Henry James Study

pg. 0 "Romanticism in Henry James' Subject Matters of Artists"
"Romanticism" in Henry James' Subject Matters of Artists"
Soma, Jerimi (yuko.soma8@gmail.com), 23 February 2023
Abstract
This is an research of the theme of "Romanticism" in Henry James' short stories that explore the lives of artists.
James revised his major novels and published them in his later years, including a new preface for each story. Throughout
these prefaces, James repeatedly discussed his ideas about romanticism and how it compared to reality. As I began my
research, I had three questions that formed the basis of my theory. First, were James' romantic ideas expressed more in
his short stories about artists compared to his other subject matters? Second, did artists have unique thoughts and
experiences compared to ordinary people? Third, was there a connection between romanticism and art?
James was himself an artist who loved and practiced art, and he was often referred to as an artist of language. I
believed that James might have used special techniques in his short stories as a natural artist. Many of his stories were
based on true anecdotes that his friends had told him, which became the seed of his rich imagination. It was this inner
voice that motivated James to turn those seeds into a dramatic story, serving as the driving force of an artist's creativity.
Using his picturesque writing technique, James not only created a big panorama of painting throughout his stories
but also included smaller, more intimate paintings that served as beautiful moments. By including these small painting-
like scenes, James blended and compared his romantic world with the realistic society in which it existed.
My definition of romanticism is as follows: a romantic thing can be condensed into a small canvas, which then
becomes art itself. In contrast, reality is spread widely around that small canvas, creating a real society around our ordinary
life. Romanticism is smaller in size than reality, but it offers a much deeper and richer spiritual experience. When a human
being faces difficulty, their mind may be transformed from reality into a romantic thought, and this process can serve as
a form of self-justification. It can also be a way to navigate the challenges of life and grow as an artist and as a human
being.
To support my theory, I examined several issues in James' writing, including the common difficulties faced by
artists, the memory of romantic poetry, the use of an anonymous narrator named "I," two contrasting pieces of painting,
and the irony of reversal. I used James' New York Edition prefaces, his notebooks, and his stories of writers and artists to
explore these issues and support my theory about the connection between romanticism and art in James' writing.
(Remarks) In my research paper, I may reference Japanese scholars in the red sections as annotation #1 to #38, whose
work is written in Japanese. Therefore, the contents may not be same as the originals in English.
Introduction
This is an research of the romantic elements
portrayed in Henry James' "Artists' Stories" 100 years
after his death. James revised and added prefaces to his
major works towards the end of his life, which were
republished as the New York Edition¹. In these prefaces,
he repeatedly mentioned his concept of romanticism and
compared it with realism. This research raises the
following three questions: 1. Were romantic elements
expressed more prominently in James' stories about
artists? 2. Do artists have a unique way of thinking? 3. Is
there a close relationship between romanticism and art?
According to the prefaces, James was often
inspired by little romantic anecdotes he heard from
friends, which called to him, "Make a drama of it, make a
drama of it, make a drama of it!"² It was the inner voice
urging him to write. This voice may be the driving force
behind an artist's creative activities. James never went a
day without writing, even if his plays failed or his novels
didn't sell. This relentless effort is the fundamental spirit
of an artist.
James had the opportunity to experience
European life from a young age and used his privileged
background as an American to fully showcase his artistic
talents. His natural artistic genius made him a true artist.
James, known as a language artist³ who practiced and
loved painting, is one of the artists who likely
incorporated special techniques in his "Artists' Stories".
Not only is the entire story a panorama4
(as Lubbock calls
it), but there are also picturesque scenes that capture a
beautiful moment, similar to a painting. This is what is
called a painterly technique. The important point of this
research is how James' romantic and condensed world
corresponds or compares with the realistic society, by
incorporating a painterly scene into his work.
I would like to define romantic as follows: a
romantic thing is a small world confined within a canvas,
and it is art of Romanticism. On the other hand, a realistic
thing is a vast world outside the canvas, which is the real
society. Despite being physically smaller than the realistic
world, the romantic world contains a much deeper and
richer experience accompanied by a free imagination.
Additionally, when a person faces difficult
situations, their thoughts may shift from the realistic to
the romantic, which is a form of self-justification. This
process is necessary for artists to grow both as artists and
as individuals. This is demonstrated by 1. The problems
faced by artists, 2. The issue of romantic poetry's memory,
3. The problem of the anonymous narrator "I", 4. The
problem of two contrasting paintings, and 5. The issue of

irony of reversal. These problems are the result of careful
consideration of "Stories of Writers and Artists", which
compiles James' "Artists' Stories", as well as the New York
Edition prefaces and his creative notes5
.
Chapter I.
The Seed of Drama
James' inner voice, "Make it a drama, make it a
drama, make it a drama!" is the seed of his drama. Some
of his dramas are based on the works of Romanticism
masters6
, but many are based on anecdotes he heard
from others. James recorded these voices in his creative
notes, like a diary, and then developed them into his
works. The content of his published works naturally has
some differences from the original notes. The seed of
"The Real Thing" (1893), a short story in "Artists' Stories,"
was recorded in James' notes two years before he wrote
it in February 1891 at the Westminster Hotel in Paris. The
story was based on an odd couple looking for modeling
work8
that he heard from his friend, the painter George
du Maurier7
. James believed that the story should not be
expressed as a vulgar story but as a picture that illustrates
something. The seed of form also began to take root from
the following.
“It must be an idea – it can’t be a ‘story’ in the
vulgar sense of the word, It must be a picture; it
must illustrate something. 9
“
On August 4, 1892, he recorded another
modeling story10
in his notes at the Richmond Hotel in
Lausanne. On September 8, 1895, at the Osborne Hotel,
he also noted that his next work should be a single
incident11
like "The Real Thing." In his creative notes, we
can see that the seed of James' drama was just a seed, and
his actual dramas have different plots. We can see how
the anecdotes of others' lives, with James' imagination,
could develop into much bigger things.
Chapter II
Romanticism
In his collection of prefaces, James frequently
expresses his views on romanticism. The romanticism
James refers to is related to the romanticism in the history
of art and the romance as a literary genre. Here, by
attempting to define romanticism in general and
comparing it to James's romanticism, we aim to clarify the
definition of what James refers to as romantic.
It is thought that the romanticism in Europe and
the romanticism in America are not the same thing. The
romanticism movement in America arrived later than in
Europe. In American literary history, the year 1850 is
considered the height of the American Renaissance,
which can also be said to be the height of romanticism.
Although the American Renaissance is a period in which
American literature flourished, it is merely a classification
that recognizes the flow from the Renaissance period of
European countries, through classicism, and into
romanticism, with imitation being an important factor in
the establishment of American romanticism.
Nevertheless, it was a historically noteworthy
period in the American literary world, and the
individualistic movement of romanticism allowed writers
to unleash their imaginations, resulting in the creation of
numerous excellent works.
