Observational constraints on mergers creating magnetism in massive stars
Exploring climate change signals with explainable AI
1. Exploring climate change signals
with explainable AI
@ZLabe
Zachary M. Labe
with Elizabeth A. Barnes
in the Department of Atmospheric Science
at Colorado State University
9 December 2021
Carbon Club
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)
5. Computer Science
Artificial Intelligence
Machine Learning
Deep Learning
Supervised
Learning
Unsupervised
Learning
Labeled data
Classification
Regression
Unlabeled data
Clustering
Dimension reduction
6. • Do it better
• e.g., parameterizations in climate models are not
perfect, use ML to make them more accurate
• Do it faster
• e.g., code in climate models is very slow (but we
know the right answer) - use ML methods to speed
things up
• Do something new
• e.g., go looking for non-linear relationships you
didn’t know were there
Very relevant for
research: may be
slower and worse,
but can still learn
something
WHY SHOULD WE CONSIDER
MACHINE LEARNING?
13. Machine learning for weather
IDENTIFYING SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS
Molina et al. 2021
Toms et al. 2021
CLASSIFYING PHASE OF MADDEN-JULLIAN OSCILLATION
SATELLITE DETECTION
Lee et al. 2021
DETECTING TORNADOES
McGovern et al. 2019
14. Machine learning for climate
FINDING FORECASTS OF OPPORTUNITY
Mayer and Barnes, 2021
PREDICTING CLIMATE MODES OF VARIABILITY
Gordon et al. 2021
TIMING OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Barnes et al. 2019
19. E.g.,
Establish robust,
responsible AI for
severe weather
detection
Tornado Warning
Special Marine Warning
Severe Thunderstorm Warning
Flash Flood Warning
23. Artificial Neural Networks [ANN]
X1
X2
W1
W2
∑
INPUTS
NODE
Linear regression with non-linear
mapping by an “activation function”
Training of the network is merely
determining the weights “w” and
bias/offset “b"
= factivation(X1W1+ X2W2 + b)
24. Artificial Neural Networks [ANN]
X1
X2
W1
W2
∑
INPUTS
NODE
= factivation(X1W1+ X2W2 + b)
ReLU Sigmoid Linear
26. Complexity and nonlinearities of the ANN allow it to learn many
different pathways of predictable behavior
Once trained, you have an array of weights and biases which can be
used for prediction on new data
INPUT
[DATA]
PREDICTION
Artificial Neural Networks [ANN]
29. We know some metadata…
+ What year is it?
+ Where did it come from?
TEMPERATURE
30. We know some metadata…
+ What year is it?
+ Where did it come from?
TEMPERATURE
Neural network learns nonlinear
combinations of forced climate
patterns to identify the year
31. ----ANN----
2 Hidden Layers
10 Nodes each
Ridge Regularization
Early Stopping
We know some metadata…
+ What year is it?
+ Where did it come from?
[e.g., Barnes et al. 2019, 2020]
[e.g., Labe and Barnes, 2021]
TIMING OF EMERGENCE
(COMBINED VARIABLES)
RESPONSES TO
EXTERNAL CLIMATE
FORCINGS
PATTERNS OF
CLIMATE INDICATORS
[e.g., Rader et al. 2021, in prep]
Surface Temperature Map Precipitation Map
+
TEMPERATURE
32. ----ANN----
2 Hidden Layers
10 Nodes each
Ridge Regularization
Early Stopping
We know some metadata…
+ What year is it?
+ Where did it come from?
[e.g., Barnes et al. 2019, 2020]
[e.g., Labe and Barnes, 2021]
TIMING OF EMERGENCE
(COMBINED VARIABLES)
RESPONSES TO
EXTERNAL CLIMATE
FORCINGS
PATTERNS OF
CLIMATE INDICATORS
[e.g., Rader et al. 2021, in prep]
Surface Temperature Map Precipitation Map
+
TEMPERATURE
34. What is the annual mean temperature of Earth?
THE REAL WORLD
(Observations)
Anomaly is relative to 1951-1980
35. What is the annual mean temperature of Earth?
THE REAL WORLD
(Observations)
CLIMATE MODEL
ENSEMBLES
36. What is the annual mean temperature of Earth?
THE REAL WORLD
(Observations)
CLIMATE MODEL
ENSEMBLES
Range of ensembles
= internal variability (noise)
Mean of ensembles
= forced response (climate change)
