This is a summarise of chapter 7 of Contrastive Analysis book by Carl James in Some Issues of Contention as a Midterm Project of CA course in TEFL at PAYAM NOOR University (Distance Education)
Pragmatics and Discourse , context & speech actsNaeemIqbal88
Pragmatics and Discourse
What is pragmatics?
An approach within DA which concentrates on the way language
acquires meaning in use. It has developed from the tradition of the
philosophy of language known as pragmatics.
Focus: The study of contextualised meaning and is concerned with
describing the principles that underlie how we interpret the meaning
behind words: how we get from what we say to what we mean.
Pragmatic approaches tend to be interested in the 'big picture': trying
to formulate generalisable principles about how people produce and
interpret discourse (eg’ the use of humour in business meetings’).
Context
Context is an important concept in DA. Language does not take place in a vacuum and we
need to consider the context in which it occurs in order to understand it.
However, this seemingly unproblematic statement masks the issues and debates that are
ongoing in discourse analysis around the concept of context and its significance.
Two types of context
The 'intrinsic' or 'linguistic' context which refers to information that can be found
within the text that surrounds the language that is being analysed at a particular
moment. It is generally agreed that this type of context is not only useful but essential.
The more problematic type of context lies outside the actual text: what is sometimes
called 'extrinsic' (Schegloff 1997) or 'experiential' context.
This refers to all sorts of information about setting, situation, social circumstances of the
participants such as age, gender, ethnicity and possibly also about the shared
background knowledge and assumptions of the participants.
So, in the example:
'Later, an item about vasectomy and the results of the do-it-yourself competition'
(from Cameron 2001:12)
 The issue with extrinsic context is moving from description to interpretation in
research. Along with describing 'what' is happening in the discourse , it is also
important to interpret 'why' it is happening.
 Extrinsic contextual evidence can be potentially very useful in discussing why
participants say a particular thing in a particular way at a particular time,
however, there is also a danger of 'reading too much into the text' and of
judging which out of many possible interpretations is the 'right' one.
For instance, if the analyst is aware of gender, age or ethic difference among
discourse participants, these variables may well appear to influence the
discourse but how do we know which of these particular variables are
important to the participants in an particular communicative event.
 This is not to say that we should ignore extrinsic context but to suggest that we
need to be cautious about what we select as significant and rigorous about how
we incorporate it into our analyses. Schegloff (1997) advises that the best
option is to use only what can be shown to be relevant to participants.
 Can you imagine a meaningful context for this text?
a. Which of you was the prawns?
Pragmatics and Discourse , context & speech actsNaeemIqbal88
Pragmatics and Discourse
What is pragmatics?
An approach within DA which concentrates on the way language
acquires meaning in use. It has developed from the tradition of the
philosophy of language known as pragmatics.
Focus: The study of contextualised meaning and is concerned with
describing the principles that underlie how we interpret the meaning
behind words: how we get from what we say to what we mean.
Pragmatic approaches tend to be interested in the 'big picture': trying
to formulate generalisable principles about how people produce and
interpret discourse (eg’ the use of humour in business meetings’).
Context
Context is an important concept in DA. Language does not take place in a vacuum and we
need to consider the context in which it occurs in order to understand it.
However, this seemingly unproblematic statement masks the issues and debates that are
ongoing in discourse analysis around the concept of context and its significance.
Two types of context
The 'intrinsic' or 'linguistic' context which refers to information that can be found
within the text that surrounds the language that is being analysed at a particular
moment. It is generally agreed that this type of context is not only useful but essential.
The more problematic type of context lies outside the actual text: what is sometimes
called 'extrinsic' (Schegloff 1997) or 'experiential' context.
This refers to all sorts of information about setting, situation, social circumstances of the
participants such as age, gender, ethnicity and possibly also about the shared
background knowledge and assumptions of the participants.
So, in the example:
'Later, an item about vasectomy and the results of the do-it-yourself competition'
(from Cameron 2001:12)
 The issue with extrinsic context is moving from description to interpretation in
research. Along with describing 'what' is happening in the discourse , it is also
important to interpret 'why' it is happening.
 Extrinsic contextual evidence can be potentially very useful in discussing why
participants say a particular thing in a particular way at a particular time,
however, there is also a danger of 'reading too much into the text' and of
judging which out of many possible interpretations is the 'right' one.