As for romanticism in Europe, which will be
discussed later, the following is an overview of
romanticism in America:
“(Middle part omitted) The romanticism of this period
was rooted in unlimited faith in the individual's inner
self, as typified by the prevalent ideology of
transcendentalism. For transcendentalists, the soul
was a sacred and inviolable realm that should not be
subordinate to any authority other than oneself.12”
Then, how was American Romanticism
expressed in the work? Romance is not limited to known
facts or things that may happen, but rather an attempt to
grasp things that might happen. Throughout the work,
symbolic elements are scattered about, and the
characters exist more like puppets representing
something than as real humans living in reality.
On the other hand, what about pioneering
European Romanticism? Classicism is a spirit that returns
to the ancient Greek and Roman spirit, emphasizing
moderation, balance, harmony, static perfection, and
denies extreme movements of instinct, imagination, and
emotion. As a reaction to this, Romanticism emerged,
seeking dynamic, incomplete, infinite, and free ideals in
contrast to the static and complete ideals of classicism.
Romanticism never reaches completion, but continues to
run with internal contradictions, ultimately leading to
death, which is a romantic irony13
. From a positive
perspective, it can be said to be a progressive spirit that
constantly develops. Romanticism tends to enhance
irrational tendencies, longing for the infinite, and
wandering in pursuit of freedom, escaping from reality.
Here, the relationship between ideals and reality society
becomes an issue, and that is what James wanted to
depict in "The Artistic Temperament."
However, James was neither a defender of
Romanticism nor a writer who worked during the heyday
of American Renaissance Romanticism. After the
Romanticism era, the realism era, which drew real life as
it was, began, but James is often considered a realist
writer who depicted works that reflected actual life. He
also lived in Paris and had a close relationship with Zola, a
naturalistic writer, and criticized the French literary world
for decadence, even though he seemed to be inclined to

naturalism, which realistically depicts even the ugly parts
of reality. James did not belong to any ism, but always had
a dynamic view of the world, with a firm sense of self that
was not swayed by the times.
It is certain that James drew inspiration from E.A.
Poe (1809-1849) and Hawthorne (1804-1864), American
romance writers, but for "The Artistic Temperament"
discussed in this analysis, it is impossible to consider it
without the influence of European Romanticism. One
example is Balzac (1799-1850), who is the essence of
French Romanticism. In his "The Unknown Masterpiece"
(1832), Honoré de Balzac. wrote the following:
Then, how was American Romanticism
expressed in the work? Romance is not limited to known
facts or events that might happen, but seeks to grasp even
things that may possibly occur. In the work, symbolic
elements are scattered throughout, and the characters
exist more as symbolic representations than as human
beings living in reality, like puppets being manipulated to
symbolize something. On the other hand, how was the
pioneering European Romanticism?
Classicism involves returning to the spirit of
ancient Greece and Rome, valuing restraint, balance,
harmony, static completeness, and rejecting extreme
movements of instinct, imagination, and emotion. As a
reaction, Romanticism emerged, seeking the dynamic,
unfinished, infinite, and free in contrast to the static and
complete ideals of Classicism.
Romanticism is the romantic irony of never being
finished, continuing with internal contradictions, and
finally dying without escaping those contradictions.
Alternatively, it can be seen as a progressive spirit that is
constantly developing. Romanticism avoids reality,
strengthens irrational tendencies, longs for the infinite,
and seeks freedom by wandering continuously. The
problem lies in how the ideal and the reality of society are
related, and this is what James wanted to portray in "The
Art of the Novel".
However, James was neither a defender of
Romanticism nor a writer who worked during the peak of
American Romanticism. After the Romanticism period,
the Realism period began in opposition to Romanticism,
depicting real life as it is, but James is often referred to as
a Realist writer who depicts works based on real life.
However, it is doubtful that he recognized himself as such.
James lived in Paris, was friends with the Naturalist Zola,
and criticized Naturalism for corrupting the French
literary world by realistically portraying even its ugly parts.
James did not belong to any isms and always had a
dynamic perspective on his surroundings, possessing a
firm self that was not swayed by the times.
It is certain that James is influenced by the likes
of E.A. Poe (1809-1849) and Hawthorne (1804-1864), who
are American Romantic authors, but when it comes to
"The Art of the Novel" discussed in this analysis, it cannot
be considered without the influence of European
Romanticism. One example is Balzac (1799-1850), the
essence of French Romanticism. In his "The Unknown
Masterpiece (1832)", Balzac writes the following:
"The mission of art is not to copy nature but to express
it. You are not a laborer, but a poet," the old man
interrupted Porbus abruptly, shouting loudly.
"Otherwise, what is the sculptor's work? He has no
other work than to take a woman and cast her in her
natural form. Try taking the hand of your mistress and
putting it in a mold before your eyes. You will only
encounter a terrible corpse that looks nothing like her.
Then you will be forced to seek out only the sculptor
himself. The sculptor will not accurately reproduce the
hand, but he will carve its movement and life into you.
We must capture the spirit, soul, and character of
things."14
The plot of this drama is strikingly similar to
James' "The Madonna of the Future (1873)". Moreover,
the artist's preference for expressed rather than copied
works is reminiscent of the artistic spirit of the illustrator
in "The Real Thing". The theme of "The Next Time (1895)"
is similar to "The Unknown Masterpiece" in that it depicts
the drama of a self-contradictory artist who has
exhausted his talent in pursuit of an ideal woman, and
eventually dies without being rewarded. "The Unknown
Masterpiece" is the culmination of European
Romanticism, in which an artist who lived in an infinite,
unfinished.
James seems to have been influenced by Balzac's
Romanticism in his "artist" works, but James' work
portrays a world that is closer to contemporary reality
than Balzac's European Romanticism. James' "artist"
works can be considered as a literary genre that takes a
middle ground between Realism and deliberately
incorporates Romantic techniques. It can also be said to
be situated in the intermediate zone between Romance
and Novel. So how did James make his imaginative
themes appear to be imbued with themes closely related
to reality in his "artist" works?
Chapter III.
Romantic and Realistic Elements
In James's works, the romantic and the realistic
are contrasted with each other. As stated in the preface
collection:
"In my understanding, 'real' means that sooner or later,
in some way, we cannot remain ignorant of something,
and if the specific facts are not yet known to us, it is a
coincidence that is the result of our incomplete
situation, and nothing more than an event
accompanying the total amount and number of
coincidences. On the other hand, 'romantic' means
something that we can never know directly, no matter

how fortunate we are in any situation, no matter how
wealthy, brave, knowledgeable, or adventurous we
may be. In other words, it means something that we
can only reach by beautiful detours of thought or
extraordinary means."15
Realistic elements are usually things that happen
in the visible world surrounding us, but they are often
unpleasant things that we do not want to know or face.
This is because they are often about the ugly aspects of
the real world, such as jealousy, money, and fame. We
have a tendency to avoid facing these ugly aspects of the
real world or our own ugly selves and try to obtain only
the happy and beautiful things as a fictional reality.
However, it is impossible to continue living only
in a fictional world, and if we are able to do so, it is purely
by chance that the balance of coincidences is in our favor.
Eventually, in the process of human growth, the balance
of coincidences will be lost and we will have to face the
ugly reality of society, the ugly reality of ourselves, and
the true meaning of life.
On the one hand, James stated that "romantic
things cannot be directly known." So, how can one acquire
them? They can only be obtained through the imagination.
