ATTITUDES.pptx

ATTITUDE
Owondo Thomas
Bwindi Community Hospital
© 2017 Thomas Owondo. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION
• What's your opinion on the school not providing good
internet service?
• Which political party does a better job of running the
country?
• Should morning prayers be compulsory at school?
 Chances are that you probably have fairly strong opinions
on these and similar questions. You've developed
attitudes about such issues, and these attitudes influence
your beliefs as well as your behavior.
© 2017 Thomas Owondo. All rights reserved. 2

DEFINITION
• In psychology, an attitude refers to a set of emotions,
beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular object, person,
thing, or event.
• Psychologists define attitudes as a learned tendency to
evaluate things in a certain way. This can include
evaluations of people, issues, objects, or events.
• Such evaluations are often positive or negative, but they
can also be uncertain at times. For example, you might
have mixed feelings about a particular person or issue.

DEFINITION
• Attitude is something which keeps on changing according
to our experiences.
• The more experiences we get, the more our attitude about
certain things and events changes. For example, if you
dislike someone but have to work with him, you may
come to know this person better when you work together
and realize that he isn’t as bad as you thought he was.
Your attitude about his person may change from negative
to positive

CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDES
• Affective Cognitive consistency: The degree of consistency
between the affective and cognitive components influences the
attitude—behavior relation.
• Strength: Attitudes based on direct experience with the object
may be held with greater certainty. Certainty is also influenced by
whether affect or cognition was involved in the creation of the
attitude. Attitudes formed based on affect are more certain than
attitudes based on cognition.
• Valence: It refers to the degree or grade of likeliness or
unlikeliness toward the entity/incident. If a person is fairly
unconcerned toward an object then his attitude has low valence.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDES
• Direct Experience: An attitude is a summary of a person’s past
experience; thus, an attitude is grounded in direct experience predicts
future behavior more accurately. Moreover, direct experience makes more
information available about the object itself.
• Multiplicity: It refers to the amount of features creating the attitude. For
example, one may show interest in becoming a doctor, but another not
only shows interest, but also works hard, is sincere, and serious.
• Relation to Needs: Attitudes vary in relative to requirements they serve.
Attitudes of an individual toward the pictures serve only entertainment
needs, but attitudes of an employee toward task may serve strong needs
for security, achievement, recognition, and satisfaction.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ATTITUDE
• By attitudes, we mean the beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies of an
individual or group of individuals towards objects, ideas, and people.
• Quite often persons and objects or ideas become associated in the minds of
individuals and as a result, attitudes become multidimensional and complex.
• These are the factors influencing attitude;
o Social Factors.
o Direct Instruction.
o Family.
o Prejudices.
o Personal Experience.
o Media.
o Educational and Religious Institutions.
o Physical Factors.
o Economic Status and Occupations.

• Social Factors
o Every society has the majority of people who prefer to lead a harmonious life.
They try to avoid unnecessary friction of conflicts with people.
o Naturally, they are inclined to develop positive attitudes towards most of the
people and issues.
o Our attitudes may facilitate and maintain our relationships with members of
positively valued groups. Social roles and social norms can have a strong
influence on attitudes.
o Social roles relate to how people are expected to behave in a particular role
or context. Social norms involve society’s rules for what behaviors are
considered appropriate.

• Direct Instruction
o Sometimes direct instruction can influence attitude
formation.
o For example, somebody gives information about the
usefulness of some fruit. On the basis of this information,
we can develop a positive or negative attitude about that
fruit.

• Family
o The family is the most powerful source for the formation of attitudes. The
parents, elder brother or sister provide information about various things.
o Attitudes developed by an individual, whether positive or negative are the
result of family influence, are very powerful and difficult to change.
• Prejudices
o An attitude may involve a prejudice, in which we prejudge an issue without
giving unbiased consideration to all the evidence.
o Prejudices are preconceived ideas or judgments where one develops some
attitudes toward other people, objects, etc.
o If we are prejudiced against a person, who is, accused of a crime, we may
regard him as guilty regardless of the evidence. We can also be prejudiced in
favor of something (Munn).