For instance, if the analyst is aware of gender, age or ethic difference among
discourse participants, these variables may well appear to influence the
discourse but how do we know which of these particular variables are
important to the participants in an particular communicative event.
 This is not to say that we should ignore extrinsic context but to suggest that we
need to be cautious about what we select as significant and rigorous about how
we incorporate it into our analyses. Schegloff (1997) advises that the best
option is to use only what can be shown to be relevant to participants.
 Can you imagine a meaningful context for this text?
a. Which of you was the prawns?
Systemic Functional Linguistics: An approach to analyzing written academic di...ClmentNdoricimpa
Written academic discourse refers to the way of thinking and using language that exist in the academy. Writers demonstrate knowledge and negotiate social relations with readers by means of written discourse. In order to understand these characteristics of written discourse, different approaches are followed. Some follow a linguistic approach to uncover the linguistic devices associated with coherence in a written text. Other follow a social approach to analyze the social cultural context in which a written text occurs. However, it is demonstrated that the linguistic and the social cultural elements in a written text cannot be disassociated and that an approach, which combine the two approaches is required. Such an approach is Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). Therefore, this paper discusses the way in which SFL is used as an approach to analyzing linguistic features of academic discourses and how those features relate to social cultural context. In this paper, it is shown that SFL provides the means to analyze not only the linguistic resources employed in a written text but also the context in which the text is used. These linguistic resources are associated with the creation of ideational, interpersonal and textual meaning at the level of lexicogrammar and discourse semantic. The context is modelled through register and genre theory.
The Professor Felicia Oviedo shared you experience in the...
41st International Systemic Funcional Congresss
X Latin-American Systemic Functional Congress
Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Mendoza, Argentina
Second-Language Acquisition (Cross-Linguistic Influence and Learner Language)Satya Permadi
The matter of how to correct errors is exceedingly complex.
Research on error correction methods is not at all conclusive about the most effective method or technique for error correction.
It seems quite clear that students in the classroom want and expect errors to be corrected.
Systemic Functional Linguistics: An approach to analyzing written academic di...ClmentNdoricimpa
Written academic discourse refers to the way of thinking and using language that exist in the academy. Writers demonstrate knowledge and negotiate social relations with readers by means of written discourse. In order to understand these characteristics of written discourse, different approaches are followed. Some follow a linguistic approach to uncover the linguistic devices associated with coherence in a written text. Other follow a social approach to analyze the social cultural context in which a written text occurs. However, it is demonstrated that the linguistic and the social cultural elements in a written text cannot be disassociated and that an approach, which combine the two approaches is required. Such an approach is Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). Therefore, this paper discusses the way in which SFL is used as an approach to analyzing linguistic features of academic discourses and how those features relate to social cultural context. In this paper, it is shown that SFL provides the means to analyze not only the linguistic resources employed in a written text but also the context in which the text is used. These linguistic resources are associated with the creation of ideational, interpersonal and textual meaning at the level of lexicogrammar and discourse semantic. The context is modelled through register and genre theory.
The Professor Felicia Oviedo shared you experience in the...
41st International Systemic Funcional Congresss
X Latin-American Systemic Functional Congress
Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Mendoza, Argentina
Second-Language Acquisition (Cross-Linguistic Influence and Learner Language)Satya Permadi
The matter of how to correct errors is exceedingly complex.
Research on error correction methods is not at all conclusive about the most effective method or technique for error correction.
It seems quite clear that students in the classroom want and expect errors to be corrected.
ANNOTATED GUIDELINES AND BUILDING REFERENCE CORPUS FOR MYANMAR-ENGLISH WORD A...ijnlc
Reference corpus for word alignment is an important resource for developing and evaluating word alignment methods. For Myanmar-English language pairs, there is no reference corpus to evaluate the word alignment tasks. Therefore, we created the guidelines for Myanmar-English word alignment annotation between two languages over contrastive learning and built the Myanmar-English reference corpus consisting of verified alignments from Myanmar ALT of the Asian Language Treebank (ALT). This reference corpus contains confident labels sure (S) and possible (P) for word alignments which are used to test for the purpose of evaluation of the word alignments tasks. We discuss the most linking ambiguities to define consistent and systematic instructions to align manual words. We evaluated the results of annotators agreement using our reference corpus in terms of alignment error rate (AER) in word alignment tasks and discuss the words relationships in terms of BLEU scores.
