Ch. 1 Introduction to American Schooling - Dr. William Allan Kritsonis

1. CHAPTER 1–INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN SCHOOLING
PAGE 1
This book is protected under the Copyright Act of 1976. Uncited Sources,
Violators will be prosecuted. Courtesy, National FORUM Journals
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN SCHOOLING
KEY POINTS
1. Public education is the largest employer in this country.
2. Approximately 54 million students are educated in K-12 public school
programs in about 14,367 school districts; another 6 million attend private
schools. About 715 are home study students.
3. Some of the reforms, as a result of the critical reports issued in the early
1980s, have been successful while others have failed.
4. The majority of the general public believe schools have stayed the same or
gotten worse during the past five years.
5. The purposes of today’s schools go way beyond the original purposes of
religious and academic training.
6. The melting pot theory has never been fully realized; many diverse cultural
groups retain distinct identities and are represented in public schools.
7. To improve the quality of teachers, many states have initiated reforms
including competency tests, better salaries, merit pay, incentives, merit pay
incentives, and stiffer entrance requirements into teacher education
programs.
8. Conservative groups played a major role in the educational reform move-
ment of the 1980s.
9. Changing enrollment patterns continue to create problems in planning for
public education.
10. The general future outlook for public education is excellent.
Copyright © 2005
William Kritsonis
All Rights Reserved / Forever

2. SCHOOLING (2002)
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CHAPTER 1–INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN SCHOOLING
A. OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 presents information regarding the status of public education in this
country. Specific content focuses on the magnitude of education, current
trends, effective schools, and future possibilities in public school programs.
B. KEY TERMS–DEFINITIONS
A NATION AT RISK - this report issued in 1983 by a government commission
called for far-reaching reforms.
ACCOUNTABILITY - responsibility related to quality of educational
programs.
AFT - American Federation of Teachers, a major teacher union. The AFT has
more than 825,000 members.
BILINGUAL EDUCATION - a component of multicultural education that
focuses on attempts to teach English skills to non-English speakers. The
students are taught in their native language until they become proficient
enough in English to receive the majority of instruction in English. In some
cases instruction in the child’s native language receives equal attention with
English.
CONSERVATIVE MOVEMENT - calls for returning to the basic purpose of
public schools such as:
a. return to emphasizing the basic core of academic subjects;
b. a de-emphasis on extracurricular activities;
c. an emphasis on moral education;
d. inclusion of school prayer;
e. more control of the education process by the family.
CRITICAL REPORTS - the most critical report was A Nation at Risk issued
in 1983 by the National Commission of Excellence in Education.
CULTURAL PLURALISM - pluralists reject the traditional Americanizing
function of the public school because it has meant assimilation and
acculturation into the white, middle class pattern of American Society; a
realization that the melting pot theory of American culture had not occurred
and probably would not occur.

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CURRICULAR REFORM - a back-to-the-basics reform movement started in
the 1970s. Many believe the basic curriculum should have greater emphasis.
DECLINING ENROLLMENTS - changing enrollments have a major effect
on the educational system:
a. affecting state funding;
b. impacting on the number of teachers needed;
c. altering class sizes;
d. causing redistricting of school boundaries;
e. changing school plant needs.
HOME SCHOOLING - a conservative movement by parents to formally
educate their children at home or in a small group setting.
MELTING POT - the theory that people from all cultures form a common
bond.
MERIT PAY - a plan of providing extra pay for superior performance by
teachers.
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION - a concept predicated upon a
fundamental belief that all people must be accorded respect, regardless of age,
race, sex, economic class, religion, nationalism, physical or mental ability;
innovative ways for dealing with the education of minorities.
NEA - National Education Association, one of the two major teacher unions:
NEA is the larger and more powerful of the two– with 2.2 million members
nationwide.
NEW RIGHT - a coalition that includes traditional conservative groups and
certain fundamentalists religious groups who advocate extreme viewpoints.
PUBLIC EDUCATION - free, government-supported schools open to all
children. Note: Resident alien children and illegal immigrant children are
allowed to attend USA public schools.
REFORM REPORTS - critical reports issued in the 70s and 80s by education
reform groups that listed many solutions to the problems faced by public
education.
SCHOOL DISTRICTS - a division of public school programs within a state.
TAX REFORM - a tax reform movement that is funding increased taxes for
educational reform.
THREE R’s - reading, writing, and arithmetic.

