1.
Are Women Second-Class
Citizens in Islam?
Rights of Muslim Women: A Work in
Progress

2.
The role of women in Muslim society
 has changed significantly in the centuries since Islam began in Arabia in
the early 600s. Their position has varied with shifting social, economic,
and political circumstances. Although Islam regards men and women as
morally equals in the sight of God, women have not had equal access to
many areas of Islamic life.

3.
Before the rise of Islam,
 Arabs lived in a traditional, patriarchal (male-dominated) society. Men
regarded women as their property, to be married or divorced at will. No
limitations on polygyny (a form of plural marriage in which a man is allowed
more than one wife) existed. Women generally did not have a say in the
choice of a husband. Once married, they lacked financial security, as the
groom's dowry was paid directly to the bride's male relatives. Female
infanticide (the killing of baby girls at birth) was common.

4.
With the advent of Islam,
 the status of women improved considerably. The Qur'an and the sunnah
emphasized the spiritual equality of all Muslims. Islamic law recognized a
woman's right to choose her own marriage partner, and it set limits on the
practice of polygyny. A man could have as many as four wives, if he could
provide for and treat them equally. Islamic regulations also defined
marriage as a contract between a man and a woman or a man and a
woman's legal guardian (wali).
 They also required the groom to pay the dowry directly to the bride. In
addition, the Qur'an and sunnah specified that women are entitled to
inherit wealth and that married women should be able to control their
own money and property. These sources further stated that husbands must
support their wives financially during marriage and for a certain period
after a divorce.

5.
The status of women in Muslim
countries
 has long been looked to as evidence of “Islam’s” oppression of women in
matters ranging from the freedom to dress as they please to legal rights in
divorce. The true picture of women in Islam is far more complex. The
Qur’an declares that men and women are equal in the eyes of God; man
and woman were created to be equal parts of a pair (Chapter 41 Verse
49). The Qur’an describes the relationship between men and women as
one of “love and mercy” (30:21), so that men and women are to serve as
“partners of one another (3:195), as “protectors, one of another” (9:71).
They are to be like each other’s garment (2:187).

6.
But according to Quran
 Men and women are equally responsible for adhering to the Five Pillars of
Islam. Chapter 9 Verses 71–72 states, “The Believers, men and women, are
protectors of one another; they enjoin what is just, and forbid what is
evil; they observe regular prayers, pay zakat and obey God and His
Messenger. On them will God pour His mercy: for God is exalted in Power,
Wise.
 God has promised to Believers, men and women, gardens under which
rivers flow, to dwell therein.” This verse draws added significance from
the fact that it was the last Qur’an verse to be revealed that addressed
relations between men and women. Some scholars argue, on the basis of
both content and chronology, that this verse outlines the ideal vision of
that relationship in Islam—one of equality and mutuality.

7.
Muslim women in early Islam had
numerous public roles
 in such different fields as the economy, education, religion, and the
military. For example, Khadija b. Khuwaylid (d. 619), the Prophet’s first
wife, was renowned among the Quraysh for her business acumen.
 During wartime, Muslim women participated in the military. Muhammad
used to bring his wives to the battlefields.

8.
Women have been assigned second-
class status in Muslim society
 based upon a misinterpretation of the Qur’an’s Chapter 4 Verse 34, which
says “Men are the guardians of women, (on the basis) that God has granted
some of them merits greater than others and (on the basis) that they
spend of their property (for the support of women).” However,
contemporary scholars have noted that the “guardianship” referred to in
this verse is based upon men’s socioeconomic responsibilities for women.
It does not say women are incapable of managing their own affairs,
controlling themselves or being leaders, nor does it say that all men are
superior to, preferred to or better than all women.

9.
Another justification of second-class
status for women
 may have been derived from the Qur’anic stipulation (2:282) that two
female witnesses are equal to one male witness. If one female witness
errs, the other can remind her of the truth. Over time, this was
interpreted by male scholars to mean that a woman’s testimony should
always be given half the weight of a man’s. Contemporary scholars point
out that the verse specifies witnessing in cases of a written transaction,
contract or court case. At the time the Qur’an was revealed, most women
were not active in business and finance, and a woman’s expertise in these
fields was likely to have been less than a man’s.

