3. •Patients presenting with a palpable thyroid is
a common clinical dilemma.
•They are four times more common in women
then in men.

4.  Papillary carcinoma
 Follicular carcinoma
 Anaplastic carcinoma
 Medullary carcinoma
 Lymphoma
 Hurthle cell carcinoma
 Metastasis from other primary tumors

5.  Ultrasound
 Radionuclide scan
 CT scan
 PET scan
 MRI

6.  Detection and characterization of thyroid
cancer
 Detection of cervical nodal metastases
 Follow-up of patients after treatment for
early detection of local or nodal tumor
recurrence
 Provide imaging guidance for FNAC or biopsy.

7.  Treatment with radioactive iodine for residual
malignant thyroid tissue and metastatic
disease in patients with well-differentiated
thyroid carcinoma after total thyroidectomy.

8.  Evaluate extrathyroid spread of tumor to
adjacent structures such as the larynx,
trachea and vessels within the carotid sheath
and provide evidence of regional or distant
metastases

9. Echogenicity
 The incidence of malignancy is 4% when a
solid thyroid nodule is hyperechoic.
 If the lesion is hypoechoic ,the incidence of
malignancy rises to 26%

10. Margins
• malignant thyroid nodule tends to have ill-defined
margins.
• A peripheral halo of decreased echogenicity is
seen around hypoechoic and isoechoic nodules.

11. Calcification
Fine punctate calcification due to calcified
psammoma bodies within the nodule is seen
in papillary carcinoma in 25%–40% of cases.
Coarse, dysmorphic or curvilinear
calcifications commonly indicate benignity .

12. Longitudinal grey scale sonogram shows
characteristic punctate calcification
(arrowheads) within an ill-defined solid
hypoechoic thyroid nodule (arrows) which is
highly suggestive of papillary carcinoma.

13. Longitudinal grey scale sonogram shows coarse
calcifications (arrows) with dense shadowing within a
thyroid nodule suggestive of benign calcification.

14.  This indicates presence of colloid within the
nodule and thus its benign nature.

15. Transverse grey scale sonogram shows the presence of
comet-tail artifacts (arrowheads) within a predominantly
cystic thyroid nodule (arrows). Features are of a benign
colloid nodule. Curved arrow identifies the internal jugular
vein and asterisk marks the common carotid artery.

16.  Presence of cystic component is a feature of
benign nature of a nodule.
However some papillary carcinomas
demonstrate cystic component which mimic
benign nodule, but the presence of punctate
calcification in solid component helps in
diagnosis.

17. Longitudinal grey scale sonogram shows a well-defined
heterogeneous thyroid nodule (arrows) with a large cystic
component (arrowheads) and septation (open arrows).
Features are compatible with a benign hyperplastic nodule.

18. Transverse grey scale sonogram shows a cystic
component (open arrows) within a papillary
carcinoma (arrows) of the thyroid. The presence of
punctate calcification (arrowheads) identifies its
malignant nature.

19. Multinodularity
It is a myth that multinodularity
implies benignity.

20. Colour flow patterns
In general there are three patterns of vascular distribution
within a thyroid nodule .
 Type I: complete absence of flow signal within the
nodule.

 Type II: exclusive perinodular flow signals.

 Type III: intranodular flow with multiple vascular poles
chaotically arranged, with or without significant
perinodular vessels.
Type III pattern is generally associated with malignancy.
Types I and II are more commonly seen in benign
hyperplastic nodules

21.  Papillary carcinoma accounts for 60%–70% of all thyroid
malignancies.
 peak incidence in the third and fourth decades. Females
are more commonly affected than males.
 The tumour commonly spreads along the rich lymphatic
system within and adjacent to the thyroid gland
accounting for the multifocal nature of the tumour within
the thyroid gland and its spread to regional lymph nodes.
 Venous invasion occurs in 7% of papillary carcinomas and
distant metastases to bone and lung are seen in 5%–7%

22.  Predominantly solid (70%) and hypoechoic (77%–90%)
 Presence of punctate microcalcification (25%–90%) ,
correspond to psammomas bodies on microscopy
 ill-defined margins.
 Chaotic intranodular vascularity on colour flow imaging
 Adjacent characteristic lymph nodes located in the pre-
/paratracheal regions and along the cervical chains.
 Cystic necrosis in 25%.