Word2vec on the italian language: first experimentsVincenzo Lomonaco
Word2vec model and application by Mikolov et al. have attracted a great amount of attention in recent years. The vector representations of words learned by word2vec models have been proven to be able to carry semantic meanings and are useful in various NLP tasks. In this work I try to reproduce the previously obtained results for the English language and to explore the possibility of doing the same for the Italian language.
The LSA breaks downanalyzes what constitutes a good and bad a.docxarnoldmeredith47041
The LSA breaks down/analyzes what constitutes a good and bad abstract.
http://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/model-abstracts
Matthew Adams. Poetic correspondence in Welsh
Whether poetic forms are constrained by the same principles as prose and speech is a long-standing question in metrics. I present evidence from Welsh poetry that bears directly on this question, and argue that Long-Distance Consonantal Agreement (LDCA) is instantiated by the alliterative cynghanedd verse form. LDCA is a non-local phonological process visible in many languages in the form of consonantal harmony (Rose & Walker 2004, Hansson 2001, 2004) or vowel harmony (Rhodes 2009). I demonstrate that Agreement by Correspondence (ABC, Rose & Walker 2004), a formalization of LDCA, can be extended to analyze Welsh cynghanedd meter. ABC introduces output-output and input- output identity constraints that enforce long-distance similarity between segments sharing a specified subset of phonological features.
In the first two sentences of the introduction, the author introduces the theoretical context of the discussion and the language-specific phenomenon that will address an aspect of the relationship between prose and speech. The rest of the paragraph is devoted to spelling out in more detail the method by which the author will examine the relationship, primarily by providing citations of work within the broader theoretical context. The last sentence clearly states why the chosen framework, Agreement by Correspondence, is relevant to alliterative poetry: because it has been used to analyze cases of long-distance agreement in spoken language production, it also has value in providing an analysis for constrained, conventionalized language use. In sum, the paragraph makes clear the theoretical issue at hand, the literature that bears on this, and the way the author proposes to approach the issue.
The following example illustrates salient characteristics of this verse form:
Ifor, aur o | faerwriaethIfor, a fair golden stewardship
Deg, yw’rfau, | diegr o faethis mine, sweet nurture
(Lake et al. 2007)
For expository clarity, a bar (|) marks the division into half-lines. Within each line, the bolded consonants to the left of the bar correspond absolutely with the bolded consonants to the right of the bar; their linear order and segmental identity are preserved. Any consonants following the last vowel of each half-line (au and ae, in the second line) are not repeated. Thus, the final italicized ‘th’ sequence has no correspondent in the left-hand side of its line. Line division is determined by a pitch-accent prominence that falls on the ultima of some non-final word (indicated by underlining). Cynghanedd does not require that consonants in the left half occupy the same syllabic position as their counterparts in the right half (viz., the ‘r’ segments in the first line are first codas, then onsets).
This paragraph clearly but succinctly demonstrates how the alliterative form works .
Guidance, Please! Towards a Framework for RDF-based Constraint Languages.Kai Eckert
Presentation held at the DCMI Conference 2015 in Sao Paulo.
http://dcevents.dublincore.org/IntConf/dc-2015/paper/view/386
In the context of the DCMI RDF Application Profile task group and the W3C Data Shapes Working Group solutions for the proper formulation of constraints and validation of RDF data on these constraints are being developed. Several approaches and constraint languages exist but there is no clear favorite and none of the languages is able to meet all requirements raised by data practitioners. To support the work, a comprehensive, community-driven database has been created where case studies, use cases, requirements and solutions are collected. Based on this database, we have hitherto published 81 types of constraints that are required by various stakeholders for data applications. We are using this collection of constraint types to gain a better understanding of the expressiveness of existing solutions and gaps that still need to be filled. Regarding the implementation of constraint languages, we have already proposed to use high-level languages to describe the constraints, but map them to SPARQL queries in order to execute the actual validation; we have demonstrated this approach for the Web Ontology Language in its current version 2 and Description Set Profiles. In this paper, we generalize from the experience of implementing OWL 2 and DSP by introducing an abstraction layer that is able to describe constraints of any constraint type in a way that mappings from high-level constraint languages to this intermediate representation can be created more or less straight-forwardly. We demonstrate that using another layer on top of SPARQL helps to implement validation consistently accross constraint languages, simplifies the actual implementation of new languages, and supports the transformation of semantically equivalent constraints across constraint languages.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...