• Personal Experience
o In order to be the basis of attitudes, personal experiences have left a strong
impression.
o Therefore, the attitude will be more easily formed when personal experience
involves emotional factors. In situations involving emotions, appreciation will
be more in-depth experience and longer trace.
• Media
o As a means of communication, the mass media such as television, radio, has
a major influence in shaping people’s opinions and beliefs. There is new
information on something that provides the foundation for the emergence of
new cognitive attitudes towards it.

• Educational and Religious Institutions
o As a system, educational and religious institutions have a strong influence in
shaping attitudes because they lay the foundation of understanding and
moral concepts within the individual.
o Understanding the good and the bad, the dividing line between something
that can and cannot do is obtained from the center of the educational and
religious institutions.
• Physical Factors
o Clinical psychologists have generally recognized that physical, health and
vitality are important factors in determining adjustment, and frequently it has
been found that malnutrition or disease or accidents have interfered so
seriously with normal development that serious behavioral disturbances have
followed. © 2017 Thomas Owondo. All rights reserved. 12

• Economic Status and Occupations
• Our economic and occupational positions also contribute
to attitude formation.
• They determine, in part, our attitudes towards unions and
management and our belief that certain laws are ‘good’ or
‘bad’. Our socio-economic background influences our
present and future attitudes.

FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF
ATTITUDES
• An attitude is a general and lasting positive or negative opinion or
feeling about some person, object, or issue.
• Attitude formation refers to the shift from having no attitude toward an
object to having some attitude toward the object. The shift from no
attitude to attitude formation is the result of learning.
• Attitude formation occurs through either direct experience or the
persuasion of others or the media.
• Attitudes have three foundations: affect or emotion, behavior, and
cognitions.
• In addition, evidence suggests that attitudes may develop out of
psychological needs (motivational foundations), social interactions
(social foundations), and genetics (biological foundations), although
this last notion is new and controversial.

ATTITUDES
• Attitudes structure can be described in terms of three
components.
o Affective component: this involves a person’s feelings / emotions about
the attitude object. For example: “I am scared of spiders”.
o Behavioral (or conative) component: the way the attitude we have
influences how we act or behave. For example: “I will avoid spiders and
scream if I see one”.
o Cognitive component: this involves a person’s belief / knowledge about
an attitude object. For example: “I believe spiders are dangerous”.
o This model is known as the ABC model of attitudes.

ATTITUDES
1. Emotional Foundations of Attitudes
o A key part of an attitude is the affect or emotion associated with
the attitude. At a very basic level, we know whether we like or
dislike something or find an idea pleasant or unpleasant.
o For instance, we may say that we know something “in our heart”
or have a “gut feeling.” In such cases our attitudes have been
formed though our emotions rather than through logic or thinking.
o This can happen through (a) sensory reactions, (b) values, (c)
operant/instrumental conditioning, (d) classical conditioning, (e)
semantic generalization, (f) evaluative conditioning, or (g) mere
exposure. © 2017 Thomas Owondo. All rights reserved. 16

ATTITUDES
 Sensory Reactions
• Any direct experience with an object though seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, or
touching will lead to an immediate evaluative reaction.
 Values
• Some attitudes come from our larger belief system. We may come to hold certain
attitudes because they validate our basic values. Many attitudes come from religious
or moral beliefs. For example, for many people their attitudes about abortion, birth
control, same-sex marriage, and the death penalty follow from their moral or religious
beliefs and are highly emotional issues for them.
Operant Conditioning
• Operant or instrumental conditioning is when an attitude forms because it has been
reinforced through reward or a pleasant experience or discouraged through
punishment or an unpleasant experience. For example, a parent might praise a
teenager for helping out at an after-school program with little kids. As a result, the
teen may develop a positive attitude toward volunteer work. Similarly, many people
find that broccoli has a terrible taste, and so they dislike broccoli because of its

ATTITUDES
Semantic Generalization
• Not only can we become conditioned to a specific stimulus, but this
initial conditioning can generalize or spread to similar stimuli. For
example, a bell higher or lower in pitch to the original conditioned
sound may elicit the same reaction. In humans, the initial conditioning
can spread even to words or concepts similar to the original stimulus.
As a result, we can form attitudes about an object or idea without
having direct contact with it. When this kind of generalization occurs,
the process is called semantic generalization. For example, human
subjects who have been conditioned to the sound of a bell may also
show a response to the sight of a bell or by the spoken word bell.
Semantic generalization can account for the formation of attitudes, like
prejudice, where people have formed an attitude without having direct
contact with the object of that attitude.

