Communication research conducted during studies at the University of Johannesburg.

1. COMMUNICATION
RESEARCH

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CONTENTS PAGE
1. Introduction Pg. 2
2. Critical Theory Pg. 2
3. Dominant Research Traditions Pg. 3
4. Positivism Pg. 3
5. Interpretivism Pg. 3-4
6. Critical Realism Pg. 4
7. Critical Theory and its Attempt Pg. 4-5
to Emancipate the Oppressed
8. Critical Theories on Power Pg. 5
§ Max Weber Pg. 5-6
Three Component theory of Stratification & Power
§ Michel Foucault: Pg. 6
Power/Knowledge is everywhere
§ Talcott Parsons: Pg. 6-7
Variable sum concept of power
9. Sources of Power in an Organisational Context Pg. 7-8
10. Conclusion Pg. 8-9
11. Reference list Pg. 10

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1. INTRODUCTION
Organisations have been associated with processes of social domination where individuals or
groups find ways of imposing their will on others. In this essay we unpack the content of critical
theories, find asymmetrical power relations that result in the majority working interest of few.
Organisations are best understood as a process of domination. Critical power theories as well
as possible sources of power in organisational context is discussed by unpacking how the
critical theory seeks to achieve the emancipation of the oppressed.
2. CRITICAL THEORY
This is a type of social theory orientated towards critiquing and changing society as a whole.
A core concept is that it should be directed at the totality of society. The theory ought to
improve one’s understanding of society by integrating all major social sciences. This theory
has become the basis of a diverse research programme, with two basic strategies used to define
critical theory: Systematic and Historical. It extends throughout social sciences and to
humanities as well. “Critical theory has more specific focus on substantive problems of
domination, a complex notion based on a concern with ways social relations also mediate
power relations to create various forms of alienation and inhibit the realization of human
possibilities.” R. A Morrow and D. D Brown, Critical theory and Methodology, volume 3.
The most important roots of critical theory in organisational communication can be found in
the work of sociologists and philosopher Karl Marx. Examining relationships between
employers and employees in a capitalist society. Theorizing about an imbalance within this
relationship and that workers would eventually rise up and revolt against capitalism. Hidden
imbalances then create conflict between workers and owners therefore resulting in a revolt of
the working class, transforming the economic system.
Organisations have both internal and external communication channels. Considering the idea
that organisations are sites of domination, organisational communication is defined in various
ways and critical facets of this concept. If communication is defined as a transactional and
symbolic process in which messages are exchanged and interpreted with the aim of establishing
mutual understandings between parties then the critical theory is relevant to organisational
communication. Routing back to Marx’s idea that workers will eventually revolt, the workers
would not have revolted if there was not imbalances to be addressed, for that simple reason in
organisational communication a mutual understanding has to be established both internally and
externally to ensure efficiency, transparency etc. to avoid any conflict from arising, because in
organisations today all stakeholders feelings, thoughts and perceptions need to be considered.

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3. DOMINANT RESEARCH TRADITIONS
The epistemological position: epistemology is a compound word that means knowledge which
is linked back to the idea of the study of science. It deals with the context of knowledge and
various ways of knowing. This position therefore deals with questions such as what counts as
knowledge and what those limitations are. The ontological position deals with the study of
being. Views the existence or reality and includes assumptions made about a particular
phenome. The axiological position is derived from the Greek term Axious, meaning worthy.
Axiology then refers to the study of values in research. It questions the role of values in research
and sheds light on what is valued in a particular paradigm or tradition.
4. POSITIVISM
This concept can broadly be defined as the approach of natural sciences. It uses natural science
methods to study certain phenomena. Social phenomena include: The epistemological position
which places focus on what is regarded as valid knowledge. Their beliefs is that valid
knowledge can only be gained from objective, observable evidence, for example the reading
speed of a student and their academic performance is determined by variables such as their IQ,
substance abuse, hours spent studying etc. to assure that it is indeed the reading speed affecting
academic performance.
The ontological position of positivism focuses on reality and stability of social and physical
external reality that is governed by rules or laws. The axiological position of positivism values
objectivity and free research that is not tainted by personal bias. Value is placed on factors such
as honesty, integrity, dignity etc. which in turn means that the result of a particular scenario
would have to be described exactly without any distortion.
5. INTERPRETIVISM
For every action there is a reaction. Interpretivism has developed as a reaction to the
shortcomings and limitations of positivism. The main idea is that people are different from
objects. Interpretivism is influenced by intellectual traditions.
The epistemological position of interpretivist opposes the view of that of positivists. They
challenge the view by arguing that common sense guides people in daily living. For example
in some cultures polygamy is acceptable, having more than one wife is not frowned upon but
for some it is regarded as disrespectful, unacceptable and even illegal in some countries.