The imagination works in situations where humans are
pushed into a corner, initially wishing to avoid the
situation, but later desiring to overcome it. As a result, the
imagination arises when one resorts to unusual and
extraordinary means. In other words, a good citizen who
lived a morally upright life may suddenly find themselves
in an opportunity to face their immoral self. From there,
they fall into an unusual psychological state and take
unusual actions, thus coming to know romantic things for
the first time.
Only those who have acquired romantic things
can become individuals with broad minds that can accept
realistic things. However, since humans are weak
creatures, it is difficult for them to accept the reality of
their weakness. That's where the spirit of self-justification
comes into play. While justifying themselves, they grow
into individuals with broad minds. Self-justification is a
foolish act of weak individuals, so there is a contradiction
here. Nonetheless, I positively view self-justification as a
sublime aspect of human growth that comes from the
conflicts that arise from within humans, which James
incorporated into his Romanticism.
The reason why James's "artist" is specifically
taken up in this analysis is that I believe those who can
acquire romantic things are often artists due to their
unique environment and genius. The true nature of
romantic things is considered to be "art, which is the
complexity of human beings and socially only an
obstacle.16
" James stated in the preface that "the
opposition between them (art and society) creates infinite
situations,17
" suggesting that art is ultimately the
Romantic thing that arises from the conflict between art
and reality. Furthermore, I believe that art is also the
Romantic thing that arises from the conflict between the
self (ego) as an artist and art, as well as the conflict
between the self (ego) and reality.
At the end of the 19th century, the aestheticism
movement18
prevailed, and art was considered more
important than real life. However, while James saw life as
something that could not be trusted, he did not
completely separate it from art. If artists create their work
without a foundation in real life19
, then the romantic
elements that James considers cannot be obtained.
Additionally, James is an author who projected
his imagination onto his work based on seeds he obtained
from other people's lives, rather than realistically
depicting his own experiences. It seems that romantic
artists cannot create their work without imagination. It
can be said that the romantic is artistic in relation to the
realistic. James may have thought that the transition from
realistic situations to romantic situations, or justifying
one's imperfect situation, is what art is about.
This self-justification involves deceiving oneself
or others and presenting oneself in a positive light, leading
to the "idealization of oneself." This ideal is based not
necessarily on pursuing the goodness and beauty of
ancient Greece and Rome, but on individual free thinking
based on individual value standards in modern society.
James describes this self-justification in detail in Chapter
6, "The Anonymous Narrator 'I'," and quotes the following
from the preface collection.
“The only "common" attribute that I can
recognize within the depicted romance is the fact that it
deals with a type of experience that applies in all cases,
that is, experiences of open-endedness, of being unbound
and unfettered, without any hindrances, and which we
ordinarily associate with it. And due to some special
interest, it is about the experience of working in a
situation that is "relevant," limited, and therefore free
from the inconveniences of the situations that accompany
everyday social activity.
“In fact, the experience of the hot-air balloon is, of
course, connected to the ground. (Omitted) The skill
of a romance writer lies in secretly cutting the steel
cable for the sake of its interest, and cutting it so that
we don't notice it.20
”
In the previous quote, James explained how a
transition occurs from a realistic situation to a romantic
situation, but in this quote, he describes the nature of
romance, which is known for his ability to create a single
impression of a painting in his work. Therefore, it can be
said that this romantic situation can be likened to a single
painting on canvas that captures a fleeting beautiful
moment. It is one of James's artistic techniques to freeze
a beautiful moment in time as a painting. The romantic
world is a narrow world that fits into the canvas, while the
realistic world is a vast world outside the canvas.
The romantic "open situation" (= "infinite, free,

imaginative world") freely roams the space, escaping from
the everyday realistic situation. James likens this "open
situation" to a hot air balloon. A hot air balloon can only
carry a small limited amount compared to the earth or the
sky. This hot air balloon is connected to the ground by a
steel wire, but it floats in space without consciousness of
being bound to the ground due to the length of the wire.
This earth and sky space is a realistic situation, and as long
as the rope is attached, the romantic situation of the hot
air balloon will not depart from the realistic situation
surrounding the hot air balloon.
In reality, the world of romantic imagination
appears to be freely roaming, but it is actually inextricably
linked to the real world and cannot be detached. In other
words, even with a rich imagination, one is fated not to
escape from reality. However, as an author, James
secretly cuts the steel wire that connects the hot air
balloon to the ground, creating a completely unrestrained
situation. Since the hot air balloon did not know that it
was tied to the ground in the first place, the relationship
between the romantic and the realistic situations remains
unchanged for the romance characters. However, as
readers, we notice that the romantic situation has
somehow detached from the realistic situation,
enhancing the dramatic effect.
Physically, romantic things have a small volume
while realistic things have a large volume as they exist in
the surrounding space. However, mentally, romantic
things are a deep and liberating experience, free from all
things, while realistic things are limited and imperfect,
bound by common sense and shallow experiences.
These romantic and realistic aspects can be seen in
James's "artist stories," compiled by F.O. Matthiessen in
"Stories of Writers and Artists (1944)," which were all
used as references for this analysis.
While James expresses both romantic and
realistic aspects in works outside of his "artist stories," in
the end, the romantic aspects, characterized by
imagination and spiritual elevation, often fall victim to the
sacrifices demanded by the realistic aspects of social life,
contracts, and money, and the characters must return to
the world of realism. The romantic aspects remain only as
the protagonist's inner spirituality.
In contrast, James's "artist stories" focus on the
conflicts of being an artist, and in the climactic moments,
the characters are completely liberated from the
constraints of realism, creating an infinite situation. The
artist's conflict is described in detail in chapter 4.
One of the works analyzed in this discussion that
is worth highlighting is "The Real Thing." The novel begins
with a pair of elegant middle-aged couple, the Monarchs,
visiting the studio of a painter who, despite being a
portrait painter, works as an illustrator to make a living.
The Monarchs, who used to live a luxurious life with social
status and money, are now on the verge of bankruptcy
and hope that the painter will hire them as models for his
illustrations. The painter has already hired a young
woman named Miss Churm, who is from a humble
background but has expressive abilities and is a
professional model. The Monarchs, on the other hand, are
conventional models and are seen as lacking in expression,
revealing what the painter considers the "amateur's
flaw." Then a young man named Oronte appears, who
wants to be a model and a servant, and he also displays
his genius as a model, becoming a rival to the Monarchs.
After the art critic friend Hawley points out the painter's
failure, the painter decides to use Oronte and Miss Churm
as models for his illustrations. Learning this, the Monarchs
gradually begin to behave like servants in hopes of getting
non-model work at the studio. In the end, the Monarchs
have to accept the ironic fate that, although they are real
aristocrats, they cannot be more valuable than the
impostors. They eventually disappear from the studio
after receiving a considerable amount of money.
One of the acts of service that can be seen as a
"heroic personal service" is when Mrs. Monarch combs
Miss Churm's hair. This act is very romantic because it
completely reverses the situation. Mrs. Monarch, who
had done a shameful act for money, is transformed from
a negative or ugly character into a positive or beautiful
one in the painter's mind, and Miss Churm's beauty is
enhanced.