ATTITUDES
Classical Conditioning
• Classical or Pavlovian conditioning happens when a new stimulus
comes to elicit an emotional reaction because of its association with a
stimulus that already elicits the emotional response. The Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov took dogs, which naturally salivate to meat
powder, and trained them to salivate at the sound of a bell by
continually ringing the bell as the meat powder was presented. In
humans, some of our attitudes have become conditioned in much the
same way. For example, some people have a negative attitude towards
“dirty” words. Just the thought of a taboo word will cause some people
to blush. The words themselves have come to elicit an emotional
reaction because their use is frowned upon in our culture in most
contexts.

ATTITUDES
 Evaluative Conditioning
• An object need not directly cause us to feel pleasant or unpleasant for
us to form an attitude. Evaluative conditioning occurs when we form
attitudes toward an object or person because our exposure to them
coincided with a positive or negative emotion. For example, a couple
may come to feel positive toward a particular song that was playing on
the radio during their first date. Their positive attitude to the song is a
result of its association with the happy experience of a date.
 Mere Exposure
• Finally, when we see the same object or person over and over, we will generally form
a positive attitude toward that object or person. This is true for an object or person we
feel neutral or positive about, so long as we are not overexposed to it. For example,
many popular styles of clothing seem bizarre at first, but then as we see more of them
we may come to accept and even like them.

ATTITUDES
2. Behavioral Foundations of Attitudes
o Sometimes we form attitudes from our actions. This can happen if we do
something before we have an attitude (e.g., going to an art opening of an
unknown artist), when we are unsure of our attitudes (e.g., going with a friend
to a political rally), or when we are not thinking about what we are doing
(mindlessly singing along with a random station on the radio).
o That is, there are times when just going through the motions can cause us to
form an attitude consistent with those actions. In the previous examples,
people may come to hate the new artist, support free trade, or like classical
music because their actions have led them to engage in these behaviors,
which then led to the formation of an attitude. There are at least four lines of
evidence that account for how attitudes may form out of actions.

ATTITUDES
o First, self-perception theory suggests that we look to our behavior and figure
out our attitude based on what we have done or are doing. Second, cognitive
dissonance theory suggests that we strive for consistency between our
attitudes and our actions and when the two do not match, we may form a
new attitude to coincide with our past actions.
o Third, research evidence using the facial feedback hypothesis finds that
holding our facial muscles in the pose of an emotion will cause us to
experience that emotion, which may then color our opinions. For example,
participants who viewed cartoons that were not particularly funny while
holding a pen across their teeth—a pose which activates the same muscles
involved in smiling—rated the cartoons funnier than subjects who posed with
a pen in their mouths, which activated the same muscles involved in
frowning. As a result, people may develop positive or negative attitudes
toward neutral objects after moving their facial muscles into smiles or frowns,
respectively.

ATTITUDES
o Finally, role-playing, such as improvising persuasive
arguments, giving personal testimony, taking on another
person’s perspective, or even play-acting, are all additional
ways that people may come to form attitudes based on their
behaviors. For example, in an early study, women who were
heavy smokers participated in an elaborately staged play
where they played the role of a woman dying of lung cancer.
Two weeks later, these women smoked less and held less
positive attitudes toward smoking than women who had not
been through this role-play procedure.

ATTITUDES
3. Cognitive Foundations of Attitudes
• The cognitive foundation of attitudes, what might be called beliefs,
comes from direct experience with the world or through thinking
about the world. Thinking about the world includes any kind of active
information processing, such as deliberating, wondering, imagining,
and reflecting, as well as through activities such as reading, writing,
listening, and talking.
• If you believe that insects are dirty and disgusting, then you will
probably have the attitude that insects are not food. However, if you
read that locusts and other insects are happily eaten in some
cultures, then you may come to believe that locusts may not be so
bad. Your attitude here comes from thinking about the new facts you
read.