23. Transverse grey scale sonogram shows a solid, ill-
defined, hypoechoic nodule (arrows) containing
punctate calcification (arrowheads) in the right lobe
of thyroid gland. Features are typical of papillary
carcinoma of thyroid. Asterisk identifies the common
carotid artery and curved arrow the trachea.

24. Transverse grey scale sonogram shows multiple round,
solid, slightly hyperechoic cervical lymph nodes (arrows)
with punctate calcification (arrowheads) in upper jugular
chain. Features are suggestive of metastatic lymph nodes
from primary papillary carcinoma of thyroid. Curved arrow
identifies the internal jugular vein and asterisk marks the
common carotid artery.

25. Transverse grey scale sonogram shows multiple
enlarged hypoechoic cervical lymph nodes (arrows) with
internal cystic necrosis (arrowheads) in a patient with
metastatic lymphadenopathy from papillary carcinoma
of thyroid.

26. • Anaplastic carcinoma is one of the most
aggressive head and neck cancers and has a
grave prognosis.
• It accounts for 15%–20% of all thyroid cancers .
• The diagnosis is suspected clinically with rapid
growth in a long-standing thyroid nodule.
• Patients frequently present with signs and
symptoms of airway compression.

27.  Hypoechoic tumour diffusely involving the entire
lobe or gland
 ill-defined margin
 Areas of necrosis in 70%.
 Nodal or distant metastases in 80% of patients ;
the involved lymph nodes show evidence of
necrosis in 50% .
 Multiple small intranodular vessels on colour flow
imaging
 Extracapsular spread and vascular invasion in a
third of patients.

28. Transverse grey scale sonogram shows a large, solid,
hypoechoic mass (arrows) occupying the right lobe
of thyroid gland. Note the presence of extra-thyroid
spread posteriorly (arrowheads). Histology:
anaplastic carcinoma. Curved arrow identifies the
internal jugular vein and asterisk marks the common
carotid artery.

29.  Medullay carcinoma is believed to arise from
parafolloicular C-cells.
 It represents 5% of thyroid cancer.
 50% have nodal metastasis and 15-25% have
distant metastasis to lungs, liver and brain.
 May be associated with pheochromocytoma
and MEN syndrome.
 Recurrence in the neck and mediastinum is
common.

30.  solid hypoechoic nodule
 echogenic foci in 80%–90% of tumours due to
amyloid deposition and associated calcification .
similar deposits are also seen in 50%–60% of
associated nodal metastases
 chaotic intranodular vessels within the tumour
on colour flow imaging.

31. Transverse grey scale sonogram shows an ill-defined, solid,
hypoechoic mass (arrows) occupying the left lobe of the thyroid
gland. Multiple echogenic foci (arrowheads) casting dense
posterior acoustic shadowing probably related to amyloid
deposition and associated calcification. Appearance is that of a
medullary carcinoma. Note how it closely resembles a papillary
carcinoma. Curved arrow identifies the trachea and asterisk
marks the common carotid artery.

32.  A follicular thyroid lesion comprises follicular
adenoma and follicular carcinoma which can only be
distinguished on histology of the surgical specimen
by the presence/absence of vascular and capsular
invasion. Therefore it is often not possible to
differentiate a benign from a malignant follicular
lesion with FNAC or core biopsy.
 A follicular carcinoma accounts for 2%–5% of all
thyroid cancers.
 It has propensity for haematogenous metastases to
lungs, liver, bone and brain.
 Nodal metastases in the neck are less commonly
encountered.

33.  hyperechoic/isoechoic in echotexture.Hypoechoic
lesions have a higher risk of being malignant .
.
• predominantly solid and homogeneous
in 70% well-defined, haloed in 80% .
• benign lesions have a type II vascularity,
whereas malignant lesions have a type III
vascularity .

34. Longitudinal grey scale sonogram
shows a well-defined hyperechoic
nodule (arrows) in the left lobe of
thyroid gland suggestive of a
follicular lesion

35. Longitudinal grey scale sonogram shows an ill-
defined heterogeneous thyroid nodule
(arrows). The hypoechoic nature of the
follicular lesion raises the suspicion of
follicular carcinoma which was confirmed on
subsequent thyroidectomy.

36. The only reliable signs of malignancy on
ultrasound include frank vascular invasion to
adjacent vessels (such as internal jugular vein
and common carotid artery) and
extracapsular spread.

