1. PHY 1301, Physics I 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VII
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
7. Describe fundamental thermodynamic concepts.
7.1 Explain the various heat transfer mechanisms with practical
examples.
7.2 Recognize the ideal gas law and apply it to daily life.
7.3 Describe the relationship between kinetic energy and the
Kelvin temperature.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
7.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Unit VII PowerPoint Presentation
7.2

2. Unit Lesson
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Unit VII PowerPoint Presentation
7.3
Unit Lesson
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Unit VII PowerPoint Presentation
Required Unit Resources
Chapter 13: The Transfer of Heat, pp. 360–379
Chapter 14: The Ideal Gas Law and Kinetic Theory, pp. 380–
400
Unit Lesson
UNIT VII STUDY GUIDE
Heat Mechanism and Kinetic Theory
PHY 1301, Physics I 2

3. UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
The Three Methods to Transfer Heat
The above image illustrates the three heat transfer methods. The
sun heats the Earth by radiation, the
surface of the Earth heats the air by conduction, and the warm
air rises by convection.
What is heat? Heat is energy that moves from a high-
temperature object to a low-temperature object. Its unit
is the Joule (J), but sometimes it is measured with the
kilocalorie (kcal). The conversion factor between the
two units is 1 kcal = 4186 J. The transfer of heat is processed
by the following mechanisms.
Conduction is the process in which heat is transferred through a
material. The atoms or molecules in a hotter
part of the material have greater energy than those in a colder
part of the material, and thus the energy is
transferred from the hotter place to the colder place. Notice that
the bulk motion of the material has nothing to
do with this process. You can easily find examples of
conduction. A radiator in your house is one of them. If
you put an object on the radiator, the object will become
warmer. Another example is when you pour the
brewed hot coffee into a cold cup; the heat from the hot coffee
makes the cup itself hot.
The heat Q conducted during a time t through a bar of length L
and cross-sectional area A is expressed as
Q = kA (dT) t / L. Here, k is thermal conductivity, and it

4. depends on the substance; dT is the temperature
difference between the higher temperature and the lower
temperature of the bar.
Convection is the process in which heat is transferred by the
bulk motion of a fluid. According to the ideal gas
law for constant pressure, the volume (V) is proportional to the
temperature (T). V increases as T increases,
and the density decreases within the constant mass. Warm air
rises and cooler air goes down; this circulation
makes the energy transported. The generated energy from the
center of the sun is transported by convection
near the photosphere. Cool gas sinks while bubbles of hot gas
rise. There is a patchwork pattern of small
(average diameter about 700 km), transient (average lifetime
from 5 to 10 minutes) granules. The granulation
is the visible consequence of the convection.
Radiation is the process in which heat is transferred by light,
electromagnetic waves. An electromagnetic
wave consists of an oscillating magnetic and electric field
moving at the speed of light, c = 300,000 km/s. This
method does not need a material medium, unlike the two other
methods. Every object absorbs and emits
electromagnetic waves at the same time. When an object
absorbs and emits radiation perfectly, it is called a
blackbody. The emitted light by a blackbody is called blackbody
radiation, and its spectrum is a continuum
because interactions between severely packed atoms are so
strong that all detailed spectral features do not
remain. Also, they are in thermal equilibrium, so blackbody
radiation only depends on its absolute
temperature, not on the chemical composition of the object.
After John Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism appeared in
1864, many attempts were made to understand

5. blackbody radiation theoretically. None succeeded until in 1900
Max Planck postulated that electromagnetic
energy can propagate only in discrete quanta, or photons, each
with an energ
German physicist then derived the spectral intensity
relationship, or Planck radiation law, a log-log plot
between intensity and temperature. These masterpieces are a
combination of classical works by Wien’s law
PHY 1301, Physics I 3
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
and Rayleigh-Jeans’ law (Nave, n.d.). Wien expressed the
blackbody radiation is emitted by Wien’s displacement law:
-3 / T [m]. Here, T is the surface
temperature. For example, the continuum spectrum from our sun
is approximately a blackbody, peaking at
near 5800 K. The emitted maximum flux of a star
determines the color with the maximum intensity of blackbody
radiation formula. Meanwhile, Rayleigh-Jeans’
distribution works at high temperatures and long wavelengths,
which have low frequencies (Nave, n.d.). It is

