This document provides an overview of key concepts in sociology and anthropology. It discusses the founders and early theorists of sociology such as Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, and Max Weber. It also outlines major theoretical paradigms in sociology like evolutionary theory, social conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Additionally, it defines key anthropological concepts like culture, norms, and ethnocentrism. It examines methods of sociological inquiry including experiments, surveys, case studies, and field observations. Finally, it discusses demographic concepts such as fertility, mortality, migration, and theories of population growth and decline.

1. SOCIOLOGY
&
ANTHROPOLOGY
(A REVIEWER FROM CBRC)

2. Sociology – is the study of association, group, society, and social interaction,
and focuses on social organization, social institutions, and social problems.
Herbert Spencer August Comte Karl Marx
believes that
coined the concept
coined the word
capitalism is favored
‘survival of the by the upper class
‘sociology’
fittest’ (bourgeoisie), and is
the root of misery of
the lower class
believes that
Father of sociology
societies undergo (proletariats)
advocated
‘positivism’, the use believes that history
advocated Social of empirical is dictated by
Darwinism investigation to economic
understand society determination
ofsocio
logy
and its patterns
Max Weber George Hegel
History is a formula
Emile Durkheim
Pione
ers
the emphatic For societies to have challenge to the idea)
should be a balance
Advocated
stability, there of thesis (an idea) +
‘verstehen’, which is antithesis (a
understanding of
of social regulation
= synthesis (a new
and personal
people’s thoughts idea that later will be
freedom.
a thesis).
Charles Cooley Erving Goffman Robert Merton
advocated believes that social
patterns yield to
Advocated dramaturgy, which
social functions:
“lookingglass self”, means social
the ability to interactions are to be a. Manifest function
visualize oneself taken in the the seen and
through the eyes of perspective of a b. Latent function
other people theatrical the unseen and
performance unexpected
functions-

3. General
theoretical
paradigms
Evolutionary Structural Social Conflict Symbolic
Theory Functionalism Theory Interactionism
states that a
society is a
views a society shared reality,
explains how
as a complex views a society that resulted
system which as a platform of from the daily
human
Achieves inequality that, interactions of
societies come
solidarity and in turn, creates individuals;
to exist, grow,
stability when conflict and these
and develop
its parts work change interactions
Together make people
find meaning in
symbols
states that
Every
individual is
Simpleprimitiv guided by In this theory,
e societies Social some people
eventually structures, and are benefitted;
evolve into his/her social some are
complexmoder functions are deprived.
supported by
n ones. for the normal
Goffman,
operations of
Cooley
the society
looks for
patterns of supported by
change Comte, supported by
Durkheim, Marx
supported by Merton
Spencer

