Language

1. Language
1
By: BishaaraAdam

2.  Simple Sentence: a simple sentence is a sentence with one independent clause.
Example: Maahil waited for the train.
 Compound Sentence: a compound sentence contains two or more independent
clauses.
Example: Maahil waited for the train, but the train was late.
 Complex Sentence: a complex sentence is a sentence that contains one
independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
Example: After they left on the bus, Aleem and Ruvaidh realized that Athoof was
waiting at the train station.
Sentence Types

3. Clauses
A clause is a collection of words that has a subject that is actively doing a verb, but
it cannot stand on its own as a sentence.
Examples:
 since she laughs at diffident men
 I hate individuals of low character
 when the people go marching in
 because she smiled at him.
There are two types of clauses: dependent and independent.

4.  If the clause could stand by itself, and form a complete sentence with punctuation,
we call the clause an independent clause.
 It can stand independently by themselves, without any extra words attached, and
be complete sentences.
 The independent clause ‘I hate individuals of low character’, could easily be
turned into a complete sentences by adding appropriate punctuation marks as ‘I
hate individuals of low character.’
Independent Clause

5.  Dependent clauses have a subordinate conjunction placed in front of the clause.
 It cannot stand independently by itself and become a complete sentence.
The dependent clause is dependent upon another clause. Examples:
 since she laughs at diffident men
 when the people go marching in
 because she smiled at him
 The subordinate conjunctions cause the listener to expect some extra material.
The thought is incomplete.
Dependent Clause

6. Simple Sentences
A simple sentence is a sentence with one independent clause. Examples:
1. Maahil waited for the train.
2. The bus was late.
3. Ruvaidh and Hanoon took the bus.
4. I looked for Iyaan and Ahnaf at the bus station.
5. Ivaan and Aleem arrived at the bus station early but waited until noon for the bus.

7. A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses connected to one
another with a coordinating conjunction.
Coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of the words "FAN
BOYS": for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Examples:
1. Maahil waited for the train, but the train was late.
2. Ivaan and Aleem arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left on the bus
before I arrived.
3. Ruvaidh and Hanoon left on the bus before I arrived, so I did not see them at
the bus station.
Compound Sentences

8. Complex Sentences
 A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one independent clause and one
or more dependent clauses.
 The dependent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the independent
clause, as in the following: After they left on the bus, Aleem and Ruvaidh
realized that Athoof was waiting at the train station.
 When the dependent clause comes first, a comma should be used to separate the
two clauses.
 Conversely, the independent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the
dependent clause, as in the following: Aleem and Ruvaidh realized that Athoof
was waiting at the train station after they left on the bus.
 When the independent clause comes first, a comma should not be used to
separate the two clauses.

9. Punctuation
 Punctuation marks are essential when you are writing.
 Punctuation shows how the sentence should be read and makes the meaning
clear.
 They show the reader where sentences start and finish and if they are used
properly, they make your writing easy to understand.
 Full stop (.)
 Comma (,)
 Semicolon (;)
 Colon (:)
 Apostrophe (')
 Hyphen (-)
 Brackets ( [ ] or ( ) )
 Inverted commas (‘ ’)
 Exclamation mark (!)
 Question mark (?)
 Slash ( / )
The Basic Signs of Punctuation

10. Full stop ( . )
 to mark the end of a sentence that is a complete statement: All their meals
arrived at the same time.
 in website and email addresses: www.English Language.com
 in some abbreviations, for example etc., Jan., or Tel. No.:
Please return the form by Monday 8 Dec. at the latest.
The shop has groceries, toiletries, etc. and is open all day.
 If an abbreviation with a full stop comes at the end of a sentence you don’t
need to add another full stop: Bring your own pens, pencils, rulers, etc.
Question mark (?)
 A question mark is used to indicate the end of a question: Have you seen
the film yet?
 A question mark can also be used in brackets to show that the writer is
unconvinced by a statement: The bus timetable appears to be accurate (?).

11. Comma ( , )
 A comma marks a slight break between different parts of a sentence. Here are the
main cases when you need to use a comma:
 in lists: The flag was red, white, and blue.
 to separate clauses: As we had already arrived, we were reluctant to wait.
 to mark off parts of a sentence: Her friend, Ria, sang for a living.
 in direct speech. When a writer quotes a speaker’s words exactly as they were
spoken, this is known as direct speech.
 If direct speech comes after the information about who is speaking, use a
comma to introduce the direct speech: Steve replied, ‘No problem.’
 Use a comma at the end of a direct speech, if the speech comes before the
information about who is speaking: ‘I don’t agree,’ I replied.
 If direct speech takes the form of a question or an exclamation, end it with a
question mark or an exclamation mark:
‘Stop him!’ she shouted.
‘Did you see that?’ he asked.