10.
Another area in which gender
discrimination has been apparent
 historically is in the matter of divorce. The Qur’an, however, guarantees
women equality with respect to the right of divorce. The Qur’an also
restricts the practice of polygamy. Chapter 4 Verse 3 commands, “Then
marry such of the women as appeal to you, two, three or four; but if you
fear that you cannot be equitable, then only one.” A corollary verse,
4:129, states, “You will never be able to treat wives equitably, even if you
are bent on doing that.” Contemporary interpreters have argued that
these two verses together prohibit polygamy and that the true Qur’anic
ideal is monogamy.

11.
Different Standards?
 Muslim women must observe the Pillars of Islam, including praying five
times each day, fasting during the holy month of Ramadan, and—like every
Muslim who is physically and financially able—making at least one
pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca. However, women may not pray, fast,
or touch the Qur'an during menstruation or for a period following
childbirth. During these times, they are considered to be ritually impure.
In addition, women who are pregnant or nursing are exempt from fasting
during Ramadan. Nonetheless, they must make up the days that they have
missed at a later time.

12.
Ideas about whether women should
pray in mosques or
 in their homes have changed over time. According to the hadith, the
Prophet commanded men not to bar women from public worship. In the
days of Muhammad, women performed the morning prayer at the mosque,
although they were required to line up in rows behind the men. They left
the mosque before the men, preventing, at least in theory, any contact
between the sexes.
 During the caliphate of Umar ibn al-Khattab, women had to pray in a separate
room of the mosque with their own imam. By about 700, Muslim religious
authorities completely banned women from mosques. They justified their
reversal of the Prophet's order by claiming that public spaces were unsafe for
women.

13.
Studies from a number of different
Islamic countries indicate that:
 the presence of women in public is considered to be a source of
temptation and conflict. Therefore, keeping them out of mosques is
regarded as necessary to preserve the holiness and dignity of religious
ceremonies. For centuries, mosques were primarily male spaces. The
Islamic resurgence that has swept the Muslim world since the 1970s has
modified these attitudes. Recently, Muslims have constructed mosques
that provide a separate space for women. However, the women often
remain isolated in areas where they cannot see the preacher, which
reinforces their marginal role in mosques.
 Although almost always separated during Muslim religious observances,
men and women interact on the pilgrimage to Mecca. Moreover, while
performing the hajj, women do not have to cover their faces.

14.
The 20th century has brought
 numerous significant reforms for women’s rights in both the public and the
private spheres. In the overwhelming majority of Muslim countries, women
have the right to public education, including at the college level. In many
countries, they also have the right to work outside the home, vote and
hold public office. Particularly notable in recent years have been the
reforms in marriage and divorce laws.

15.
Why does Islam separate men and
women?
 Many, though not all, Muslim societies practice some gender segregation,
the separation of men and women in public spaces. Thus, in many mosques
men and women have separate areas for prayer or are separated by a
screen or curtain, and unmarried men do not mix with unmarried women
except in very specific contexts, such as a meeting between two potential
spouses that occurs in the presence of a chaperone.

16.
The practice of separation has both
religious and cultural origins
 Muhammad’s wives were told to keep themselves apart from society. In
the Qur’an (Chapter 33 Verses 32–33) we see, “O wives of the Prophet!
You are not like any of the other women. If you fear God, do not be
complaisant in speech so that one in whose heart is a sickness may covet
you, but speak honorably. Stay quietly in your homes and do not display
your finery as the pagans of old did.” Verse 53 tells Muslim men, “And
when you ask (his wives) for anything you want, ask them from before a
screen. That makes for greater purity for your hearts and for theirs.”

17.
The practice of segregation is also tied
to
 the concept of women as a source of sexual temptation for men. Social
interaction between unrelated men and women is regarded as potentially
leading to immoral sexual activity. Because modesty and chastity are
prized virtues in Islam, some Muslims therefore believe that unrelated
men and women should have no contact with each other.

18.
Opinions today vary
 about the necessity of separation of the sexes. Many Muslims continue to
hold fast to the belief that women are the culture-bearers of Islam, as well
as the source of male honor, but they also believe that the requirements
of modesty can be met through appropriate dress and the limitation of
interaction with unrelated males.

19.
Historical evidence indicates that
 women contributed significantly to the early development of the Muslim
community. It was woman (prophet’s wife) who first to learn of Muhammad's
initial revelation. They later played an important role in the process of
collecting all the revelations from both written and oral sources into a single,
authoritative text. Women were entrusted with vital secrets, including the
location of Muhammad's hiding place when he was being persecuted and his
plans to attack Mecca.