37. What is the annual mean temperature of Earth?
• Increasing greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O)
• Changes in industrial aerosols (SO4, BC, OC)
• Changes in biomass burning (aerosols)
• Changes in land-use & land-cover (albedo)
38. What is the annual mean temperature of Earth?
• Increasing greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O)
• Changes in industrial aerosols (SO4, BC, OC)
• Changes in biomass burning (aerosols)
• Changes in land-use & land-cover (albedo)
Plus everything else…
(Natural/internal variability)
40. Greenhouse gases fixed to 1920 levels
All forcings (CESM-LE)
Industrial aerosols fixed to 1920 levels
[Deser et al. 2020, JCLI]
Fully-coupled CESM1.1
20 Ensemble Members
Run from 1920-2080
Observations
41. So what?
Greenhouse gases = warming
Aerosols = ?? (though mostly cooling)
What are the relative responses
between greenhouse gas
and aerosol forcing?
44. INPUT LAYER
Surface Temperature Map
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK (ANN)
Collection of nodes (neurons)
that adjust their weights and
biases across layers in order to
learn signals for making
predictions
Learns nonlinear processes
through selected parameters
in the model
45. INPUT LAYER
HIDDEN LAYERS
OUTPUT LAYER
Surface Temperature Map
“2000-2009”
DECADE CLASS
“2070-2079”
“1920-1929”
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK (ANN)
46. INPUT LAYER
HIDDEN LAYERS
OUTPUT LAYER
Surface Temperature Map
“2000-2009”
DECADE CLASS
“2070-2079”
“1920-1929”
BACK-PROPAGATE THROUGH NETWORK = EXPLAINABLE AI
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK (ANN)
47. INPUT LAYER
HIDDEN LAYERS
OUTPUT LAYER
Layer-wise Relevance Propagation
Surface Temperature Map
“2000-2009”
DECADE CLASS
“2070-2079”
“1920-1929”
BACK-PROPAGATE THROUGH NETWORK = EXPLAINABLE AI
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK (ANN)
[Barnes et al. 2020, JAMES]
[Labe and Barnes 2021, JAMES]
48. LAYER-WISE RELEVANCE PROPAGATION (LRP)
Volcano
Great White
Shark
Timber
Wolf
Image Classification LRP
https://heatmapping.org/
LRP heatmaps show regions
of “relevance” that
contribute to the neural
network’s decision-making
process for a sample
belonging to a particular
output category
Neural Network
WHY
WHY
WHY
Backpropagation – LRP
49. LAYER-WISE RELEVANCE PROPAGATION (LRP)
Volcano
Great White
Shark
Timber
Wolf
Image Classification LRP
https://heatmapping.org/
LRP heatmaps show regions
of “relevance” that
contribute to the neural
network’s decision-making
process for a sample
belonging to a particular
output category
Neural Network
WHY
WHY
WHY
Backpropagation – LRP
50. LAYER-WISE RELEVANCE PROPAGATION (LRP)
Volcano
Great White
Shark
Timber
Wolf
Image Classification LRP
https://heatmapping.org/
LRP heatmaps show regions
of “relevance” that
contribute to the neural
network’s decision-making
process for a sample
belonging to a particular
output category
Neural Network
WHY
WHY
WHY
Backpropagation – LRP
51. LAYER-WISE RELEVANCE PROPAGATION (LRP)
Image Classification LRP
https://heatmapping.org/
NOT PERFECT
Crock
Pot
Neural Network
WHY
Backpropagation – LRP
52. [Adapted from Adebayo et al., 2020]
EXPLAINABLE AI IS
NOT PERFECT
THERE ARE MANY
METHODS
53. [Adapted from Adebayo et al., 2020]
THERE ARE MANY
METHODS
EXPLAINABLE AI IS
NOT PERFECT
55. Neural
Network
[0] La Niña [1] El Niño
[Toms et al. 2020, JAMES]
Input a map of sea surface temperatures
56. Visualizing something we already know…
Input maps of sea surface
temperatures to identify
El Niño or La Niña
Use ‘LRP’ to see how the
neural network is making
its decision
[Toms et al. 2020, JAMES]
Layer-wise Relevance Propagation
Composite Observations
LRP [Relevance]
SST Anomaly [°C]
0.00 0.75
0.0 1.5
-1.5
57. OUTPUT LAYER
Layer-wise Relevance Propagation
“2000-2009”
DECADE CLASS
“2070-2079”
“1920-1929”
BACK-PROPAGATE THROUGH NETWORK = EXPLAINABLE AI
WHY?
= LRP HEAT MAPS
[Labe and Barnes 2021, JAMES]
59. Layer-wise Relevance Propagation
BACK-PROPAGATE THROUGH NETWORK = EXPLAINABLE AI
WHY?