Some issues of contention in contrastive analysis
1. Midterm Project of CA
Power pointed by: Soraya Ghoddousi
Instructor :Dr Farzaneh Khodabandeh
Saturday, April 09, 2016
4/26/2016 1
7
Some Issues of Contention
2. 7
Some Issues of Contention
problematic and argumentative faces of CA
CA is both problematic and argumentative. So living
with a ‘crisis of confidence’ is an inseparable part of
its proponents. CA is either insecure or vigorous Its
vigor shows its self in the number of CA Projects have
funded in recent years, which proves its high ‘face
validity’. CA is a conceptual practice in search of a
conceptual theory.
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 2
3. 7.1
Criteria for Comparison
Two facets of the issue:
1. Whether different languages are comparable ?
2. What criterion is used for comparing, if they are
comparable ?
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 3
4. 7.1
Criteria for Comparison
Problem and objection of Structuralists:
Problem : Comparability of different languages
became the major problem of Structuralists , since
they insisted on uniqueness of each language.
Objection : The Structuralists objected to the
traditional practices of superimposing descriptive
categories of the prestigious classical languages on to
modern vernaculars .
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 4
5. 7.1
Criteria for Comparison
Insistences:
The insistence on defining phonological and
grammatical categories in terms of individual
languages made detailed contrastive statement
laborious, if not theoretically impossible ,to phrase.
The insistence that each language has its own
uniqueness reflects Saussure’s word that a system
defined by the sum of its constituent terms.
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 5
6. 7.1
Criteria for Comparison
Difference in grammatical values
Labels ‘tense’ or ‘articles’ which refer to a certain
grammatical category in two different languages ,
have not the same value in such languages. For
example ‘ masculine’ in French is in contrast with ‘
feminine but in German contrast with ‘neuter’ and
‘feminine’ in three-term system.
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 6
7. 7.1
Criteria for Comparison
Defense
Defense of the position that languages are comparable is
done in two ways:
1-Article system
2-Principle
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 7
8. 7.1
Criteria for Comparison
Dangers of comparison:
Difference in number of article systems in English
and German show the danger of regarding entities as
comparable for they are called by the same name
,but German and English (and not Russian) have
different number of article system : German has
three-terms: definite, indefinite, and ‘zero’ , where
English has two terms :definite and indefinite
Difference in combination and consequently values.
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 8
9. 7.1
Criteria for Comparison
1-Article systems:
German articles: English articles:
Der Lehrer the teacher
Ein Lehrer a teacher
Ø Lehrer (pl) teachers
Ø Bier(sing) beer
Russian has articles, though it has means of
definiteness and indefiniteness
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 9
10. 7.1
Criteria for Comparison
Combination and values:
Certain article + noun combination occur in one of
the languages not the others. Foe example German
uses the definite article with a singular mass noun
with a human proper noun.
Consequently Ø and the have different values in the
these two languages.
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 10
11. 7.1
Criteria for Comparison
Criteria of equation :
Bilinguals as language learners equate entities across
languages , and interlingual identifications .
The criteria of language learners for equation are
rather superficial such as articulatory , acoustic
similarity, and distribution.
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 11
12. 7.1
Criteria for Comparison
2- Principles:
o Function words which occur in prenominal
position and indicate the specificness and
genericness of the noun are sufficient for
comparison of the languages
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 12
13. 7.1
Criteria for Comparison
o Interlingual identification
o it shows what two languages categories have in
common and distinguishes them as the departure
of CA.
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 13
14. 7.1
Criteria for Comparison
How to set about the task?
The two or more entities to be compared ,while differing
in some respect, must share certain attributes.
Contrasting mean looking for differences , in a
background of sameness (or constant) that
differences(variables) are significant.
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 14
15. 7.1
Criteria for Comparison
What is tertium comparatation (TC)
In the theory of CA the constant has traditionally
been known as the tertium comparatation (TC).