FUNCTION OF ATTITUDES
• Attitudes can serve functions for the individual.
• Functional areas of attitudes include; Knowledge, Self / Ego-expressive,
Adaptive and Ego-defensive functions.
 Knowledge functions:
o Attitudes provide meaning (knowledge) for life. The knowledge function
refers to our need for a world which is consistent and relatively stable.
o This allows us to predict what is likely to happen, and so gives us a sense
of control. Attitudes can help us organize and structure our experience.
o Knowing a person’s attitude helps us predict their behavior. For example,
knowing that a person is religious we can predict they will go to Church.

Self / Ego-expressive functions:
• The attitudes we express (1) help communicate who we
are and (2) may make us feel good because we have
asserted our identity. Self-expression of attitudes can be
non-verbal too: think bumper sticker, cap, or T-shirt
slogan.
• Therefore, our attitudes are part of our identify, and help
us to be aware through the expression of our feelings,
beliefs and values.

Adaptive function
• If a person holds and/or expresses socially acceptable attitudes,
other people will reward them with approval and social
acceptance.
• For example, when people flatter their bosses or instructors (and
believe it) or keep silent if they think an attitude is
unpopular. Again, expression can be nonverbal [think politician
kissing baby].
• Attitudes then, are to do with being apart of a social group and the
adaptive functions helps us fit in with a social group. People seek
out others who share their attitudes, and develop similar attitudes
to those they like.

 Ego-defensive functions:
• The ego-defensive function refers to holding attitudes that protectour self-
esteem or that justify actions that make us feel guilty. For example, one way
children might defend themselves against the feelings of humiliation they
have experienced in P.E. lessons is to adopt a strongly negative attitude to
all sports.
• People whose pride have suffered following a defeat in sport might similarly
adopt a defensive attitude: “I’m not bothered, I’m sick of rugby
anyway…”. This function has psychiatric overtones. Positive attitudes
towards ourselves, for example, have a protective function (i.e. an ego-
defensive role) in helping us reserve our self-image.
• The basic idea behind the functional approach is that attitudes help a person
to mediate between their own inner needs (expression, defense) and the
outside world (adaptive and knowledge).

EFFECTS OF ATTITUDES IN THE CARE
OF PATIENTS
• Nursing activities includes protection, promotion,
improving health and abilities, prevention of illness/injury,
alleviation of suffering, diagnosis, treatment, and
advocacy for care of individuals, families, and
communities.
• Nurses should display attributes of respect, compassion,
wisdom, sensitivity and care.
• Nurses need to have a positive attitude towards patients
and patient care.

OF PATIENTS
• Health workers’ attitudes affect behaviour, quality of care
and health outcomes.
• How?????

OF PATIENTS

MANAGEMENT OF NEGATIVE
ATTITUDES
• “Are some people just born positive thinkers. . . or is it their
CHOICE?”
• While attitudes can have a powerful effect on behavior, they are not set
in stone. The same influences that lead to attitude formation can also
create attitude change.

ATTITUDES
• Learning Theory of Attitude Change: Classical
conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational
learning can be used to bring about attitude change.
Classical conditioning can be used to create positive
emotional reactions to an object, person, or event by
associating positive feelings with the target object.
Operant conditioning can be used to strengthen desirable
attitudes and weaken undesirable ones. People can also
change their attitudes after observing the behavior of
others.

ATTITUDES
 Elaboration Likelihood Theory of Attitude Change: This theory
of persuasion suggests that people can alter their attitudes in two
ways. First, they can be motivated to listen and think about the
message, thus leading to an attitude shift. Or, they might be influenced
by characteristics of the speaker, leading to a temporary or surface
shift in attitude. Messages that are thought-provoking and that appeal
to logic are more likely to lead to permanent changes in attitudes.
 Dissonance Theory of Attitude Change: As mentioned earlier,
people can also change their attitudes when they have conflicting
beliefs about a topic. In order to reduce the tension created by these
incompatible beliefs, people often shift their attitudes.

ATTITUDES
• Step 1: Challenge Your Perceptions.
 Catch and correct any mental mistakes.
 Open up to all the possibilities.
• Step 2: Alter your self-talk
 Avoid rigid vocabulary.
 Practice thought stopping.
• Step 3: Monitor your reactions
 Pay attention to your emotions.
 Link emotions to actions.
• Step 4 : Question your beliefs
 How do you see yourself? Why?
 How do you think others see you?
 How is the world supposed to treat you?

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