4. Sociological Sociological Sociological inquiry –
imagination – a quality perspective – a the scientific
of mind to look at our distinctive point of investigation of the
own experiences in view making use the repetitive patterns in
terms of what is going social world to guide human behavior
on in the world our thinking and
actions
Methods, techniques, and tools in sociological inquiry
1. Experiment
Exposes subjects to a specially designed situation for the
sociologist to record their reactions
Most effective tool for a cause and effect relationship
2. Survey
Best tool for gathering information from a large number of people
Usage of random samples and pre-tested questions ensures high
reliability and validity.
3. Case Study
Examines a particular subject in depth over a long period of time
Also known as scientific biography, case history or diary of
development
4. Field observation
Researchers have firsthand experiences as they immerse in the
community.
In non-participant observation, researcher comes as a third party.
5. Structured/directive interview
Questions are asked in a planned, phased manner to provide
systematic and comparable data.
6. Unstructured/nondirective interview
In here, there are no predetermined questions nor answers; the
respondent is in charge of the course of the interview.
7. Historical approach
Makes use of historical archives to craft an explanation for current
social phenomena
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5. ULTIMATE LEARNING GUIDE TO SOCIAL SCIENCE
Culture – refers to the customary ways in which social groups organize their
ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving and these are passed on from one
generation to another
Components of Culture
1. Norms – the guidelines which serve as the expectations for people
to do in relation with one another; the shared, standard rules to
specify what is right and wrong; there are three kinds of norms:
folkways, mores, and laws
I.Folkways – the habitual ways of doing something without giving
much thought; do not have particular moral and ethical
significance
II. Mores – the vital norms to a society; the society’s code of
ethics and moral standards; there are two kinds: duty and
taboo
A. Positive mores/duty
the behavior that must be done because it is good
“thou shall behavior”
B. Negative mores/taboo
the behavior that must not be done because it is
bad
“thou shall not behavior”
C. Laws – the formalized norms enacted by people
with legitimate authority; have formal sanctions
2. Non-material culture (ideas, beliefs, values)
Ideas – man’s conception of his physical, social, and cultural
world
Beliefs – man’s conviction about a certain idea; man’s
perception of reality
Values – abstract concepts of what’s important; what guides
a person’s way of life
3. Material culture – the concrete and tangible objects created and
used by man to satisfy his varied needs and wants
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6. ULTIMATE LEARNING GUIDE TO SOCIAL SCIENCE
4. Symbols – an object, gesture, sound, color, or design that represents
something other than itself; an arrival of mutually shared meaning
Different viewpoints/perspectives on culture
1. Cultural relativism
States that cultures differ and only has a meaning within its cultural
setting
Every cultural element must be received in terms
2. Culture shock
The feeling of disbelief and disorganization when one encounters a
different cultural pattern
3. Ethnocentrism
The feeling of superiority of his culture over other cultures
Sees his own culture as the only right way of living
4. Xenocentrism
The feeling of inferiority of his culture as to other cultures
Believes that what is foreign is best; reverse ethnocentrism
5. Noble savage mentality – the notion that simple cultures or earlier
cultures are better to live in than the current one the individual is in
6. Subculture
Refers to the smaller groups which develops a more distinct culture
from the larger society they are in
7. Counterculture
Refers to the smaller groups whose standards is in conflict with and
oppose the standards of the dominant culture
8. Culture lag
Refers to the gap between the material and non-material cultures;
usually, material culture advances more rapidly
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7. ULTIMATE LEARNING GUIDE TO SOCIAL SCIENCE
Symbolic uses of culture
1. Pop culture – the popular culture of the contemporary society
2. Culture of poverty– the ways of life of the poor, implying a cycle of
deprivation
3. Culture of opulence
The ways of life of the rich in their world of glitz and glamour
4. Culture of conspicuous consumption – the ways of life of the
superrich in buying goods and services which are in excess of what
they actually need
5. Culture of silence
The individual’s or group’s habit of silence as a resigned response to
authority
6. Culture of corruption
The established patterns of illegally obtaining wealth and power in
the office
7. Culture of apathy
The inaction and lack of interest of the people in regard to the
issues and concerns which need attention and resolution
8. Culture of dehumanization – the abusive and exploitative practices
by the power-wielding members of the society against the deprived
and disadvantaged group of the society
Causes of cultural change
1. Discovery – the process of finding a new place/object that
previously existed
2. Invention – the utilization and/or combination of previously known
elements to produce an original product
3. Rebellion – the replacement of whole social order and existing
norms and proposal of new order and norms
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8. ULTIMATE LEARNING GUIDE TO SOCIAL SCIENCE
4. Diffusion – the spread of cultural traits directly (through, for
example, trade) or indirectly (influences); there are four kinds:
a. Acculturation– cultural borrowing and cultural
imitation
b. Assimilation – blending of two distinct cultures
through long periods of interactions
c. Amalgamation– hereditary fusion of members of
different societies
d. Enculturation– deliberate infusion of a new culture
to another
5. Colonization – the establishment of a colony subjected to the rule
of the colonizing state
Anthropology – a social science of man dealing with the physical, cultural,
and social culture of minority groups of the society
Sex – based on the biological differences of humans
Gender – based on the socio-cultural differences of humans
Gender identity – the inner experience or sense of oneself as a result of
socialization
Gender roles – activities assigned to individuals; starts in family then
reinforced by other social settings
Sanction – system of reward and punishment to ensure that norms are
followed
Deviance – any activity by members of a social group that violates the
established social norms
Types of Deviance
1. Innovators – accept goals, but reject means to achieve those; ex.
corrupt government officials
2. Ritualists – reject goals, but accept social norms; ex. religious fanatic
3. Retreatists – rejects both goals and means to achieve those; ex.
alcoholics
4. Rebels – rejects both goals and means to achieve those, but sets up
new goals or means; ex. rebel leaders
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9. ULTIMATE LEARNING GUIDE TO SOCIAL SCIENCE
Gemeinschaft – a social system wherein most relationships are personal,
traditional, private, and filial
Gesselschaft – a social system wherein most relationships are impersonal,
formal, contractual, and bargain-like
Demography – the statistical analysis and description of human populations
with reference to their size, structure, age, sex, and other related factors
Fertility – the actual number of children born in a given area at a given time
Crude birth rate – number of registered births per 1000
Mortality – the number of deaths in a given area at a given time
Crude death rate – number of registered deaths per 1000
Life expectancy – the average number of years a person can expect to live
from the moment of birth
Migration – the spatial movements of a person or group of persons from
one place to another, for permanent or temporary residency; there are two
kinds:
1. Immigration – when one enters his/her place of destination
2. Emigration – when one leaves his/her place of origin
Population pyramid – a graph displaying the age and gender structure of a
population
Dependency ratio – the proportion of 0-4 and the 65-over age levels per
one hundred persons aged 15-64
Population density – the number of persons that can be equally distributed
per square kilometer, considering the population in the area
Theories on population growth and decline
1. Malthusian theory
Thomas Malthus, in his An Essay on the Principle of Population
theorized that the increase in population is uncontrollable and that
it would reach, then exceed the level at which the planet could
sustain each individual’s needs
Population increases geometrically (2, 4, 8, 16…) while food supply
increases arithmetically (2, 3, 4, 5…).
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10. ULTIMATE LEARNING GUIDE TO SOCIAL SCIENCE
2. Demographic transition theory
Societies go through five stages of population dynamics:
a. Stage 1 – birth and death rates are high and stable
b. Stage 2 – birth rate remains high; death rate declines due to
improvement of medicine and health services; infant
mortality rate declines
c. Stage 3 – death rate is low; birth rate diminishes due to
expansion of women’s education and access to
contraception
d. Stage 4 – birth and death rates are low
e. Stage 5 – only recently added; predicted both more- and
less- fertile societies
Marriage – the systematized and institutionalized purpose of continuing a
family, and of begetting and rearing children
Patterns of family organization
a. Based on internal organization
1. Nuclear family – composed of a husband and a wife and
their children in a union recognized by other members of
the society
2. Extended family – composed of two or more nuclear
families, economically and socially related to each other
3. Conjugal family – the nuclear family from a core family only
consisting of spouses and their children
4. Consanguineal family – the nuclear family from a core
family only consisting of blood relatives
b. Based on descent (genealogical ties of a person)
1. Bilateral descent– accounting of descent through both the
father’s and the mother’s families
2. Patrilineal descent- accounting of descent through the
father’s family only
3. Matrilineal descent- accounting of descent through the
mother’s family only
c. Based on residence
1. Patrilocal – the family lives with or near the husband’s family
2. Matrilocal – the family lives with or near the wife’s family
3. Neolocal – the family lives in a new home, independent
from each of the couple’s parents
4. Bilocal – the family lives with or near the husband’s or
wife’s family