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Total Number of School Districts in America
State
Total Number
of Districts State
Total Number
of Districts
50 States and D.C. 14,367 Missouri 525
Alabama 127 Montana 465
Alaska 55 Nebraska 653
Arizona 214 Nevada 17
Arkansas 311 New Hampshire 164
California 999 New Jersey 582
Colorado 176 New Mexico 89
Connecticut 166 New York 709
Delaware 19 North Carolina 119
District of Columbia 1 North Dakota 234
Florida 67 Ohio 611
Georgia 180 Oklahoma 548
Hawaii 1 Oregon 233
Idaho 112 Pennsylvania 500
Illinois 905 Rhode Island 36
Indiana 292 South Carolina 95
Iowa 383 South Dakota 173
Kansas 304 Tennessee 138
Kentucky 176 Texas 1,044
Louisiana 66 Utah 40
Maine 228 Vermont 251
Maryland 24 Virginia 132
Massachusetts 248 Washington 296
Michigan 593 West Virginia 55
Minnesota 383 Wisconsin 426
Mississippi 153 Wyoming 49
Source: U.S. Department of Education National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). Common core of data,
national public education survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Adapted with
permission.

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SNAPSHOT FORECAST OF EDUCATION STATISTICS
(Estimations 2002/2003)
1. Public school enrollment, K-12, increased between 1985-2002.
2. Private school enrollment has changed little over the past decade.
3. Approximately 11% or about 6 million students attend private elementary
and secondary schools.
4. Elementary and secondary school enrollments will continue to rise.
5. Pre-kindergarten and kindergarten enrollment of 3- to 5-year-olds
increased about 30% between 1990-2002. The enrollment of 5-year-olds in
kindergarten programs has changed little since 1990.
6. The enrollment rates of 5- to 17-year-olds has remained steady since 1990,
about 96%.
7. Practically all elementary-aged children are enrolled in school.
8. The proportion of minority students in public elementary and secondary
schools increased between 1990 and 2002. During this time, the proportion
of Hispanics in public elementary and secondary schools increased at a
faster rate than the proportion of African Americans.
9. In 1976-77, 8% of children were educated in programs for the disabled
compared with 14% in 2002.
10. The proportion of 18- and 19-year-olds attending high school or college is
about 63%.
11. The proportion of 20- to 21-year-olds attending high school or college is
about 45%.
12. Total college enrollment has continued to grow since 1990. Much of this
growth can be attributed to the increase in the number of women over 24
years of age attending college.
13. Projections indicate that from 2002 to 2010, there will be an 18% growth
in enrollment of persons 25 years age in college.
14. Projections indicate enrollments of persons over 25 years of age in college
will be stable from 2002-2010.
15. The proportion of American college students who are minorities has been
increasing. In 2002, about 27% are minorities.
16. Graduate school student enrollment has been rising steadily. As of 2002,
graduate enrollment rose about 20%.

6. SCHOOLING (2002)
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17. The number of women in graduate school has exceeded the number of
men.
18. The number of male full-time graduate school students increased by 22%.
19. The number of elementary and secondary school teachers has risen about
25%.
20. The ratio of pupils per public school teachers is estimated to be about 17
pupils per teacher.
21. The ratio of pupils per private school teachers is estimated to be about 15
pupils per teacher.
22. The average salary for public school teachers has remained steady over the
past 10 years, reaching $39,485.00.
23. The teaching force in public elementary and secondary schools includes
74% women and 88% non-Hispanics.
24. Approximately 66% of teachers have at least 10 years of full-time teaching
experience.
25. The proportion of high school graduates who completed the full college
preparatory program recommended by the Commission on Excellence was
about 30%.
26. The number of high school graduates totaled about 2.8 million. About 2.5
million graduated from public schools and about 300,000 graduated from
private schools.
27. Many students complete high school through alternative programs, such as
night schools and the General Educational Development (GED) program.
28. About 84% of all 25- to 29-year-olds have completed high school or its
equivalent.
29. The dropout rate in high school has declined over the past 20 years. The
difference in dropout rates between the races has narrowed. The dropout
rate for Hispanics remains high at 30%, compared to 8% for Caucasians
and African Americans.
30. About 90 million adults or about 21% of the United States adult population
perform at the lowest levels of literacy.
31. Adults with higher levels of educational attainment have higher levels of
prose literacy.
32. Adults aged 19-54 have higher average literacy attainment than those 55
and older.