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention
15
16. 7.1
Criteria for Comparison
Available Tertium comparatations
Comparatations (TC)s are available for
A: phonological CA: IPA chart and vowel diagram
B: lexical CA : Universal set of semantic
components
C: grammatical CA: Surface structure, deep
structure, translation equivalence.
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 16
17. 7-1-1
Surface Structure
Surface grammar
It describes the overt signals or ‘devices of form and
arrangements which a language exploits.
Four such devices are: 1)word order, 2)intonation,
3)function words and 4)affixation.
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 17
18. 7-1-1
Surface Structure
Two main dimensions of grammar
CA s that use surface structure categories as the TC are
possible when two languages have a common
grammatical category by similar internal
composition (constituency) and distribution,
which are two main dimensions of grammar.
Similarity in these dimensions will the surface
structure contrastivist refer to them by the same
labels: ‘attribute’, ‘NP’, ‘fall-rise contour’ or
‘passive’
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 18
19. 7-1-1
Surface Structure
Criteria of constituency and distribution for
linguistic relevance
If there is a recurrence of combination ,therefor the
criteria of constituency and distribution are
satisfied . This is a common but risky practice ,
because there is always the possibility that X and Y in
two languages share a label simply .This is for they
have the prestigious categories of Latin imposed
on them such as English and German .So we ought
not to equate two grammatical categories
interlingually merely because they go by the same
name, but the two categories may have different
values in X and Y anyway. .
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 19
20. 7-1-1
Surface Structure
Equating of categories:
In equating of items if two language descriptions
antecedent to the CA were conducted independently
,and constituency and distribution were the only
criteria for linguistic relevance, then equating a
category like ‘Perfect’ of two languages would be as
well as equating the categories of ‘Auxiliary’ and
‘Participle’.
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 20
21. 7-1-1
Surface Structure
When does interlingual identification occur?
At the time of:
Similarity in shape and distribution or both cause
speakers equate item in one language with items in
another.
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 21
22. 7-1-1
Surface Structure
Advantages an disadvantages of surface structure
Advantages:
There are surface structures which L2 learners
confronted with to communicate.
Failures are reflected in surface feature of erroneous
FL utterances.
Similarities and differences of surface features may be
more relevant for the operation transfer effects in
second language than deep structure relation .
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 22
23. 7-1-1
Surface Structure
Disadvantages :
Surface grammar tells us little or nothing about the
way in which the sentences are formed .
The main objection of using surface structure as TC
is led to interlingual equation that are superficial
and insignificant
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 23
24. 7-1-2
Deep Structure
What do paraphrases convey?
Superficially dissimilar sentences of a language to be
paraphrases of one another convey the same
ideational content to share the same deep
structure.
4/26/2016
7
Some Issues of Contention 24
25. 7-1-2
Deep Structure
Types of paraphrases and role of deep structure in
them
1. Interlingual paraphrases: are pairs of sentences
from two different languages having the same
ideational content, derived from a common deep
structure and implies that is language-
independent .
2. Intralingual paraphrases: implies that deep
structure is language-specific.
So the deep structure ought to serve as a viable TC.
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26. 7-1-2
Deep Structure
Constant and variable in form of universal
structures
• Deep structure is counted as constant
• Surface structure is counted as variable
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27. 7-1-2
Deep Structure
Relation of deep and surface structures
• Relation of deep and surface structure is made explicit
in a Chomsky type – grammar by transformations
involved in converting the former in to the latter .
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28. 7-1-2
Deep Structure
Conversion of structures’ levels
If shared deep structure is converted in to language specific
surface structure by the sequential application of
transformations, then the points in their transformational
derivations at which equated deep structure representations of
two languages begin to diverge, can be taken as a measure (or
‘metric’) of their differences :
“the differences between languages must come at various level of
intermediate structure”.
The earlier they diverge , the greater the difference, the ‘later’ the
less.
Degrees of equivalence between languages are described in
terms of correspondence between the rules of their respective
grammar : we gain the double advantage of quantification and
explicitness.
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29. 7-1-2
Deep Structure
Advantages of deep structures:
• universality to see how convenient a TC it becomes
in CA
• learning by disregarding semi-redundant and
transformationally introduced features of surface
structures as articles , inflections and the copula.