20.
The Prophet often consulted women and
 considered their opinions seriously. His first wife, Khadija, was his chief
adviser as well as his first and foremost supporter. His third and youngest
wife, A'ishah, was a well-known authority in medicine, history, and rhetoric.
At Muhammad's death, the distinguished women of the community were
consulted about the choice of his successor. Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (ruled
634 – 644 ) appointed women to serve as officials in the market of Medina.

21.
Breaking with Tradition
 During the 1800s, most Islamic societies came under the control of European
powers. Colonial rule brought Western ideas and values about women,
marriage, and the family to the Muslim world.

22.
Demands for reform
 led to the establishment of primary and secondary schools for girls and in
such places as the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and Iran, universities gates
were opened to women. Women founded newspapers and educational and
charitable organizations. They also joined student and nationalist
movements.

23.
In the early 1900s,
 the governments of newly independent Muslim states such as Turkey took
steps to modernize the role of women. The Turkish government adopted a
new family law that discouraged polygyny and gave women the right to
obtain divorces. Turkish women gained the right to vote in municipal and
national elections in the 1930s. Iranian leader Reza Shah Pahlavi outlawed
the practice of veiling. In general, the tradition of female seclusion declined
dramatically.

24.
During the 1950s,
 Egyptian women entered politics and were elected to public office.
Women also began to earn advanced academic degrees and to work in
professions previously closed to them. In most countries, however, new
freedoms and opportunities in education and employment benefited only
upper and middle classes in urban areas.

25.
Several factors limited these
developments
 More traditional Muslims regarded the social and political changes as anti-
Islamic and a threat to the cultural value of male superiority. Concerns
about a lack of employment opportunities among men fueled arguments
that women should stay at home in their traditional roles of wives and
mothers. Islamic states tried to balance the conflicting demands of women
and traditional Muslims by making cautious reforms.

26.
Debate continues over the appropriate
role of women
 in the community.
 Muslim societies regard women as key to social continuity and the
preservation of the family and culture. They see the status of women as
directly connected to maintaining or reforming tradition. The role of
women may also be a means of defining national identity. For example,
some of the Gulf states and other conservative rural societies follow the
practice of secluding women from unrelated men. Although Muslim
governments have promoted education for both boys and girls as a way of
achieving economic growth, the percentage of girls enrolled in schools in
developing countries remains relatively low.

27.
Poor economic and political conditions
in
 some Muslim countries have forced women to become more involved in
the outside world. Factors such as war and labor migration have increased
the number of households headed by females. Economic necessity has led
women to seek work outside the home, usually in low-paid, unskilled jobs.

28.
Many Muslim women have become
active in
 grassroots organizations, development projects, charitable associations,
and social services. During the 1990s, women achieved positions of
leadership in some parts of the Muslim world. Benazir Bhutto of Pakistan,
Tansu Ciller of Turkey, and Shaykh Hasina and Khaleda Zia of Bangladesh
served as prime ministers in their respective countries.

29.
Sufism and Shrines
 Unlike the legal and scholarly dimensions of Islamic religious life, which
depend on literacy and formal education, Sufism involves various physical and
spiritual disciplines. Traditionally, Sufi shaykhs were effective religious
teachers in Muslim society as well as popular counselors and healers. Not
surprisingly, therefore, women have been relatively more involved in the
Sufi movement than other areas of Islam. The most famous Sufi woman,
Rabiah al-Adawiyah (died 801 ), wrote poems of love for God that have
continued to inspire mystics to the present day.

30.
Rabia Basri

31.
She is not unique in the Sufi tradition
 Javad Nurbakhsh has translated into English the biographies of some 124 Sufi
women.
 Some Sufi shaykhs in the Mamluk dynasty ( 1250 – 1517 ) and Ottoman
Empire admitted women into their orders. Despite the general acceptance
of women within Sufism, however, their participation in the orders and
in dhikr, the distinctive Sufi ritual chanting of the names of God, has been
controversial. Moreover, some Sufi men have regarded women as obstacles
to their spiritual life. Today Moroccan and Algerian orders frequently have
separated women's groups with female leadership. Despite an official ban
on female membership in Egyptian Sufi brotherhoods, women continue to
participate in many of its orders.