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The ontological position of interpretivist believes that reality is a social construction and is
dependent on the meanings that people ascribe to their own experiences and interactions with
others. The axiological position of interpretivist values complex understandings of unique
realities. They do not attempt to conduct value-free research. They only discuss values that
shape research.
6. CRITCAL REALISM
Critical realism is born out of frustration with positivisms, non-humanistic, narrowly focused
and emphasises on casual nature of universal laws.
The epistemological position of critical realism does not view knowledge as permanent, but as
something that should be previewed within its historical context. The ontological position of
critical realism states that critical realists propose that there are certain institutions, practices
and ideologies to which members of society ascribe due to socialisation and indoctrination.
The axiological position says that critical realists accept a degree of subjectivism and support
the idea that it is almost impossible to do value free research.
7. CRITICAL THEORY AND ITS ATTEMPT TO EMANCIPATE THE OPPRESSED
A theory is critical to the extent that it seeks human “emancipation from slavery”, acts as a
“liberating influence”, and works “to create a world which satisfies the needs and powers” of
human beings (Horkheimer 1972, 246), drawing from this statement we see that critical theory
is grounded in emancipation of the oppressed. Critical theories essentially aim to explain and
transform all the circumstances that enslave human beings. They have emerged in connection
with the many social movements that identify varied dimensions of the domination of human
beings in modern societies (Bohman, J. 2015).
Critical theorist seek to distinguish their aims, theories and forms of explanations in hope of
achieving human emancipation in circumstances of domination and oppression. Critical
theories tackle emancipation of the oppressed by stating what is wrong with current social
reality, help to identify the actors to change it and provide both clear norms for criticism and
achievable practical goals for social transformation (Bohman, J. 2015). Human beings are used
as the objects and producers of their own historical form of life.
The practical goal deals with identifying and overcoming circumstances which limit human
freedom, the goal however can only be furthered by means of interdisciplinary research which
includes psychological, cultural, and social dimensions, as well as institutional forms of

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domination. Critical theories also tackle the transformation of contemporary capitalism into a
consensual for of social living (Bohman, J. 2015).
The normative orientation or idea of critical theory is towards the transformation of capitalism
into real democracy in which democratic control can be exercised. Critical theory as a
normative theory relates to the transformation Kantian ethics of autonomy into the conception
of freedom and justice in which democracy and democratic ideals play major roles (Bohman,
J. 2015.).
8. CRITICAL THEORIES ON POWER
Max Weber/Three Component theory of Stratification & Power.
According to Three Component theory of Stratification developed by Max Weber, he discusses
class, status and power as distinct but interrelated ideal types. Webber posts the argument that
an individual’s power takes on/or can be seen in multiple forms. He explains that a person’s
power can be shown in social order through their personal status, in an economic spectrum
through their personal class and in the political order through their choice of party. These three
components make up the aspects which form part of the distribution of power within a
community.
Furthermore, the concept of power is divided into two parts i.e. Power vs Authority. In this
theory Weber defines power as the ability to realise ones will against resistance. Weber argues
that power can be either Authoritative (legitimate and/or obeyed power) or Coercive (Non
legitimate power) with both fundamentally being based on force. Weber then focuses on three
types of authority within the power spectrum.
Charismatic Authority where an individual’s power is seen as supernatural and exceptional and
uses emotional appeal to sway ones followers. Traditional Authority where royalty and nobility
come into context. The established customs and traditions of a particular group are seen as
correct and obedience of followers is required based on inherited traditional status i.e. that of a

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king or duke. Lastly, Rational/Legal Authority which is the most common form, wherein
authority of an individual is accepted because of a legal framework.
Michel Foucault: Power/Knowledge is everywhere.
‘Power is everywhere’, diffused and embodied in discourse, knowledge and ‘regimes of truth’
(Foucault 1991: Rabinow 1991). Foucault argues that power is not concentrated with
individuals, instead it is dispersed and pervasive. Power makes us who we are and guides what
we chose to do. According to his theory power and knowledge produce one another and
without the latter there can be neither.
Foucault further explains that power is exercised and not possessed by entities. Power is merely
the tool used to achieve what an individual wants. Foucault draws the point that power is a key
aspect of discipline which is a feature of modern societies. ‘Power is everywhere’ and ‘comes
from everywhere’ so in this sense is neither an agency nor structure (Foucault 1998: 63).
Foucault is one of the few theorists who recognise power as a positive and not only as a coercive
or repressive thing which forces people to do things against their will. His approach to power
transcends politics and sees power as an everyday, socialised and embodied phenomenon.
Talcott Parsons: Variable sum concept of power.
According to the variable sum theory of power developed by Talcott Parsons, power is defined
as the capacity to mobilize societal resources for collective goals. This theory argues the idea
that power is not held by an individual but rather by society as a whole. Power is dependent on
large scale cooperation of society who in turn is guided by an elected leader who the society
has deposited power into, however power resides ultimately with the members of society.