Romantic things pass through our thoughts and
take beautiful detours. They require imagination and
provide readers with the freedom to interpret the text.
Thus, there may be two interpretations of "The most
heroic personal service21
" in this work.
“But she quieted me with a glance I shall never forget-
-I confess I should like to have been able to paint that
and went for a moment to my model. She spoke to her
softly, laying a hand on her shoulder and bending over
her; and as the girl, understanding, gratefully assented,
she disposed her rough curls, with a few quick passes,
in such a way as to make Miss Churm's head twice as
charming. It was one of the most heroic personal
services I've ever seen rendered.22”
We closely examine and analyze the "act of being
a servant" as described in the outline, we can understand
the two different interpretations. There are a total of four
instances of the "act of being a servant." The first instance
is when the Monarch couple offers tea to Oronte, the
second is when Mrs. Monarch rushes to Miss Churm, who
is posing as a model, and untangles her hair with a comb,
thereby enhancing Miss Churm's beauty. The third
instance is when Mrs. Monarch looks around and picks up
a rag that had fallen on the floor, trying to find something
to do. The fourth instance is when the Monarch couple
washes dishes in the studio's kitchen. While all four of
these actions are examples of being a servant, the
interpretation of the second action is entirely different.
The other actions, except for the second, represent the
Monarch couple's pathetic behavior of trying not to be

kicked out of the studio. The second action is different.
Even though Mrs. Monarch knows that the
painter no longer intends to use them as models, she
untangles Miss Churm's hair with a comb while she is
posing, thereby doubling the beauty of her business rival.
A true noblewoman combing the hair of a fake
noblewoman could have damaged her pride as a
noblewoman, and enhancing the beauty of her business
rival might have led to a complete loss of her job. The
moment of "Mrs. Monarch's beautiful act" became a
painting in the eyes of the narrator, the painter. It makes
him want to draw such a beautiful expression. In other
words, this "beautiful act of Mrs. Monarch" wipes out the
"cruel irony of the fate that the real thing cannot be more
valuable than the fake" and leads the true noblewoman
to a reverse victory.
“They (The Monarch) bowed their heads in
bewilderment to the perverse and cruel law in virtue
of which the real thing could be so much less precious
than the unreal; 23
”
However, the idea of a reversal of fortune was
not in the mind of Mrs. Monarch. She simply engaged in a
human act of making Miss Charm look beautiful as a lady
should. This is one interpretation of "Mrs. Monarch's
beautiful act," which can be seen as a very romantic scene
to readers, and can be considered as the climax of the
drama. The second interpretation is described in Chapter
6, "The Anonymous Narrator 'I'." This concludes my
analysis on the relationship between romanticism and
realism in this story.
Chapter IV.
Various Issues of Artists
Do artists have a unique way of thinking? If so, I
would like to discuss how it connects to the romantic.
What is important here are the common problems faced
by artists who lived in the 19th century. James' artist
works deal with the following four problems:
First of all, as stated in “Hawthorne24
”, the
problems of the international situation are that American
artists who come to Europe for artistic training from a
country devoid of tradition are often too naive and end up
being frustrated after drinking the poisoned chalice of
experience from Europe, a country full of it. For example,
in "The Madonna of the Future," Theobald comes to Paris
from America for art training, but he stops painting and is
toyed with by the imaginary Madonna, Serafina, for ten
years. Eventually, he exhausts his talent as a painter and
meets an untimely death. It can be said that for artists, a
favorable environment from birth is essential in addition
to talent. James himself was born in an artistically
privileged environment, as is evident from the contents of
the passage below, which is a conversation between the
narrator H and Theobald:
"You seem fairly at home in exile," I made answer,
"and Florence seems to me a very easy Siberia. But do
you know my own thought? Nothing is so idle as to talk
about our want of a nursing air, of a kindly soil, of
opportunity, of inspiration, of the things that help. The
only thing that helps is to do something fine. There's
no law in our glorious Constitution against that. Invent,
create, achieve. No matter if you've to research fifty
times as much as one of these. What else are you an
artist for? Be you our Moses25
"
The second problem is the commercialization or
secularization of art and the pursuit of art in poverty. For
example, in "The Madonna of the Future," Theobald
pursues classical Italian Renaissance art and dies in
poverty without leaving a single painting because of his
high artistic goals, while Serafina's lover, who sells a large
number of dolls, achieves success.
In "The Real Thing," the painter originally wanted
to gain fame as a portrait painter, but ended up drawing
pen drawings as an illustrator to make a living. In "The
Next Time," Ralph Limbert reluctantly chooses to work for
a company as an editor to marry his beloved Moud, and
makes an effort to write articles that will appeal to the
public, regardless of the original artistic value. They
cannot afford to starve for the pursuit of art.
The third problem is the continuous effort of the
artist. In "The Next Time," despite being repeatedly fired
from his job due to the lack of public appeal of his articles,
Limbert never gives up hope that he will succeed and
never stops writing until his death. In contrast, "The
Madonna of the Future" portrays the decadent Theobald,
who aspired to be a painter, but did not pick up a brush
for ten years. Both Limbert and Theobald ultimately fail.
In "Broken Wings (1900)," when two former
lovers, who are both struggling as artists, meet again after
a long time and confess to each other that they are going
through hard times, they do not give up art to start a
romantic relationship, but immediately start working on
their next creation. The mission of the artist is to continue
to make efforts without considering the results, but it
requires hard work that may bleed and strong mental
strength.
The fourth problem is the issue of the artist's
imagination and practical ability or talent. The young
painter in "The Real Thing" was confident in his
imagination, but did not have the practical ability yet,
which caused him to be confused when facing Mrs.
Monarch. Theobald in "The Madonna of the Future" had
an excessive imagination, but suffered because he lacked
the practical ability to leave it on the canvas. In the end,
art can only be born from those with talent. Regarding
artistic genius, Aristotle believes that outstanding people
in philosophy, politics, poetry, and art are all melancholic,
while Plato distinguishes between ordinary madness

caused by illness and divine madness, which includes
poetic madness or artistic madness. This is called Plato's
madness theory and is combined with Aristotle's
melancholic theory to form the concept of melancholy-
genius-madness26
. Artistic geniuses are inherently
melancholic.
“Creation is inherently a destructive process. This
means that ordinary people can live without creating
anything. They can be satisfied with what they are
given. (Omission) However, only those who cannot
tolerate this ordinary order are caught by the demon
of creation and try to escape from the world. They
head towards another dimension. 27
"
This is considered the reason for the abnormal
thought processes unique to artists. The following is a
quote from "The Real Thing.