• equating interlingually superficially very different
structures.
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30. 7-1-2
Deep Structure
Disadvantages of deep structures:
The relevance of deep structure in CA are limited to its
use as a criterion for comparison
Interference errors are reflection of the surface
structure differences between L1 and L2, but it is on
the basis of deep structure identity that learners
associate certain L1 patterns with certain
communicative intentions in the first place
Superficial structural L1:L2 contrasts explain the form
of interference errors , not the sets transfer into
motion
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31. 7-1-3
Translation Equivalence
Translation Equivalence
• A standard practice in grammar CA to compare the
formal features of translationally paired sentences : “
one constant in grammatical comparison is
presumably the meaning of a pair of sentences .
• Synonymous with sameness of meaning
• To equate pairs of sentences of L1 and L2 which ‘mean
the same’.
• Equivalent construction have identical deep
structure ,even if the surface they are markedly
different
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32. 7-1-3
Translation Equivalence
Krzeszowsi’s thesis:
• Paraphrase is a special case of (intralingual)
translation , and translation equivalence implies deep
structure identity.
Bouton’s criticism:
• Verbal aspect is an integral part of deep structure
representation, and in surface structure a choice must
be made between two morphologically differentiated
forms of perfective and imperfective.
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33. 7-1-3
Translation Equivalence
Negative polarity
Negative polarity questions in two languages causes
for example“ the English yes and Korea no are
translation equivalent” .
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34. 7-1-3
Translation Equivalence
Inability of deep structure identity to guarantee
translation equivalence
• Meaning and equivalence of meaning are of several
types , but deep structure is predicated on one of
these, to the exclusion of the others .
• Deep structure is concerned with propositional or
ideational that single isolated sentence convey.
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35. 7-1-3
Translation Equivalence
Kinds of meaning:
• There are three kinds of meaning contained in
sentences : ideational, interpersonal and textual , that
should be conveyed and translationally equivalent in
different languages
1. Interpersonal meaning determines what kind of
speech act it performs for its user.
2. Textual meaning determines what information it
contributes to the message , and how it helps
cohesion and coherence
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36. 7-1-3
Translation Equivalence
Levels of translation and their importance in CA :
Levels of translation
Semantic
Pragmatic
Equation of languages
For CA we ought to equate L1 and L2 forms which , no
matter how far they diverge superficially ,are
semantically and pragmatically equivalent.
Translation equivalence
It is the best available TC for CA
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37. 7-2
The Psychological Reality of CA
Language structure and language scholars:
A contrastivist is a linguist concerning with structure
to draw conclusions about a mode of human behaviour
, learning.
A psychologist of language suggests two aspects of
structure from psychological reality view by two
groups of scholars:
Linguists
Psycholinguists
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38. 7-1-3
Translation Equivalence
Scholarships related to linguists and
psycholinguists
What the structure is like that it is the task of linguistic
science .It involves in linguistic competence.
How the structure functions and how it is acquired that it
is the task of psycholinguistics. It involves in linguistic
performance.
What the grammars are is they are accounts of linguistic
knowledge , that is of competence not of performance ,not
the processes which deploy that knowledge.
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39. 7-1-3
Translation Equivalence
‘Psychological reality’ and ‘mental reality’:
Since :
Mental reality refers to the grammar and linguistic knowledge , and
consequently the Competence . Grammars are structural statements
they describe the principles on which languages must be organised and
stored in the mind. A grammar describes the dynamic processes.
Psychological reality refers to behavioural processes manipulated
linguistically defined structures , but do not simulate grammatical
processes and consequently the performance. The utterances are
coded ( synthesised ) ,and decoded and (analysed )
Distinction between ‘mental’ reality and ‘psychological’ reality is the
same the two modes of : knowing that and how ,formal and efficient
causes.
So
psycholinguistic fallacy , that says the formal processes used by the
grammar represent the productive and perceptive of language
behaviour has no right base.
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40. 7-1-3
Translation Equivalence
Reasons of interferences:
Interference from L1 can be viewed as resulting from
conflict set up between the mental organisational
disposition imposed by L1 and the mental
organisational demands of L2.