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Parsons explains that power develops in society through value consensus as these are
fundamental for the survival of society. He further elaborates that shared values help society
achieve collective goals and in turn power is used as the driver to further collective goals.
Parsons states clearly that the degree to which collective goals are achieved is the true
measurement of power.
This view is seen as the variable sum concept of power, since power in society is not seen as
fixed or constant, instead it is variable in the sense where it may increase or decrease. Parsons
discussion of power is largely directed towards the flaws of traditional views of power as
embodied in zero sum theories.
9. SOURCES OF POWER IN AN ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT.
The constant sum concept of power is derived from the Weberian theory of power wherein he
explains that power is a fixed amount that is held to the extent which is not held by others.
Weberian theory argues that power is often used to promote personal interest of the
powerholder rather than the community at large.
Michael Mann, a British born theorist/sociologist discusses the sources as the big four. His
theory explains that power sources are derived from four different aspects; Economy: where
there is control over the means of production, Ideologies: where there is power over ideas
and/or beliefs, Politics: where there is power over activities of state and lastly, Military: where
physical coercion is used to execute power.
According to French, J & Raven, B, (1959) there are five bases of power which consists of
legitimate power, reward power, coercive power, referent power and expert power. These bases
of power seek to explain how we go about doing things. These concepts have been applied
internationally in the applied communications world.

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Legitimate is the power given to an individual based on their position or role, this source of
power is also known as positional power. It is determined by the hierarchy of an organisation
where managers of lower rank report back to those of higher rank. Legitimate power can only
be achieved by direct promotion.
Reward power is closely connected to legitimate power, this power allows the holder to deal
out incentives and compensation for work well performed within the organisation. Reward
power can be highly positive if used fairly to motivate employees. This source of power needs
to be exercised fairly, if favouritism is used, this could demotivate employees making reward
power less legitimate. Referent power is the ability of an individual to influence others because
he is either respected, admired or liked. Referent power can be attained by building social
capital or befriending others with referent power.
Expert power is the ability to influence others because of recognised talent, abilities and
knowledge. The key to attainment of expert power is knowing of ones job, looking for skillset
sets which help one aid others in doing their jobs and understanding how to build onto those
skills. Coercive power is the most feared source of power. This power entails the ability to
punish others for poor performance. People who have this power can influence others by their
ability to threaten and/or punish. Coercive power helps keep the workforce in line and if
exercised alongside good management will not have to be severe.
10. CONCLUSION
This critical theory orientation posts three important questions. First, does Critical Theory
suggest a distinctive form of social inquiry? Second, what sort of knowledge does such
inquiry provide in order to provide insight into social circumstances and justify social
criticism of current ideals and institutions? Finally, what sort of verification does critical
inquiry require? (Bohman, J. 2015).

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‘As new forms of critical theory emerge related to racism, sexism, and colonialism, reflective
social agents have transformed these same democratic ideals and practices in the interest of
emancipation’ (Bohman, J. 2015.), drawing from this statement we see that democratic ideals
and power act in favour of emancipation of the oppressed, and this is the degree of
measurement for a good critical theory. We conclude our essay with a quote from Abraham
Lincoln which reads as follows; ‘nearly all man can stand adversity, but if you want to test a
person’s character, give him power’.

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REFERENCES
Bohman, J. 2015. “Critical Theory” The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (Winter
Edition 2015) Zalta, E.N. (ed), Accessed: 01 April 2016
http://plato.standford.edu/archives/win2015/entries/critical-theory/
French, J & Raven, B. 1959. The Bases of Social Power. In Studies in Social Power, D,
Cartwright (ed). Pp 150-167. Ann Arbor, ML: Institute for Social Research.
Foucault, M. 1991. Discipline and Punish: the birth of a prison. London. Penguin.
G. Angelopulo & R. Barker, Integrated Organisational Communication, Second edition,
2013.
Haralambos, Michael and Holborn, Martin (eds). 2004. Sociology: Themes and Perspectives
(Sixth Edition). London: Harper Collins.
K. Miller, Organisational Communication, Approaches and Processes, Third edition.
Rabinow, Paul (ed). 1991. The Foucault Reader: An Introduction to Foucault’s thought.
London. Penguin.
R. A Morrow and D. D Brown, Critical Theory and Methodology, Volume 3.
https://organisationsasdomination.wordpress.com