“Her figure had no variety of expression --she herself
had no sense of variety. You may say that this was my
business and was only a question of placing her. Yet I
placed her in every conceivable position and she
managed to obliterate their differences. She was
always a lady certainly, and into the bargain was
always the same lady. She was the real thing, but
always the same thing. There were moments when I
rather writhed under the serenity of her confidence
that she was the real thing.28
”
By examining the painter's frustration in detail,
the romantic nature of the various problems faced by
artists mentioned earlier becomes clear. The first stage of
the painter's frustration is a warning to oneself about
one's own inadequacies. However, in the second stage, a
feeling of amateur dislike arises, as the model is a real
aristocrat and therefore fits the mold too perfectly, and as
an amateur model, they are not good enough. The third
stage of the painter's frustration is being warned by his
critic friend, Holly, about the end of his artistic life. In the
fourth stage, the painter realizes that he still has ties to
the Monarch couple when he decides to use Miss Churm
and Oronte to finish "Rutland Ramsay." In the fifth stage,
the painter's motivation to paint is completely diminished
when he sees the Monarch couple suddenly behave like
servants and realizes that they cannot be present in the
studio as models due to their aristocratic status. The
painter's final stage of frustration was due to the
unpleasant feeling after the Monarch couple left. The
painter's frustration, which gradually builds up, changes
from frustration towards oneself about their own talent
as a painter to frustration towards art, which is forced to
take a position of amateur aversion, frustration towards
Holly and the Monarch couple's interference, and then
back to oneself. The recognition of frustration towards
the Monarch couple leads to the painter's realization of
their own egocentrism. As long as their own honor is
preserved, it does not matter what happens to others,
such as the Monarch couple. Moreover, the painter's
position gradually overlaps with that of the Monarch
couple. The painter realizes that the Monarch couple is a
projection of his own image. If the Monarch couple
survives, the painter will die.
The painter not only doesn't want to
acknowledge his lack of talent as an artist, but also doesn't
want to acknowledge any flaws in his character. However,
through the stages of frustration, he gradually faces his
own weaknesses. These weaknesses include the pressure
to prioritize money over art, abandoning the belief in
making a living as a portrait painter and having to settle
as an illustrator, being constantly chased by deadlines
despite the fact that art is supposed to allow one to
immerse themselves in it and forget about time,
limitations to imagination and talent, and ultimately,
having to sacrifice one's mental health in order to
prioritize being an artist. Here we see the conflicts that are
unique to artists: conflicts with the real world, conflicts
with themselves, and conflicts with art itself. These are
connected to the peculiar thought process of artists, "art-
melancholy-genius-madness", and the more abnormal
this process is, the higher the psychological risk, which
may shed light on the relationship between the problems
faced by artists and their romantic nature.
Chapter V.
The Poetic Memory of the Romanticism
The painter stated that he found value in paying
for the pain by cherishing the memories of the genuine
lady. The romantic memories of the genuine lady were
recalled so vividly in the painter's mind that it added
significant value to his later life. By examining how this
romantic aspect influenced the painter's later life, one can
demonstrate the sublime nature of the romantic spirit.
“I obtained the remaining books, but my friend
Hawley repeats that Major and Mrs. Monarch did me
a permanent harm, got me into false ways. If it would
be true, I'm content to have paid the price--for the
memory.29”
The problem of the poetic memory in James's
novels of the "artist stories" such as "The Real Thing,"
"Madonna of The Future," and "The Next Time" is
presented. In each work, the narrator talks about
memories of a certain person, going back from the
present to the past. By creating a psychological, temporal,
and spatial distance, the narrator feels a deep emotion
due to the difference between their current and past
positions, and the impact that the person, who they will
never see again, had on them in the past is only
resurrected as a sublime memory for the narrator. At the
time of telling this story, the painter, who is the narrator,

was no longer a young man and had given up on becoming
a portrait painter, gaining fame as an illustrator and
achieving a certain level of stability. That disgusting and
infuriating incident was an urgent problem for the painter,
and a very realistic one that made him realize his own
egoism, but what would have happened to the painter if
that incident hadn't occurred? The painter, who was on
the verge of losing himself, deceived by the delusion of
the genuine noblewoman who tried to lead him in the
wrong direction as a painter, had to experience his
immaturity as an artist and a human being when he was
young. Otherwise, his artistic and human qualities would
not have been enhanced.
For the narrator, the more realistic and
unpleasant this past incident is, the more he elevates it to
a romantic and sublime memory in the present. The
moment when Mrs. Monarch put a comb in Miss Charm's
hair is frozen as true beauty, turning into a single painting
and sublimated into eternal joy, and this is because the
narrator, the painter, is looking back at the past from a
distance in the present. For the narrator, who felt guilty
about his egotistic past actions, the only way to escape
from his past mistakes was to seal them away as sublime
memories of the past.
The technique of depicting memories from a
distance as a novel creates the guise of romance and the
guise of a romanticism poem. The English Romantic poet
William Wordsworth (1770-1850) reads the last line of
one of the Lucy poems as "The memory of what has been,
And never more will be,30
" keeping Lucy as a living
presence in memory and freezing the past in the poem31
.
The following is a quote from Wordsworth's Lucy poem,
"Three years she grew."
“Thus Nature spake – The work was done –
How soon my Lucy’s race was run!
She died, and left to me
This heath, this calm, and quiet scene;
The memory of what has been,
And never more will be.
(Three years she grew) 32
“
In the process of creating Wordsworth's poetry,
rather than immediately forming poetic imagery based on
real-life experiences, it is only through the process of
recollection that the stage of poetry-making is reached.
By looking back at the past with a psychological, temporal,
and spatial distance in the recollection stage, the
imagination is heightened, and the sublimity of the poetry
is increased.
The same can be said for James' stories about artists. Even
realistic events from that time period, when viewed with
a psychological, temporal, and spatial distance, can be
sublimated into romantic ones with the addition of
imagination. Coleridge, a poet who had a close
relationship with Wordsworth, defines imagination as
follows.
“Imagination is, first, the power to combine disparate
and contradictory elements; second, the power to
transform the objects of perception, rather than
merely to reproduce them; and, therefore, third, the
power to renew and revitalize habitual and familiar
things.33
”
The issue of Romantic poetic memory in James's
art-related short stories such as "The Real Thing," "The
Madonna of the Future," and "The Next Time" is that the
narrator recounts memories of a memorable figure from
the present to the past, creating a sense of deep emotion
by placing psychological, temporal, and spatial distance
between the current and past self, and the figure who had
a profound impact on the narrator and whom they may
never see again. The painter who is the narrator has
gained a great deal of value from the memories of the real
thing, to the extent that he is willing to pay compensation
for the pain he suffered. It becomes clear that the
memory of the real lady has a romantic quality that is
vividly recollected in the painter's mind and that this
romantic quality has given the painter's later life great
value. By examining how this romantic quality has
affected the painter's later life, we can prove the sublimity
of the Romantic spirit.
In the process of creating his poetry,
Wordsworth relied on the psychological process of
reminiscence to transform his experiences into poetic
imagery rather than immediately forming poetic
expressions. The act of looking back at the past with
psychological, temporal, and spatial distance enhances
the imagination, and increases the sublimity of the poetry.
The same can be said of James's art-related
stories. The method of depicting memory with distance
from psychological, temporal, and spatial perspectives
sublimates even the most realistic events into something
romantic. Coleridge, a poet who had a deep relationship
with Wordsworth, defined imagination as the power to
fuse conflicting and heterogeneous elements first and
foremost, to transform the object of observation, and to
reactivate what is habitual and familiar as something new.