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41. 7-1-3
Translation Equivalence
3 important sequences of basing CAs on
competence accounts of language
Competence is
1. a property of the individual
2. neutral between speaker and hearer
3. idealised to the point of disregarding the
constraints of time and memory that competence
is bounded by
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42. 7-1-3
Translation Equivalence
1. Competence as a property of the individual
• CA is for practical purposes ,necessarily concerned
with groups:
A. one produces CAs with representative population of
L2 learners in mind
B. one cannot do a separate CA for each individual
learners.
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43. 7-1-3
Translation Equivalence
2-Competence as a neutral fact between speaker
and hearer
A. Grammars of the form are neutral between speaker
and hearer, between synthesis and analysis of
utterances
B. This neutrality carries the implication that the
predictions emanating from CAs should be equally
valid for productive and receptive control of the
L2.
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44. 7-1-3
Translation Equivalence
3-Competence as an idealised fact
A. Competence is an idealised to the point of
disregarding the constraints of time and memory
that competence is bounded by
B. Part of this idealisation is detachment of competence
from time
C. the arbitrariness of this assumption is the concept of
CA objected in abstracto
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45. 7-1-3
Translation Equivalence
Contact analysis
• Performance based alternative CA is called
‘contact analysis’ –the analysis of the phenomena
that arise ,in the learner himself ,from the contact of
the two linguistic systems involved in the process of
foreign language learning .
• Performance based and process oriented
approach to learning problems is more properly part
of Error analysis than CA .
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46. 7-3
The Predictive Power of CAs
Predict definition:
1. Is to transcend observation and predict the
unobserved in general.
2. The assumption that we can guess and describe the
patterns that will cause and will not cause the
difficulties in language learning .
3. ‘Predict’ is here as the simplest sense of ‘identify’
not in the sense of ‘prognosticate’
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47. 7-3
The Predictive Power of CAs
Techniques and scopes of descriptive linguistics:
Possible bases for prediction of CAs are:
1. Generalisation from observed instances , which is selected
by the error analysts.
2. Prediction of one phenomenon on the basis of observation
some other phenomenon , which the contrastivists prefer this
path on the basis of an analysis of two related linguistic system
to predict learner’s behaviour .
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48. 7-3
The Predictive Power of CAs
How is CAs supposed to identify or predict?
1. By closest to Lado’s view that is psychological reality , the CAs
identify the conditions conductive to two kinds of transfer ,positive
and negative.
2. Since negative transfer is the manifest in errors ,so CAs predict
errors
3. Since errors signal inadequate learning , CAs predict difficulty.
4. Reliability of the predictions which can fail in two possible ways:
A. Being indeterminate: that means unability to specify which of
two or more structurally likely substitutions the learner will select.
B. Being wrong : that the cases of false CA predictions are again 2
kinds :
B-1)errors failing to materialise
B-2)Fail to predict those which do
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49. 7-3
The Predictive Power of CAs
Degree of adequacy of CA
This degree in predicting and explaining learners’
difficulties are:
1. SPD – Students’ Perception of Difficulty
2. Counting learners’ errors
3. Looking for correlation between CA prediction ,
difficulty and error incidence
4. Testing the gross capacity of a CA to predict
difficulty , a variable E was derived from the mean
percentage of grammatical response , P, to represent
gross occurrence of error ,which indicates CAs have
hardly any predictive power at all.
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50. 7-3
The Predictive Power of CAs
Difficulty and error should be correlated to one
another and to CA predictions.
A highly erroneous sentence may cause the learner no
difficulty at all. And conversely, we may find a low
incidence of error in conditions where the learner is
experiencing great difficulty, as an ‘avoidance strategy’.
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51. 7-4
Contrastive Analysis versus Error
Analysis
CA Hypothesis
CA Hypothesis exists in two versions :
1. Strong version
2. Weak version
While these 2 versions are equally based on L1
interference , the strong/priori has predictive power ,
and the weak/ ex post facto version has less ,so it is to
diagnose the errors .
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52. 7-4
Contrastive Analysis versus Error Analysis
Different opinions in predictability of CA
‘According to pseudo-procedure predictive CA can
never help a contrastivist to predict solely on the basis
of CA , but relied on teachers’ knowledge of errors.