32.
Unlike mosques,
 which are usually regarded as male spaces, shrines dedicated to Muslim saints
have traditionally been open to women.
 Muslim women frequently visit these shrines, some of which address
women's concerns, such as fertility. Visiting the shrines of saints has been
an essential part of the religious lives of Muslim women all over the world.

33.
The trend toward globalization
 presents ever-greater opportunities for Muslim women to engage in public
life. More women find that public participation provides them with an
avenue for self-expression and an opportunity to become affluent,
whereas others are driven into the public sphere by necessity. Muslim
women have availed themselves of the opportunity to contribute to the
public good in a variety of ways, such as religious teachers, lawyers,
doctors, teachers, farmers, laborers, and politicians.

34.
Although women have achieved important
advances in the public sphere,
 the idealization of the proper Muslim woman as a mother and a wife has
never died. Islamists, both male and female, continue to disseminate this
idea in order to counter ideas of women’s roles that they see as having been
imported from the West. Zaynab al-Ghazali (b. 1918), the founder of Islamic
Women’s Association, set forth a critique against women who modeled
themselves on the Western ways of life and images.
 Embedded in Islamist movements throughout the Muslim world is the ideal
image of a veiled wife and mother as the pillar of social order and family.
Some such movements praise women’s roles as mothers and wives, but
still permit them to engage in public life if need drives them to do so;
others confine women to their own households, denying them more public
roles, as in the case of the Taliban.


35.
Contraception
 Birth control is deemed permissible, provided that the means of
contraception are temporary and not irreversible. The most popular
premodern means of contraception was by way of coitus interruptus and
other forms of methods. Al- Ghazali held that it was permissible to practice
coitus interruptus if she wished to protect her body aesthetically and avoid
the changes to her body that accompany pregnancy and child birth. Birth
control can also be pursued in order to avoid the burden of material
difficulties of providing for a large family. There is almost unanimity that
vasectomy (a surgical procedure for male sterilization) and hysterectomy
(a surgery to remove a woman's uterus), unless recommended for sound
medical reasons, are not permissible, because they result in irreversible
change to the body.

36.
Birth control as part of a national
family planning programs
 whereby governments place an upper limit on the permissible size of a
family, has often been controversial and bitter in the Muslim world. Some
suspect that the Western controlled transnational institutions wish to use
family planning to limit Muslim populations. Another concern is that birth
control measures such as the pill and condoms may increase promiscuity. The
controversy remains unresolved.
 In Egypt, for instance, former al-Azhar shaykh opposed the use of the pill,
while another senior official, the state mufti, encouraged its use. With the
spread of the HIV/AIDS virus, the opposition to birth control measures has
lessened.

37.
Other Reproductive Issues
 Islamic Fiqh Committee of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)
has issued several rulings related to modern reproductive technologies.
Artificial insemination from a husband is deemed permissible, while that
from any other donor is impermissible. Islamic law insists on legitimate
paternity being an essential requirement for reproduction, thus outlawing
donor insemination, since the donor and donee are not married.

38.
Ayatollah Fadl Allah
 (Grand Ayatollah Muhammad Hussein Fadl-Allāh was a prominent Lebanese
Twelver marja) expresses some concern that a woman seeking artificial
insemination, even legitimately, might be guilty of indecent exposure of
her body to a male physician during the course of the medical procedure.
Such an indecent exposure is legally prohibited, unless an emergency
necessitates it. However, it is acceptable for a female physician to look at the
body of another female. Mufti Nizam al-Din of India outrightly prohibits
artificial insemination, declaring these procedures are contrary to religion
and natural law and increase the prospect of dehumanization.

39.
With regard to sperm banks,
 Ayatollah Fadl Allah discourages the use of a husband’s stored sperm after his
death, since the marital tie ends with death. However, he states that any
child posthumously conceived legitimately belongs to the wife and is to be
attributed to the deceased husband, cautiously avoiding the implication that
the child may be illegitimate.

40.
The Question of Abortion
 Abortion remains a vexing issue in Muslim societies. Most classical Muslim
jurists consider a fetus in the first 120 days after conception to be
nonviable. However, there is no denial that as the fetus incrementally
develops, so too does the complexity of fetal life. This point of view is
informed by the theological doctrine that the spirit (ruh) enters the fetus
around 120 days (four months) after conception. Those who take a strict
position argue that, once the sperm enters the womb, it is destined to
produce life, and thus abortion is proscribed. Given the 120-day rule,
however, many jurists find it less morally onerous to sanction a justifiable
abortion within this period.