In James's novels, the canvas of the imagination
is romantic, and the outside of the infinite canvas is
realistic. In other words, the realistic always contains the
romantic within it. Although the narrator criticizes Mrs.
Monarch as a boring and always-the-same lady without
expression, the narrator wants to paint her with the
expression that he described. In other words, the narrator
transforms Mrs. Monarch, the object of observation, into
something "good" through the past memories of the
painter.
By recounting memories of the past that have
been frozen in time, the narrators in "The Madonna of the
Future," "The Next Time," and "The Real Thing" hope to
lessen their sense of guilt, whether it be H- feeling
responsible for the death of a friend due to excessive

advice, the narrator of "The Next Time" feeling regret for
not providing enough support for a friend who might have
died without creating a masterpiece, or the painter
feeling a sense of guilt for being misled by the fantasy of
the real lady and losing sight of himself. By recounting
these memories that have been frozen in time, the
narrators can be released from the burden of the past.
Chapter VI.
Anonymous Narrator "I"
Explaining the necessity of using an anonymous
narrator "I" in James' works, we can prove that the
process of self-justification through conflict in an
incomplete situation is romantic and that this is what
constitutes art. The following quote is taken from the
preface collection:
"By the way, if I had made him, at the same time, both
protagonist and narrator, had given him the 'first
person' romantic privilege--and to do this on any scale
is to be fatally committed to the romance's peculiar
depths of darkness--a variety of other odd problems
besides diversity would have been smuggled in at the
back door.34
"
Using the first-person narrative is a confession by
the narrator, and confession is always romantic. By
unfolding the drama solely through the perspective of one
character, without the mediation of others, it makes the
drama more mysterious. It forces readers to doubt the
narrator, which, as a result, leads to various
interpretations. If the reader entirely trusts the narrator,
they will be led in the wrong direction. This is what is
meant by "facing the peculiar depths of darkness" in
romance.
Whether the reader trusts the narrator or not,
they will encounter strange problems in various parts of
the story because of the use of the flashback. The primary
cause of these problems is the timeline. Thus, readers are
required to reread and reinterpret, which demonstrates
the depth of the romantic experience that James intended.
The possibility of multiple interpretations is characteristic
of Romanticism, which values individual judgments over
societal harmony, contradicting the classicism's
rationalism.
In regards to the second interpretation of "The
Beautiful Lady of the Land," it is important to note that
false memories of past events are not uncommon.
However, it is unlikely that memories of past emotions
would be false. In this case, the narrator continues to hold
onto a false memory of the past where he wanted to use
the Monarchs as models for his art, but they left before
he could create any illustrations. This false memory serves
to justify his past actions of condemning and pushing the
Monarchs out of his studio in order to hide his lack of
confidence in his artistic skills and observational abilities.
Similarly, the narrator "I" in "The Aspern Papers
(1888)" recalls a moment when Miss Tita, an aging
middle-aged woman he intended to use for his art,
appeared as a beautiful angel. The narrator H in "The
Madonna of the Future" also recalls a moment when the
ugly old woman Serafina appeared beautiful. Even if there
were actual gestures made by Miss Charm, they were
likely calculated to attract the painter's attention for
monetary gain rather than genuine human actions, similar
to the motives behind picking up rags or washing dishes
in the first, third, and fourth actions.
Here, we will discuss the second interpretation
of "The Beautiful Lady" and how the painter's need to
justify himself as an artist led him to replace his memories
with falsehoods. It is common for memories of past
events to be flawed, but it is unlikely for memories of past
emotions to be inaccurate. The narrator continues to hold
onto a false memory of the past, which he uses to justify
his past actions.
The narrator's lack of confidence in his artistic
skills and perception led him to unjustly criticize and drive
away the Monarchs, and he now seeks to justify these
actions by creating false memories of wanting to paint the
beautiful Lady Monarch. However, the truth is that he
never had this desire, as the Monarchs had already left his
studio by the time, he considered painting her.
In similar fashion to "The Aspern Papers" and
"The Madonna of the Future," the narrators' memories
are distorted to suit their artistic desires. The painter's
ability to maintain his self-esteem as an artist through
falsified memories comes at the cost of accumulating guilt
and shame. The only way to relieve this burden is to
anonymously share his false memories with others, thus
providing evidence that the memories are untrue.
By using the first-person perspective, the
narrator's story leaves room for interpretation, which is a
typical feature of James's novels. This technique is highly
romantic, as it allows readers to think and imagine freely.
James suggests that romanticism is more dangerous than
realism because it involves extraordinary methods to
arrive at a beautiful and imaginative outcome. In the end,
the painter's desire for self-justification in a romantic and
imaginative world led him to falsify memories of the
Monarchs.
Ultimately, the Monarchs were merely obstacles
to the painter, exposing his lack of artistic talent and
personal flaws. They also threatened the painter's source
of income by potentially depriving him of illustration work.
The realization that the Monarchs were in a
similar position to himself was a bitter pill to swallow. The
following text by the critic Holly, which discusses the
Monarchs, confirms that they were merely projections of
the painter's own insecurity.
“Hawley had made their acquaintance--he had met

them at my fireside--and thought them a ridiculous
pair. Learning that he (Hawley) was a painter they (The
Monarchs）tried to approach him, to show him too
that they were the real thing; but he looked at them,
across the big room, as if they were miles away: they
were a compendium of everything he most objected
to in the social system of his country. Such people as
that, all convention and patent-leather, with
ejaculations that stopped conversation, had no
business in a studio. A studio was a place to learn to
see, and how could you see through a pair of feather-
beds? 35
“
The Monarchs approach Holly once they learn
that he works in the art industry. Holly warns that the
studio is a place to cultivate observation and questions
what can be learned from someone like the Monarchs
who are wrapped in a feather comforter. The painter
continued to allow the unnecessary Monarchs to enter
the studio, catering to the secular rather than pursuing
artistry. "The Beautiful Act of Mrs. Monarch" never
existed from the beginning. Even if it did, the painter at
the time probably wouldn't have noticed. The experience
of accepting and digesting one's guilty conscience is a
romantic and profound experience. A scene that never
existed is captured in a painter's mind as a momentary
image, and this is the artist's imagination. Moving from a
realistic situation to a romantic one, in other words,
justifying an imperfect situation, is also about visualizing
invisible things through imagination. This is exactly what
James' "art" is, painting a picture in the reader's mind.
Chapter VII.
Two contrasting paintings
Why does James' "artistic" work appear to
readers like looking at a single painting, presenting a
unified whole?
“One story is one story, one painting is one painting,
and I hate the idea of seeing two stories or two
paintings within one, which is as useless as a wheel
without an axle supporting the car, and which does
not serve the important purpose of expressing the
intent. (omitted) It was a fact that I happened to see
two paintings within one painting. (omitted) Therefore,
my job was to "seek" a complete pictorial fusion, that
is, to find some common interest that does not violate
each other, between the initial single concepts, even
if they were born under completely different stars.36
”
James is an author who places great emphasis on
his subject matter and composition. A little romantic story
heard from someone else becomes the basis for creating
a subject, but that subject must always be a cohesive
whole. Simply placing multiple major characters in a story
does not create a subject that stands out to the reader.