12. Semicolon ( ; )
 The semicolon is most commonly used to mark a break that is stronger than a
comma but not as final as a full stop.
 It’s used between two main clauses that balance each other and are too
closely linked to be made into separate sentences.
For example: The film was a critical success; its lead actors were particularly praised.
Colon ( : )
 between two main clauses in cases where the second clause explains or
follows from the first: We have a motto: live life to the full.
 to introduce a list: The cost of the room included the following: breakfast,
dinner, and Wi-Fi.
 before a quotation, and sometimes before direct speech:
The headline read: ‘Saves Children’.
They shouted: ‘Our families are starving! We need land!’

13. Apostrophe ( ' )
 To show possession. To show that a thing or person belongs or relates to
someone or something.
 Yesterday’s weather was bad.
 Malcolm's cat was extremely friendly.
 To show omission. To indicate missing letters or numbers.
I’m - short for I am
pick ’n’ mix - short for pick and mix
it’s hot - short for it is hot
I was born on ’89 (short for 1989).
Hyphen ( - )
 Hyphens are used to link words and parts of words.
• My mother-in-law is visiting soon.
• He is a good-looking man.
• He is a well-known writer.

14. Brackets ( [ ] or ( ) )
 Round brackets ( ) are used to separate information that isn’t essential to the
meaning of the rest of the sentence. The sentence would make sense without the
bracketed material . For example: Mount Everest (8,848m) is the highest mountain.
 They can also be used to enclose a comment by the person writing: He’d
clearly had too much to drink (not that I blamed him).
 Square brackets are [ ] used to enclose words added by someone other than
the original writer or speaker: He [the police officer] can’t prove they did it.
If brackets are used at the end of a sentence, the full stop should be placed outside the
closing bracket.
Slash ( / )
 Slash ( / ) is used to indicate a choice between the words it separates: Dear
Sir/Madam
 Notice there is no space between the slash and the letters on either side of it.
 Some abbreviations:
n/a or N/A = not applicable or not available
w/o = without

15. Inverted commas (‘single ’ or ‘double’)
 to mark the beginning & end of direct speech: ‘What time will he arrive?’ she
asked.
 to mark off a word or phrase that’s being discussed, or that’s being directly
quoted from somewhere else: What does ‘night blindness’ mean?
 to draw attention to an unusual, ironic, or arguably inaccurate use: The 'food'
she put on our plates were inedible.
Exclamation mark (!)
 The main uses of the exclamation mark (most commonly used in informal writing)
are to end sentences that express:
 an exclamation: a word or phrase that expresses strong emotion, such as surprise,
pleasure, or anger: Ow! That hurts!
 direct speech that represents something shouted or spoken very loudly: 'Run as
fast as you can!' he shouted.
 something that amuses the writer: They thought I was an artist!
 in brackets after a statement to show that the writer finds it funny or ironic:
He thought it would be amusing (!) to throw a plastic mouse at me.

16. Language Register
 Language register is the level and style of your writing or speaking.
 The language register determines the vocabulary, structure, and some grammar in
your writing.
 The three most common language registers in writing are:
 Formal
 Informal
 Neutral
 We use different language registers for different types of writing, just as we speak
differently to different people. It should be appropriate for the situation you are in.

17. Formal Language Register
 The formal language register is more appropriate for professional or formal writing.
Formal writing includes:
 Business Letters
 Some essays
 Reports
 Official speeches
 Announcements
 Professional emails

18. Informal Language Register
 The informal register is conversational and appropriate when writing to friends,
family and people you know very well. Informal writing includes:
 Personal e-mails
 Phone texts
 Short notes
 Friendly letters
 Diaries and journals

19. Formal Language Register Rules
 Do not use contractions: I’m - short for I am
 Spell out numbers less than one hundred: nineteen, twenty-two
 Always write in complete sentences.
 Write longer, more complex sentences.
 Write in third person point of view. Avoid using: I, You, We, Us.
 Avoid using slang, abbreviations and acronyms
Examples of slang: awesome/cool, okay/ok
Examples of acronyms: WHO – World Health Organization
Examples of abbreviations : influenza – flu, tablespoon - tbsp.
 Do not start sentences with words like and, so, but, also
Use good transition words and phrases: Nevertheless, However, In addition, As a
result of, Although