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33. The differences in literacy between younger and older adults may be due
to the higher level of educational attainment among younger adults.
34. Americans are becoming better educated. Within the past 30 years the
adult population graduation rate has increased from 54% to 84%. During
the same time period, the proportion of adults with at least four years of
college increased from 11% to 25%.
35. The number of degrees conferred by institutions of higher education is
estimated to be about 564,000 associate degrees; 1,176,000 bachelor’s
degrees; 390,000 master’s degrees; 78,000 first professional degrees; and
44,000 doctor’s degrees. Women earn the majority of degrees at the
associate, bachelor’s, and master’s degree levels.
36. Expenditures for public and private education, from preprimary through
graduate school, are estimated at approximately 621 million.
37. The expenditures of elementary and secondary schools are expected to
total about $775 billion, while institutions of higher education will spend
about $250 billion.
38. The total expenditures for education are expected to amount to about 7.5%
of the gross domestic product.
39. The state share of revenues for funding public elementary and secondary
schools grew through most of the 1980s, but in 1987 the trend began to
reverse.
Between 1986-87 and 1993-94, the local share of school funding rose
while the proportion from state government dropped.
By 2002, a greater proportion shifted back to the states as 47.5% of
revenues came from state sources, 45.9% came from local sources, and
6.6% came from the federal government.
40. The estimated current expenditures per student in average daily attendance
is about $6,951.00. After adjustment for inflation, this represents an
increase of 15% since 1988-89.
41. Private colleges are heavily dependent on tuition for revenues, receiving
43% from tuition.
42. Public colleges and universities receive about 40% of revenues from state
and local governments.
43. Expenditures per student at institutions of higher education through the
1990s has been slow in growth.

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44. After adjustment for inflation, current fund expenditures of higher
education per student rose about 16% between 1980-1981 and 1988-89,
but increased only 8% between 1992-2002.
45. Annual undergraduate charges for tuition, room, and board are estimated
to be $8,218.00 at public four-year colleges and $19,980.00 at private
four-year colleges.
46. On a per student basis, adjusted for inflation, expenditures for scholarships
and fellowships rose about 85% at public universities between 1986-2002,
compared with 9% for instructional expenditures.
47. On a per student basis, expenditures on scholarships and fellowships rose
about 68% at private universities between 1986-2002.
48. Research expenditures in public institutions of higher education rose by
31% per student at public universities and 36% at other public four-year
colleges.
49. Students at private colleges are more likely to receive aid than students at
public colleges.
50. College students obtain financial aid through a variety of programs; 56%
receive some sort of federal aid, and 11% participate in work-study
programs.
51. Private colleges provide aid from internal sources to over half of their full-
time undergraduates.
52. For all full-time undergraduate public and private college students, the
average student aid package from all sources totaled about $6,932.00 in
2002.
53. Federal support for education was sizeable between fiscal years 1965-
2002. Large increases occurred between 1965 and 1975. After a period of
relative stability between 1975-80, federal funding for education declined
approximately 16% between 1980 and 1985. From 1990-2002, federal
funding for education increased by 29%.
Note: Much of the information provided is available at the: United States Department of Education. (1999).
Mini-digest of education statistics. Washington DC: National Center for Education Statistics, (NCES).
C. SOME PRECEDING THOUGHTS
1. How many pupils are served in public education in the U.S.?
Fifty-four million students for the 2002/03 school year; about 6 million
students in private schools; about 40 million for the ’87-’88 school year in
15,713 school districts; 1985 was the first year in 14 years where there was

9. CHAPTER 1–INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN SCHOOLING
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an increase in enrollment; an additional 5.6 million students were in
private schools.
2. What were the major criticisms voiced in the reports on education in
the early 80s?
a. Major portions of the public are functionally illiterate, as are many of
our 17 year olds.
b. Science and math participation was down as were science and math
scores.
c. More than 40% of our high school students were in a general
curriculum rather than a college preparatory one.
d. Students in this country spend less time in school and less time
studying than in most other industrialized countries.
e. Teachers were coming from the bottom of their graduating classes–
both high school and college–partly because the pay was $17,000 on
the average for a teacher with 12 years experience.
3. What is the status of reforms initiated during the early 80s?
The very substantial and ever increasing dollars spent for education have
not yet given us the results our children deserve.
4. What is the purpose of public education?
The original purpose was to teach students to read well enough to be able
to understand their Bible readings. It evolved to teaching the Three R’s of
Reading, wRiting, and aRithmetic. Now we expect our schools to teach
everything from the basic R’s to include civic, vocational, artistic, and
personal goal instruction and fulfillment.
5. What goal is the Conservative movement playing in public education?
The New Right believes our schools have gotten away from their purposes
and from traditional values. They are lobbying for
a. reduction or removal of extra-curricular activities (all of them);
b. more academic emphasis;
c. emphasis on moral education;
d. reinstatement of school prayer;
e. more family control of the educational process. They are attempting to
write legislation that the states can all copy. They want to promote
creationism, to censor textbooks and library books, to promote interests