James always wanted to bring a single frozen moment in
time into his stories, much like a single painting. This is
also created as a single subject in line with the theme.
James seems to be more interested in "a single cohesive
whole" than anything else. This "single cohesive whole" is
the wheel of a horse-drawn carriage, with the stationary
axle at the center of rotation, which moves forward but
remains fixed in place, much like the theme of a story.
Losing the axle means losing the theme of the
drama. As stated in the preface, James avoids having two
stories within a single story and two paintings within a
single painting. However, he was surprised to see two
paintings in a single painting by Tintoretto (1518-1595),
and acknowledged that it was a "miracle" that he could
not imitate. Even if two paintings were to be represented
in a single painting, the new attempt by James would be
to direct both of them towards a common interest
without violating each other, which could result in
complete pictorial fusion.
In the short stories of "The Art of the Novelist" in
this paper, the common interest of the two paintings is
nothing but "art". In other words, two paintings are
thought to exist that are directed towards a single theme
of art. What is the way to avoid violating each other? It is
for these two paintings to achieve pictorial fusion and
behave as if they were a single painting. If they are truly
directed towards a single interest, the two paintings will
become one painting and the two stories will become one
story. As for some of the "Art of the Novelist" that is
mentioned here, the narrator's life is one story and the
friend's life being narrated is the second story. Both lives
are tossed around under the stars of art and live lives that
can be interpreted as tragedies or comedies, defeats or
victories. Even if James depicts two stories as a single
story, these art-related works are still only drawn from the
narrator's perspective and the narrator's life, making
them still one picture scroll and one painting. What was
thought to be two paintings is actually one realistic and
physical one, and the other is a romantic and spiritual one
that exists only in the imagination, which is the art of
James' method.
“ Short stories must choose either "anecdote" or
"picture" and fulfill their role strictly according to their
type. I also like anecdotes, but I'm so happy about
pictures that I could jump up and down. However,
there are times when you have to acknowledge that
the given attempt is close to the boundary. (omitted)
Nevertheless, in such cases, it can be seen that the
elements of the picture are skillfully dominant. In
pictures, there is that richly summarized effect aimed
at by perspective, ranging from the inanimate, thin
enlargement to the opposite extreme. 37
”
Short stories must either be anecdotes or
paintings, and they can even coexist as the main melody

and accompaniment. Sometimes, there may be a drama
at the boundary between anecdote and painting,
although this boundary should never be visible. In any
case, a single painting will dominate the entire
atmosphere of the short story. James' single painting
captures an infinitely condensed romanticism within the
limited frame of a canvas, expressing even the air
surrounding the character in two dimensions. The
canvas's surroundings are the real world, which is
physically almost infinite and compared to the world of
romantic paintings, is an inorganic and thin thing. The
following describes the former as a realistic world and the
latter as a romantic one, a world of a single painting that
has never been portrayed in the realistic world. In the
narrator's memory, the former is an anecdote and the
latter is a painting, and if they both exist together and can
always be interchanged, James successfully hid the
boundary line from the reader's eye.
In "The Real Thing," the always same,
stereotypical lady Monarch and the beautiful expression
of lady Monarch that will never be drawn as the
protagonist alternately resurface in the painter's memory.
In "The Madonna of the Future," the blank canvas on
which Seabold drew nothing and the perfectly beautiful
Madonna in Seabold's imagination, and in "The Next
Time," the unfinished work that will be rejected by the
secular world due to its sublime artistic quality and the
completed masterpiece alternately resurface in the
narrator's memory. This is James' unique painting
technique, which contrasts with the realistic world and
enhances the romantic effect even more.
Chapter VIII.
Irony of Reversal
Did James' characteristic irony add a sense of
tragedy to his "artist stories" and thus enhance the
artistry of the drama?
“As a result, their consciousness and life are torn to
shreds, and everything is destroyed in a meaningless
way, and on top of that, it turns out that the pearl was
only an extremely skillful "imitation," and in the end,
their lives become a question of what they were
destroyed for. (omitted) It changes the basis of such
terrible mistakes. In other words, it is not that what
was thought to be an expensive genuine article was
actually a fake, but rather, what was thought to be a
fake and cheap was actually a genuine article.38
”
The above excerpt is a description of "The
Imitation Pearl" in the preface collection, but it also
applies to the "artist stories" being discussed. In "The Real
Thing," the artist who tried to draw an illustration of a
genuine lady using the genuine lady, Mrs. Monarch, as a
model failed, as Mrs. Monarch is always the same lady and
cannot be imagined in any other way. On the other hand,
Miss Churm, the fake lady, who had talent as a model,
could even become a Russian princess with her golden
eyes, is the motif of this story, but not the ending. The
artist tried to get rid of the Monarch couple, who were
useless as models and undermined his creative inspiration,
but it turned out that he had actually kicked out his own
projection.
Moreover, driving out the Monarch couple
became a burden on the artist's conscience, and left an
indelible emotional scar on him for life. If he had more
humanistic and observational skills as an artist, he might
have been able to handle the situation more delicately
and not resort to such cruel treatment. Once lost,
important things do not come back. The result of his
attempt to make himself feel better led to the collapse of
himself and others. It's too late to regret now. This is the
reversal of the basis of the mistake. This irony of reversal
is the element of tragedy in this drama and leads to an
increase in the romantic element.
Conclusion
In conclusion, as we have seen in this research
paper, James introduced a condensed image of a painting
into the "artist stories," and these scenes became the
climax of the drama. The anonymous narrator "I" tells the
story in a way that contrasts realistic and romantic scenes
in the reader's mind. The narrator's reliability is almost
non-existent, and the story becomes a drama of self-
justification to avoid the narrator's extreme state in his
youth. The act of self-justification, while coming from
weakness, is an act that humans and artists must accept
to grow.
I believe that accepting the guilt of self-
justification is positive, as it is evidence of growing into a
strong human being who can bear the weight of guilt. It
also means growing into a kind person who can empathize
with others' pain as if it were their own. In James's "artist
stories," the romantic element is contained in the narrow
world of the painting, a world that is limited physically but
becomes deep and meaningful due to the artists'
imagination and artistic beauty. In contrast, the realistic
world is the broad world outside of the canvas, the world
of the physical reality.
The romantic element, despite being physically
limited, becomes deep and meaningful due to the shared
struggles of the artists. The theme is quickly sealed in the
poetic memory of the Romanticism. By using the
anonymous narrator "I," James lowers the narrator's
reliability and leads the reader in the wrong direction,
causing the drama to face the deep abyss of romance. By
creating a drama at the border between the anecdote and
the painting, James creates a dramatic effect.
This is the common romantic element in James's
"artist stories," a sublime and artistic beauty that requires

imagination. It is a world of deeper experience than
realistic reality and is often accessible to artists due to
their unique way of thinking.
Annotations
1. ヘンリー・ジェイムズ著、多田敏男
(Tada,Toshio)訳、『ヘンリー・ジェイムズ「ニュー
ヨーク版」序文集』、大阪、関西大学出版、1990
Not all of his works that have been republished include
prefaces, but translations of representative prefaces are
included.