11. d. Based on authority
1. Patriarchy – the oldest male in the family is in-charge, usually the father
2. Matriarchy – the oldest female in the family is in-charge, usually the mother
3. Equalitarian/Egalitarian – the husband and the wife is in-charge, exercising a more or
less equal amount
Other terms and concepts
Alienation – an individual’s feelings of estrangement from a situation, a group, or a culture
Archaeology – the scientific analysis of the material remains or artifacts Ascribed status – a social
position assigned to a person at birth
Caste system – a system of social inequality in which an individual’s status is determined at birth, usually
according to their parents’ social position Cultural pluralism – emphasizes the advantages of cultural
diversity
Discrimination – act of mistreatment of people based on categorization which are irrelevant to the
situation
Ethnography – the direct participant observation of a small group, and recorded in written
description
Generalized others – a child’s generalized impression of what other people expect from him/her
Hegemony – the ideological/cultural domination of one social group over another
McDonaldization of society – the principles (efficiency, calculability, predictability) of the fastfood
restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of society
Megalopolis – a developing urban form in which separate cities grow together and become
interdependent
Skepticism – a call for objective analysis of all aspects of society; a suspension of judgment
until all information are in
Sociobiology – states that social groups adapt to their environment, by the evolution of genetically
determined traits
Stereotypes – simplified and unsupported generalizations about others; used for discrimination
Underground economy – the business of surviving as shown by sidewalk vendors, street vendors
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