10. SCHOOLING (2002)
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of “Christian” schools, to end the unions and their influence, and to
fight “secular humanism.”
Some Christian values promoted in the curriculum by the Conservative
movement include:
a. promotion of two-parent families with the father working and the
mother at home;
b. sexual abstinence before marriage;
c. abstinence from smoking, drinking, and drugs;
d. the immorality of gay and lesbian lifestyles;
e. forbidding abortion;
f. patriotism;
g. obedience to and respect for authority;
h. politeness;
i. courtesy;
j. honesty;
k. prayer;
l. humility;
m. reverence for God.
6. What has been, and is emerging as, the federal government’s role in
public education?
The federal government’s role has been one of a watch dog and a guide
dog combined. It was supposed to ensure that the schools in all areas of the
country were adequately run and adequately funded. The true failure has
been in the short-sighted view of “adequate” achievement.
7. What is multicultural education?
It began as a movement to promote racial equality and harmony.
Americanization has meant blending into/with the white dominant middle
class. Correcting errors of omission, stereotyping, and misinformation, as
well as information dissemination, has been replaced/absorbed by
multicultural education. Now the goal is to assimilate reliable cultural
pluralism into the overall curriculum, a concept predicated upon a
fundamental belief that “all people must be accorded respect, regardless of
age, race, sex, economic class, religion, physical, ethnic origin, or mental
ability.”

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8. What teacher organizations have influence in education?
NEA - National Educators Association
AFT - American Federation of Teachers
Many leading authorities believe these organizations are losing authority
and influence. Many people believe strong unions are a barrier to
educational reforms. They have huge lobbying budgets.
9. What are some characteristics of effective schools?
a. Strong administrative leadership that includes the principal:
1. having a clear vision about the desired direction of the school;
2. having a commitment to improvement of instruction;
3. encouraging participative decision making;
4. serving as a buffer for teachers so that they can devote maximum
time to working with students.
b. Safe and orderly environment that includes:
1. working conditions that support the efforts of teachers to address
specific problems of their students;
2. environment conducive to teaching and learning.
c. Emphasis on instruction in the basic skills including:
1. the school having a commitment to the basic skills as instructional
goals;
2. basic skills being the foundation for higher order thinking skills.
d. High teacher expectations of students to include:
1. setting high performance standards for students;
2. providing specific instructions and are sensitive to individual
differences;
3. using clear and appropriate rewards to recognize student work.
e. Monitoring and reporting of student performance including:
1. using systematic methods to assess student progress;
2. aligning curriculum across subject areas and grades;
3. matching curriculum, desired outcomes, and assessment activities.
f. Necessary resources to meet objective including:

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1. making available sufficient personnel and materials in the school;
2. providing sufficient time for instructional planning, staff
development, and adapting new innovations;
3. providing opportunities for professional growth.
g. Culture of the school including:
1. positive human interactions among students and teachers;
2. continuous growth and development of students and teachers;
3. state-of-the-art instructional practices and strategies for teaching
and learning.
D. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. List some of the criticisms presented in A Nation At Risk.
a. 23 million U.S. adults are functionally illiterate;
b. 13% of all 17-year-olds & 48% of minority 17-year-olds are
functionally illiterate;
c. SAT scores declined from ’63 to ’80;
d. science achievement scores of 17-year-olds declined in ’69, ’73, and ’75;
e. remedial math classes in college increased by 72% from ’75 to ’80;
f. number of students in general curriculum in high schools increased to
42%;
g. 31% of high school graduates completed intermediate algebra;
h. 25% of credits earned by general track high school students were in PE,
health, remedial math, English, and work outside the school;
i. students in other industrialized countries spend more time on science
and math;
j. 20% of all four-year universities had to accept all students from state
high schools;
k. 50% or more of credits to graduate could be electives in 13 states;
l. U.S. students spend less time in school than many other industrialized
countries;
m. average school provided only 22 hours of instruction per week;
n. too many teachers came from bottom of high school class and bottom
of college class;

