the state is that through coercion it is
able to attach sanction to certain unhappiness
producing actions so that individual will not be
motivated to perform it... thus creates a system of
rights and obligation to further the welfare of the
society... End of the state is greatest happiness of
the greatest number
How is this to be achieved– through government
which has four main aim/objectives/end

19. Subsistence: absence of everything that leads to physical
suffering – if individual is not capable government intervenes
Abundance: necessary to maximize happiness – prosperity –
surplus of wealth – guaranteeing each man the due reward
for his work and protection of his possession
Security: protection of persons property, reputation,
condition of life – govt’s responsibility to provide all its
citizens security by sanction, rights and obligation
Equality: four type of inequality – moral, intellectual,
economic and political – main concern economical and
political - economic – distribution of wealth – political -
democracy
Minimize power attached to public officer to bare minimum –
making them accountable-

20. Subsistence: absence of everything that leads to physical
suffering – if individual is not capable government intervenes
Abundance: necessary to maximize happiness – prosperity –
surplus of wealth – guaranteeing each man the due reward
for his work and protection of his possession
Security: protection of persons property, reputation,
condition of life – govt’s responsibility to provide all its
citizens security by sanction, rights and obligation
Equality: four type of inequality – moral, intellectual,
economic and political – main concern economical and
political - economic – distribution of wealth – political -
democracy
Minimize power attached to public officer to bare minimum –
making them accountable-

21. Abundance: Economic Idea
 Advocate Laissez Faire – but not minimal
state – state necessary to provide happiness
– advocates a welfare state
 Favours private property – founded on
expectation – condition for economic
enterprise & investment
 The mass of national wealth would increase if
the wealth of individual increase and each
person was the best judge of his own
interest- govt. should not interfere with such
activity of individual freedom to pursue the
best economic opportunities.

22. Liberty
 Advocate Laissez Faire – but not minimal
state – state necessary to provide happiness
– advocates a welfare state
 Favours private property – founded on
expectation – condition for economic
enterprise & investment
 The mass of national wealth would increase if
the wealth of individual increase and each
person was the best judge of his own
interest- govt. should not interfere with such
activity of individual freedom to pursue the
best economic opportunities.

23. Three ways of responding
to crime:
• Retribution
• Deterrence
• Rehabilitation
1. Prison reform: deterrence and rehabilitation,
not vengeance

24. Deterrence
Attach penalties to
certain sorts of
actions.

25. Deterrence
So that people won’t
do them.

26. Rehabilitation
Provide education and
other kinds of help
Why? So that criminals
will be changed into good
citizens.

27.  According to Bentham, for any policy it is
considering, the state, should determine how
that policy’s adoption would affect each
individual’s personal well of happiness—
either by increasing or decreasing the amount
in it.
 Maximizing the happiness of the state: means
maximizing the happiness of members of its
community.

28.  Advantages: has been persistently appealing
to generations of politicians, policymakers,
and theorists, very attractive to proponents of
the modern welfare state

29. Much of welfare economics is grounded on
Utilitarianism principles – it takes into account the
result of social arrangements – draws attention to the
overall wellbeing of people involve.
-In economic terms – policy goal – out put based –
GDP and GNP – economic well being measured
-Overlook inequalities
-Contemporary revision - Singer, Popper and Rawls
more recently – A Sen and also Martha Nussbaun

30. Preference Utilitarianism
•Associated with RM Hare and Peter Singer
•The goal or ‘telos’ of ethical action should
not be happiness but the satisfaction of
one’s preferences.
•e.g. a pupil might choose to play football
bare foot because he thinks he plays better
without boots

31. •Associated with Karl Popper
•Actions should not strive to create or maximise
pleasure…
•They should seek to reduce the amount of pain existing
in society
•The avoidance of pain is seen as being a more valuable
goal than the creation of happiness
Negative Utilitarianism

32.  Criticisms:
 can we really measure people’s happiness,
assuming that happiness only differs in
quantity, not in quality?
J S Mill: we intuitively think that experiences
of “pleasure” not only differ in quantity but
also in quality. “it is better to be a human
dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be
Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.

33.  And if the fool, or the pig, are of different
opinion, it is because they only know their
own side of the question.
 For example, some might find happiness with
a pitcher of beer and a pizza. Others may
find happiness watching a fine
Shakespearean play. The quality of
happiness is greater with the latter.

34.  the principle of utility however appealing in
theory, is impossible to implement and thus a
false moral “science”.
 Phenomenon of “diminishing
marginal utility”:

35.  While many critics has dismissed U as
an unworkable theory, many people
argue for some revision of U:
“satisfaction of preference”, a better
way proposed in the later half of 20th to
measure happiness: maximizing the
community’s “utility” simply involves
the maximal satisfaction of preferences
of people in the community.

36.  Criticisms: as for the idea of “preference
satisfaction”, people can have preferences
involving other’s harm, should we take these
preferences into account? It seems that we
need to be concerned with only people’s
“important” preferences, but how to define
“importance” here? And “importance” here
means a moral notion.

37.  As preferences change over time, how
to determine which preferences at
which time the society should take
seriously? How about preference of a
child?

38.  More serious problems plaguing the theory,
having to do with the kind of policy
recommendations it would generate if its
foundational assumptions could be better
clarified and defended: If maximizing the
total happiness depended upon impoverishing
some members of the society? It strikes as
unfair and violates our intuitions about justice.

39.  It is the fact that U does not have a principled
commitment to equality to which critics object
and that makes them reject it as a theory of
 justice. It is not enough that the theory may
be able usually to generate egalitarian
policies that eschew the impoverishment of
some; these critics require a theory of justice
that will always be committed to such policies.
U has no principled way of precluding
sacrifices on the part of individuals for the
benefit of the community that are too great
and that cannot be morally defended.

40.  Criticisms:
 can every one’s pleasure be measured? How
about different types of happiness?
 second : if we can’t exactly know how happy
any of us is, how can politicians or
policymakers know how happy we are?