37. Longitudinal grey scale sonogram shows the presence of
floating hypoechoic thrombus (arrowheads) within the
distended internal jugular vein (arrows). Colour/power
Doppler will demonstrate vascularity in a tumour
thrombus which distinguishes it from a stasis venous
thrombus.

38.  Metastases to the thyroid gland is infrequent;
the incidence in patients with known primary
is 2%–17% .
 Metastases to the thyroid are due to
haematogenous spread, most commonly
from primary melanoma, breast carcinoma,
renal cell carcinoma, lung carcinoma and
colonic carcinoma.

39.  Homogenous; hypoechoic mass.
 Well-defined margins
 Predominantly in the lower pole.
 Heterogeneous echopattern when the gland is
diffusely involved .
 Multiple, hypoechoic solid, thyroid nodules.
chaotic intranodular vascularity.

40. Transverse grey scale sonogram in a patient with
known breast carcinoma shows a well-defined, solid,
homogeneous hypoechoic mass (arrows) occupying
the right lobe of thyroid. FNAC confirmed a
metastatic carcinoma. The curved arrow identifies
the trachea and the asterisk marks the common
carotid artery.

41.  Lymphoma accounts for 1%–3% of all thyroid
malignancies.
 History of Hashimoto’s thyroiditis is commonly
present
 Thyroid involvement is more commonly seen in
non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma than in Hodgkin’s
disease.
 The typical clinical presentation is an elderly
female with a rapidly enlarging neck mass.
 Thyroid involvement may be focal or diffuse,
extrathyroid spread and vascular invasion are
seen in 50%–60% and 25%.

42.  Well-defined nodule with pseudocystic
appearance or heterogeneous appearance
 Diffuse involvement may result in
heterogeneous echopattern or simple
enlargement of the gland with normal
echopattern –
 Round, hypoechoic, reticulated
lymphomatous nodes in the neck
 Background of previous Hashimoto’s
thyroiditis in the form of echogenic fibrous
strands within the thyroid gland is often seen

43. Longitudinal grey scale sonogram shows an ill-defined,
solid, hypoechoic nodule (arrows) in the thyroid gland. Thin
echogenic lines (arrowheads) in the adjacent thyroid
glandular parenchyma indicate background Hashimoto’s
thyroiditis. Biopsy confirmed non-Hodgkin lymphoma of the
thyroid gland.

44.  The patient can be regularly followed up with
ultrasound examination of the neck for the
early detection of local and nodal tumour
recurrence.

45.  One has to be aware that post-operative
suture granulomas may appear
sonographically as hypoechoic nodules with
coarse echogenic foci casting posterior
acoustic shadowing in the thyroid bed.

46. Transverse grey scale sonogram in a patient 1 year after total
thyroidectomy for papillary carcinoma shows a small hypoechoic
nodule (arrows) with punctate calcification (arrowhead) in the left
thyroid bed. FNAC confirmed local tumour recurrence. The
curved arrow identifies the trachea, the open arrow the
oesophagus and the asterisk marks the common carotid artery.

47. Transverse grey scale sonogram shows an ill-defined
hypoechoic nodule (arrows) in the right thyroid bed
containing coarse echogenic foci (arrowheads). Features are
suggestive of a suture granuloma. The asterisk identifies the
common carotid artery.

48. (a) A 70-year-old woman with follicular thyroid carcinoma. Cervical ultrasound
indicated regional lymph node metastases. To confirm this finding and to
determine whether there were additional lesions, FDG PET was performed which
showed hot spots in the neck, upper mediastinum, the sternum and 12th
thoracic vertebra (arrow). (b) Coronal slice in a 81-year-old woman showing
lymph node metastases in the neck as well as mediastinum.
PET in the follow-up of differentiated thyroid
cancer

49.  The most common system used to describe
the stages of thyroid cancer is the American
Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM
system

50.  TX: Primary tumor cannot be assessed.
 T0: No evidence of primary tumor.
 T1: The tumor is 2 cm (slightly less than an inch) across or smaller and has
not grown out of the thyroid.
 T1a: The tumor is 1 cm (less than half an inch) across or smaller and has not
grown outside the thyroid.
 T1b: The tumor is larger than 1 cm but not larger than 2 cm across and has
not grown outside of the thyroid.
 T2: The tumor is between 2 cm and 4 cm (slightly less than 2 inches) across
and has not grown out of the thyroid.
 T3: The tumor is larger than 4 cm or it has begun to grow a small amount
into nearby tissues outside the thyroid.
 T4a: The tumor is any size and has grown extensively beyond the thyroid
gland into nearby tissues of the neck, such as the larynx (voice box), trachea
(windpipe), esophagus (tube connecting the throat to the stomach), or the
nerve to the larynx. This is also called moderately advanced disease.
 T4b: A tumor of any size that has grown either back toward the spine or into
nearby large blood vessels. This is also called very advanced disease.