2. Ibid., p. 259
3. 渡辺久義(Watanabe, Hisayoshi)、『ヘンリー・ジ
ェイムズの言語』、東京、北星堂、1978 p. 90
Mr. Watanabe explains that there is evidence to support
the designation of James as a language artist.
4. Chase, Richard, The American Novel and Its Tradition,
New York: Johns Hopkins UP, 1957
p. 69 Lubbock's explanation of "panorama" is
discussed
5. Matthiessen, F.O. and Murdock B, Kenneth, ed.,
James,Henry; The Notebooks of Henry James , New York:
Oxford UP, 1961. This is generally referred to as James's
"Notebooks for Fiction.
6. For example, it is clear in the work itself that "The
Madonna of the Future" is based on Balzac's "Unknown
Masterpiece" (1845).
7. George du Maurier(1838－1896)．He was a
renowned caricaturist for the British satirical weekly
magazine, Punch, and also an author of autobiographical
novels. He was a pupil of both Whistler and Degas.
8. Ibid., p. 102
9. Ibid., p. 103
10．Ibid., p.125
11. Ibid., p. 212
12. 大橋健三郎(Ohnashi, Kenzaburo)、総説アメリカ
文学史、 p．46
13. Description by Friedrich Schlegel.
14．バルザック著、水野亮(Mizuno, Ryo)訳、『知ら
れざる傑作』 p.l50
15. ヘンリー・ジェイムズ著、序文集 p. 31
16. Ibid., p. 84
17. Ibid., p.85
18. Watanabe, Hisayoshi expressed the art-for-art's-sake
movement of the time as "a noble, anti-popular
movement rooted in the fundamental principle of
dependence," and as "letting art rule life and its servants."
Meanwhile, Wild, Oscar (1854-1900), who took a position
in the art-for-art's-sake movement, claimed that "life
imitates art far more than art imitates life. In consequence
of which, the external world is modeled after the artistic."
He asserted that art is of primary importance and even
expressed a strong aversion to nature, stating that the
mysterious beauty of natural fog, for example, was taught
to us by poets and painters. This is in direct contrast to
William James' idea of "life first, then art."
19. 渡辺久義(Watanabe, Hisayoshi),『ヘンリー・ジェ
イムズの言語』 , pp. 103-106. I am explaining the
conflict between William James and H.G. Wells regarding
the relationship between art and life, but the point of
disagreement remains unclear and unresolved.
21. Matthiessen, F. O., ed. James, Henry ； Stories of
Writers and Artists, New York; 1944. p.190
22．ibid. , pp. 186-187
23. Ibid., p.190
24. Tanner, Tony, ed., James, Henry, Hawthorne, New
York: Macmillan & Co. Ltd., 1967
It is stated that the lack of monarchs, courts, nobility,
castles, and ruins in the United States, compared to
European countries, puts the country at a disadvantage in
terms of art.
25. James, Henry；Stories of Writers and Artists p.21
26. 谷川渥(Tanigawa, Atsushi)、『芸術をめぐる言葉』
第 3 刷、東京、美術出版社、2003 p.26.
27. 坂崎乙郎(Sakazaki, Otoro)、『ロマン派芸術の世
界』第 2 刷、東京、講談社、1977. pp.59-60
28. James, Henry；Stories of Writers and Artists pp.
178-179
29. Ibid., p.191
30. 出口保夫(Deguchi, Yasuso) 、『ワーズワス田園
への招待』、東京、講談社、2001． p.154
31. Ibid., p. 154.
32. Ibid., p.155. Mr. Deguchi stated that what is important
is the "frozen past” in the final line.

33. 山内久明(Yanauchi, Hisaaoki)他、『ヨーロッパ・
ロマン主義を読み直す』、東京、岩波、1997. p.102
35. Ibid., p. 32
36. Ibid., pp. 89－90
37. Ibid., p.150
38. Ibid., p.260
Reference
Primary Reference
Matthiessen, F. O., ed. James, Henry；Stories of Writers
and Artists, New York; 1944.
ヘンリー・ジェイムズ著、多田敏男(Tada, Toshio)
訳、『ヘンリー・ジェイムズ「ニューヨーク版」序
文集』、大阪、関西大学出版、1990
Secondary Reference
Chase, Richard, The American Novel and Its Tradition,
New York: Johns Hopkins UP, 1957
Gale L, Robert, A Henry James Encyclopedia, New York:
Greenwood Press. 1989
Kirschke, J, James, Henry James and Impressionism, New
York: Whitston, 1981
Matthiessen, F.O., American Renaissance, New York:
Oxford UP, 1968
Matthiessen, F.O. and Murdock B, Kenneth, ed.,
James,Henry; The Notebooks of Henry James , New York:
Oxford UP, 1961.
Tanner, Tony, ed., James, Henry, Hawthorne, New York:
Macmillan & Co. Ltd., 1967
秋山正幸(Akiyama, Masayuki)、『ヘンリー・ジェイ
ムズ作品研究』、東京、南雲堂、1981
芦原和子(Ashihara, Kazuko)、『ヘンリー・ジェイム
ズ素描』、東京、北星堂、1995
F.O. マシーセン著、青木次生(Aoki, Tugio)訳、『ヘン
リー・ジェイムズ－円熟期の研究』、東京、研究
社、1972
エデル他著、行方昭夫(Namekata, Akio)編訳、『ヘン
リー・ジェイムズの世界 – ジェイムズ評論集- 』4
版、東京、北星堂、1970
坂崎乙郎(Sakazaki, Otoro)、『ロマン派芸術の世界』
第 2 刷、東京、講談社、1977.
早瀬博範(Hayase, Hironori)編、『アメリカ文学と絵
画』、東京、渓水社、2000
バルザック著、水野亮(Mizuno, Akira)訳、『知られざ
る傑作』第 80 刷、東京、岩波書店、2004
フリードリヒ・シュレーゲル著、山本定祐
(Yamamoto, Sadasuke)訳、『ロマン派文学論』、東京、
冨山房、1978
ヘンリー・ジェイムズ著、青木次生(Aoki, Tsuguo)
編、『ヘンリー・ジェイムズ作品集 8 評論随
筆』、東京、国書刊行会、1984
ヘンリー・ジェイムズ著、川西進(Kawanishi,
Susumu)訳、『ヘンリー・ジェイムズ短編選集第
二巻芸術と芸術家』、東京、音羽書房、1969
ヘンリー・ジェイムズ著、舟阪洋子(Funasaka, Yoko)
他訳、『自伝ある少年の思い出』、京都、臨川書
店、1994
谷川渥(Tanikawa, Atsushi)、『芸術をめぐる言葉』第
3 刷、東京、美術出版社、2003
出口保夫(Deguchi, Yasuo)、『ワーズワス田園への
招待』、東京、講談社、2001
柳町敬直(Yanagimachi, Takanao)編、『西洋美術館』、
小学館、東京、1999 年
山内久明(Yamauchi, Hisaaki)他、『ヨーロッパ・ロマ
ン主義を読み直す』、東京、岩波、1997.
渡辺久義(Watanabe, Hisayoshi)、『ヘンリー・ジェイ
ムズの言語』、東京、北星堂、1978

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