= LRP HEAT MAPS
Find regions of “relevance”
that contribute to the
neural network’s
decision-making process
[Labe and Barnes 2021, JAMES]
60. 1960-1999: ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURE TRENDS
Greenhouse gases fixed
to 1920 levels
[AEROSOLS PREVAIL]
Industrial aerosols fixed
to 1920 levels
[GREENHOUSE GASES PREVAIL]
All forcings
[STANDARD CESM-LE]
DATA
61. 1960-1999: ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURE TRENDS
Greenhouse gases fixed
to 1920 levels
[AEROSOLS PREVAIL]
Industrial aerosols fixed
to 1920 levels
[GREENHOUSE GASES PREVAIL]
All forcings
[STANDARD CESM-LE]
DATA
62. 1960-1999: ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURE TRENDS
Greenhouse gases fixed
to 1920 levels
[AEROSOLS PREVAIL]
Industrial aerosols fixed
to 1920 levels
[GREENHOUSE GASES PREVAIL]
All forcings
[STANDARD CESM-LE]
DATA
63. 1960-1999: ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURE TRENDS
Greenhouse gases fixed
to 1920 levels
[AEROSOLS PREVAIL]
Industrial aerosols fixed
to 1920 levels
[GREENHOUSE GASES PREVAIL]
All forcings
[STANDARD CESM-LE]
DATA
64. CLIMATE MODEL DATA PREDICT THE YEAR FROM MAPS OF TEMPERATURE
AEROSOLS
PREVAIL
GREENHOUSE GASES
PREVAIL
STANDARD
CLIMATE MODEL
[Labe and Barnes 2021, JAMES]
65. OBSERVATIONS PREDICT THE YEAR FROM MAPS OF TEMPERATURE
AEROSOLS
PREVAIL
GREENHOUSE GASES
PREVAIL
STANDARD
CLIMATE MODEL
[Labe and Barnes 2021, JAMES]
66. OBSERVATIONS
SLOPES
PREDICT THE YEAR FROM MAPS OF TEMPERATURE
AEROSOLS
PREVAIL
GREENHOUSE GASES
PREVAIL
STANDARD
CLIMATE MODEL
[Labe and Barnes 2021, JAMES]
73. Higher LRP values indicate greater relevance
for the ANN’s prediction
AVERAGED OVER 1960-2039
Aerosol-driven
Greenhouse gas-driven
All forcings
Low High
[Labe and Barnes 2021, JAMES]
75. ----ANN----
2 Hidden Layers
10 Nodes each
Ridge Regularization
Early Stopping
TEMPERATURE
We know some metadata…
+ What year is it?
+ Where did it come from?
76. TEMPERATURE
We know some metadata…
+ What year is it?
+ Where did it come from?
Train on data from the
Multi-Model Large
Ensemble Archive
77. 2-m Temperature (°C)
THERE ARE MANY CLIMATE MODEL LARGE ENSEMBLES…
Annual mean 2-m temperature
7 global climate models
16 ensembles each
ERA5-BE (observations)
78. STANDARD EVALUATION OF
CLIMATE MODELS
Pattern correlation
RMSE
EOFs
Trends, anomalies, mean state
Climate modes of variability
79. STANDARD EVALUATION OF
CLIMATE MODELS
Pattern correlation
RMSE
EOFs
Trends, anomalies, mean state
Climate modes of variability
CORRELATION
[R]
80. STANDARD EVALUATION OF
CLIMATE MODELS
Pattern correlation
RMSE
EOFs
Trends, anomalies, mean state
Climate modes of variability
CORRELATION
[R]
81. STANDARD EVALUATION OF
CLIMATE MODELS
Pattern correlation
RMSE
EOFs
Trends, anomalies, mean state
Climate modes of variability
Negative Correlation Positive Correlation
PATTERN CORRELATION – T2M
82. TEMPERATURE
We know some metadata…
+ What year is it?
+ Where did it come from?
NEURAL NETWORK
CLASSIFICATION TASK
HIDDEN LAYERS
INPUT LAYER
101. WE CAN LEARN NEW SCIENCE
FROM EXPLAINABLE AI.
3)
102. KEY POINTS
Zachary Labe
zmlabe@rams.colostate.edu
@ZLabe
1. Machine learning is just another tool to add to our scientific workflow
2. We can use explainable AI (XAI) methods to peer into the black box of machine learning
3. We can learn new science by using XAI methods in conjunction with existing statistical tools