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o. average salary for teachers with 12 years experience was $17,000.
2. What are the status of the educational reforms initiated during the
early 1980s?
a. SAT and ACT scores either dropped or remained static;
b. minority students increased their scores;
c. the graduate rate dropped between ’85 and ’86;
d. average teacher pay had risen 38%;
e. average pupil spending increased by 50%;
f. twelve states instituted minimum competency testing for grade promotion
and twenty-four other states planned to implement minimum competency
testing.
3. What is the magnitude of public education in the United States?
Public education in the United States is big business. Some of the
emphasis of school districts and regulators needs to be taken off of the
business end of things and concentrated on the education end of things.
Some 54 million students are directly affected, along with the teachers and
administrators. Suppliers, knowing they have a captive market, are allowed
to gouge schools on a regular basis, just as they do other government
entities. Our schools deserve a fair shake.
4. What effect does declining enrollments have on schools?
a. affects state funding;
b. impacts on the number of teachers needed;
c. alters the class size;
d. causes redistricting of school boundaries;
e. changes school plant needs, buildings, and grounds.
Instructional programs are affected. The areas most affected are language
arts, social studies, science, fine arts, and foreign language. This results in
fewer course offerings and fewer professional positions in these areas.
5. What is the role of the federal government in education?
Reagan’s White House began returning responsibility to the states and
localities. As a result, federal spending in education was reduced.
Again, the federal government’s role has been one of a watch dog and
guide dog combined. It was intended to ensure that schools in all areas of
the country functioned properly and were adequately funded. The true
failure has been in the short-sighted view of “adequate” achievement.

14. SCHOOLING (2002)
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President George W. Bush is planning to initiate numerous educational
reforms during the 2000s.
6. What are estimations for schooling in 2002/2003?
In the United States:
a. over 25% of the people are students or are employed by schools or
colleges;
b. of the approximately 250 million people there are:
1. 54.5 million students in public elementary and secondary schools;
2. 14.3 million students in higher education;
3. 3.6 million faculty and teachers;
4. 3.9 million non-instructional personnel;
5. 68.1 million total participants.
c. there are about 14,367 school systems;
d. there are over 27,000 private elementary and secondary schools;
e. there are over 3,500 colleges and universities;
f. there are over 83,425 elementary and secondary schools;
g. there are over 26,807 private elementary and secondary schools;
h. there are over 2,127 four-year colleges and over 1,408 two-year
colleges;
i. there are over 1,532 private four-year colleges and over 440 private
two-year colleges;
j. about 28% of elementary and secondary students are African American
or Hispanic while 17% of college students are African American or
Hispanic;
k. there are approximately 2,744,000 elementary and secondary teachers,
of which approximately 2,391,000 serve in public schools and 353,000
serve in private schools;
l. the average salary for an experienced teacher is $39,385, for a
beginning teacher $28,515;
m. approximately 30% of teachers are male; approximately 70% are
female;
n. the dropout rate among African Americans 16 to 24 years old dropped
from 28% in 1992 to 13% in 2002; for all 16- to 24-year-olds was 12%
in 2002, down from 15% in 1992;

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o. in 2002, (persons between ages 25 and 29) - approximately 85.8
million persons earned high school diplomas (includes GED,
equivalency certificates, etc.); 23.6 million persons had attained four or
more years of college;
p. in 2002, (persons between ages 25 and over) - approximately 80.1
million persons earned high school diplomas (includes GED,
equivalency certificates, etc.); 21.5 million had attained four or more
years of college;
q. the education level of the adult population has been increasing since
1940; the education level among young adults (ages 25-29) has not
increased significantly since 1980;
r. in 2002, approximately 446,000 persons earned Associate of arts,
associate of science degrees; approximately 1,044,000 persons earned
bachelor of arts, bachelor of sciences degrees; approximately 320,000
persons earned master of arts, master of sciences degrees;
approximately 39,000 persons earned doctor of philosophy degrees;
approximately 72,000 persons earned first professional degrees:
chiropractic, dentistry, law, medicine, optometry, osteopathic medicine,
pharmacy, podiatry, theology, and veterinary medicine degrees.
Note: Much of the information provided here is available at the United States Department of
Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Digest of education statistics,
1999.
E. REVIEW ITEMS
True-False
1. Public education in the U.S. has been taken for granted for many years.
2. All professionals agree with the A Nation at Risk report.
3. Multicultural education began in the early 1980s.
4. The reforms initiated during the 1980s were all very successful.
5. The development of new technologies has not had a major impact on
education.
6. The tax revolt of the late 1970s was a continuation of a trend started in the
mid-1960s.

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Multiple Choice
1. Recent criticisms of public education began in the _______.
a. late 1960s b. late 1970s c. early 1980s d. early 1970s
2. Approximately _______ students are served in public schools.
a. 25 million b. 30 million c. 75 million d. 54 million
3. The conservative movement advocating extreme viewpoints is _______.
a. conservative pool b. new right c. far right
d. conservative coalition e. oversight movement
4. The tax reform bill passed in Massachusetts in 1980 was _______.
a. Proposition 13 b. Proposition 2½ c. Proposition 191
d. retrenchment
5. The number of schools using microcomputers increased 16% in 1982 to
______% in 1988.
a. 25% b. 50% c. 70% d. 90% e. 97%