CA is always predictive and the job of diagnosis
belong to Error Analysis (EA)
According to Wardhaugh using the weak version of CA
means that “ reference is made to the two systems only
in order to explain observed interference phenomena.
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53. 7-4
Contrastive Analysis versus Error Analysis
Non-contrastive approach
Non-contrastive approach to error analysis is the same
error identification without prior CA.
Is recognising that some errors are the result of L1
interference which caused by 1)overgeneralisation,
2)ignorance of the rule restrictions,3) incomplete
application of rules ,4) and the building of false
systems or concepts.
Discusses that if the errors are ‘universal’ ,they
cannot be interlingual that the 4 error types listed
exclude reference to L1.
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54. 7-4
Contrastive Analysis versus Error Analysis
Problems of error identification:
• An error is committed by learners with many different L1s
is no proof that it is non-contrastive error , and that it is
not the result of idiosyncrasy of the ‘genius’ of English that
it contrast with so many other language ,but interference of
L1 can happen.
• If CAs can predict errors which fail to materialise ,so EA
can equally fail to recognise errors which have materialised.
• Evidence from linguistic typology shows that apparently
‘universal’ errors can indeed be plausible instance s of
interference errors.
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55. 7-4
Contrastive Analysis versus Error Analysis
Covert errors:
These errors are the forms produced by learners
that are grammatical by the standards of the target
language, but do not mean to a native speaker what
they mean to the learner.
Agreement between different items such as possessive
pronoun and possessed headnoun caused covert
errors.
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56. 7-5
Scale of difficulty
Scale of difficulty
Since difficulty and difference are being directly and
proportionally related , so the some idioms related to
difficulty are needed to be introduced :
Learning time which is a valid measure of difficulty.
Exotic that is a relative term since it means ‘very
different’.
Positive disagreement that is a semantically
difficult category.
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57. 7-5
Scale of difficulty
Levels of difficulty:
Relative similarity ,rather than difference is directly
related to levels of difficulty .
‘Similarity paradox’ in human learning links to all
forms of learning –not only L2 learning –when one
learning task is followed by another.
If interference increase with the similarity of the two
learning tasks ,then when the two tasks of identical
,interference ought to be at its most potent.
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58. 7-5
Scale of difficulty
Ordinary learning
‘Ordinary learning’ is at the theoretical condition for
maximal interference , but the practical condition for
maximal facilitation.
‘Ordinary learning’ occurs with task identity.
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59. 7-5
Scale of difficulty
Facilitation is greatest when the successive task are
identical (ordinary learning)
1. Interference is maximal and difficulty greatest when
there is a certain degree of similarity.
2. There is moderate ease of learning when the tasks
have what ‘neutral resemblance .
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60. 7-5
Scale of difficulty
Relationship between L1.and L2
1. The scale is based on 3 types of relationship existing
between comparable rules of L1 and L2:
A. L1 has a rule and L2 an equivalent one.
B. L1 has a rule but L2 has no equivalent.
C. L2 has a rule not matched by L1.
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61. 7-5
Scale of difficulty
Types of choices
Two languages are matched for the choices they offer
their respective speakers for the expression of
meaning:
1. Optional
2. Obligatory
3. Zero(Ø) which shows the absence of a category in
one of the languages which is present in the other.
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62. 7-5
Scale of difficulty
Availability of choices:
These different available choices or nonchoices can be
ranged in pairs(L1:L2) to identify 8 possible types of
cross-language relationship on the level of phonology.
This 8- point scales becomes a 16-point scale of
grammar ,where there are semantic congruity or lack
of it between pairs adds another dimension .
Finally the eight possibilities can be ordered in
difficulty. The scale is for facility reduced to three
point scale of difficulty by mixing categories.
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63. 7-5
Scale of difficulty
Order of difficulty MOST Comparison
L1 L2
1 Ø Ob
1- 2 Ø Op
3 Op Ob
4 Ob Op
2- 5 Ob Ø
6 Op Ø
3- 7 Op Op
8 Ob Ob
LEAST
Absent categories carry a relatively low error index.
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64. 7-5
Scale of difficulty
Performance issue
Divergence is more important for the language
learner as speaker in encoding the utterance
Convergence is more critical for hearer as decoding
the utterance.
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