51.  All anaplastic thyroid cancers are considered
T4 tumors at the time of diagnosis.
 T4a: Tumor is still within the thyroid.
 T4b: Tumor has grown outside of the thyroid.

52.  NX: Regional (nearby) lymph nodes cannot be assessed.
 N0: No spread to nearby lymph nodes.
 N1: The cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes.
 N1a: Spread to lymph nodes around the thyroid in the
neck (called pretracheal, paratracheal, and prelaryngeal
lymph nodes).
 N1b: Spread to other lymph nodes in the neck (called
cervical) or to lymph nodes behind the throat
(retropharyngeal) or in the upper chest (superior
mediastinal).

53.  M0: No distant metastasis.
 M1: Spread to other parts of the body, such
as distant lymph nodes, internal organs,
bones, etc.

54. T N M
Under 45 years
Stage 1 Any T Any N M0
Stage II Any T Any N M1
45 years and older
Stage 1 T1 N0 M0
Stage II T2 N0 M0
Stage III T3 N0 M0
T1 N1a M0
T2 N1a M0
T3 N1a M0
Stage IVA T4a N0 M0
T4a N1a M0
T1 N1b M0
T2 N1b M0
T3 N1b M0
T4a N1b M0
Stage IVB T4b Any N M0
Stage IVC Any T Any N M1

55. Medullary I •T1, N0, M0
II •T2, N0, M0
•T3, N0, M0
III •T1, N1a, M0
•T2, N1a, M0
•T3, N1a, M0
IVA •T4a, N0, M0
•T4a, N1a, M0
•T1, N1b, M0
•T2, N1b, M0
•T3, N1b, M0
•T4a, N1b, M0
IVB •T4b, Any N, M0
IVC •Any T, Any N, M1

56. Anaplastic (all
anaplastic
cancers are
considered Stage
IV)
IVA •T4a, Any N, M0
IVB •T4b, Any N, M0
IVC •Any T, Any N, M1

57. Axial T1-weighted MRI post-contrast of a
large anaplastic carcinoma with extensive
extrathyroidal tumour extension

58. Axial T2-weighted MRI with fat saturation showing a
papillary carcinoma (arrow heads) invading into the
tracheal lumen (arrow).

59. Axial T1-weighted MRI post-contrast showing an
anaplastic carcinoma (arrows) which is surrounding
(>270°) and invading the oesophagus (arrow heads).

60. Axial contrast-enhanced CT scan showing metastatic
nodes from a medullary carcinoma in the superior
mediastinum (arrows).

61. computed tomography section through the thorax shows a
heterogeneous mass (m) at the root of the neck, on the left, that
displaces the trachea to the right. The mass appears to be growing in
the caudal direction and is reaching the arch of the aorta (same
patient as in the previous image).

62. MRI of anaplastic carcinoma: T4b, 76-year-old woman with rapidly
enlarging mass. Axial T1-WI postgadolinium image shows a large
heterogeneously enhancing mass with central nonenhancing areas of
necrosis. The mass arises in the left thyroid lobe but extends
posteriorly to invade the prevertebral musculature (arrow) with
anterior extrathyroidal extension into the strap muscles and
subcutaneous soft tissue (arrowhead).

63. Stage T3 follicular carcinoma. Axial CECT shows a well-circumscribed
solid 4.8-cm mass in the left thyroid lobe (arrow). Surgical pathology
showed a follicular carcinoma.

64. 28-year-old woman with papillary carcinoma of right lobe of thyroid.
Axial CT image shows malignant mass with extrathyroidal extension
(arrow) and small lymph node with contrast enhancement (arrowhead)
at right level III. Ultrasound depicted no lymph node metastatic
lesions in either lateral compartment. Presence of nodal metastasis
was confirmed at surgery.

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