6. useful to obtain the brightness temperature in radio astronomy.
For further explanation, please visit the
webpage “Blackbody Intensity”.
The Sun’s Influence on the Earth
The sun’s violent activities such as erupting solar flares,
coronal mass ejections, and solar winds are greatly
influencing the Earth as well as the rest of the solar system. The
sun is one of 200 billion stars that exist in the
Milky Way galaxy. The size and mass of the sun are enormous.
The size is about 1,390,000 km and the mass
is 1.989 × 1030 kg. The sun possesses approximately 99.8%
mass of the solar system. The surface of the sun
is called the photosphere, a visible atmosphere with a depth of
about 500 km, and its blackbody temperature
is about 5800 K.
There are violent regions that can affect the Earth’s
environment, such as sunspots (11-year cycle), flares,
and the corona. The sunspots look darker because the
temperature is relatively lower, about 3800 K. They
appear dark only against the bright sun and would still be
brighter than the full moon when placed in the night
sky! These spots are produced by magnetic field interactions,
and the diameter of one is about 50,000 km.
The magnetic field in the sunspots is about 1,000 times stronger
than average. Hot gas ejected from the sun
often follows the magnetic field line and traces out the loop
structure of the magnetic field, called
prominences. Sometimes we observe a brief eruption of hot,
ionized gases from a sunspot group. This
phenomenon is known as a solar flare. These magnetic storms
are closely related to sunspot cycles. In 1 or 2
years after the maximum sunspots, non-repetitive magnetic

7. storms follow, and then a strong aurora can be
observed. Meanwhile, just after the minimum of sunspots,
repetitive magnetic storms come, and then a weak
aurora appears.
The above layer of the photosphere is called a chromosphere
and has less dense gas with high temperature.
We can detect visible UV and x-ray lines from highly ionized
gases. Temperature increases gradually from
about 4,500 K to 10,000 K, and then jumps to one million K.
One distinctive feature is a spicule, which
extends upward from the photosphere into the chromosphere
along the boundaries of super granules.
Spicules are filaments of cooler gas from the photosphere that
rise up into the chromosphere. Each of them
can last about 5 to 15 minutes. The above of chromosphere is
called a corona. The corona extends up to a
few million kilometers, and the temperature is about several
million K with an extremely low density. Coronal
gas is heated through motions of magnetic fields anchored in
the photosphere below. X-ray images of the sun
reveal coronal holes. These arise at the footpoints of the open
field lines and are the origin of the solar wind.
A coronal mass ejection is a much larger eruption that involves
immense amounts of gas from the corona. We
can see the corona during a solar eclipse. The sun has a strong
magnetic field, and the magnetosphere or
heliosphere extends out beyond the orbit of Pluto.
The solar wind, the outflow of low-density charged particles
(mostly electrons and protons), moves with a
speed of 450 km/sec. An extreme magnetic phenomenon like an
aurora on the Earth happens because of
high energy particles from the solar wind and the flares.
According to the solar wind research space probes
such as Wind, ACE, and SOHO, there is a dynamically stable

8. position, about 1.6 × 106 km from the Earth.
Moreover, the solar wind affects the tail parts of comets and the
orbits of space probes. The output of solar
energy is not always constant. There was a minimum period of
sunspot activity in the late 17th century, called
the Maunder Minimum. This period was strangely consistent
with the cold period, or the Little Ice Age in
northern Europe. It is estimated that solar energy has been
increased by about 40% since the formation of the
sun. The age of the sun is about 4.5 billion years old. About
half of the hydrogen has been consumed since
the birth of the sun, so there are about 5 billion years left until
the sun dies.
The solar wind can have a large influence on our planet,
particularly in times of the active sun (near sunspot
maximum) when the wind is strong and can contain bursts
corresponding to flares and coronal mass ejections
from the sun. The solar wind has a significant influence on our
ionosphere, the Earth's magnetic field, on
Earth's auroras, and on telecommunication systems. For
example, there are reasons to believe that a burst of
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/mod6.html#c5
http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/earth/atmosphere.html
http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/earth/magnetic.html
http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/earth/aurora.html
PHY 1301, Physics I 4
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

9. Title
particles from a coronal mass ejection detected 5 days earlier by
SOHO may have killed the Telstar 401
communication satellite on January 11, 1997.
Ideal Gas Law
When a gas has a very low density (where the average distance
between molecules of the gas are very
large), it is called an ideal gas. The ideal gas law is the
relationship between pressure, volume, and
temperature. More exactly, the absolute pressure (P) of an ideal
gas is proportional to the temperature and is
inversely proportional to the volume (V).
Here, R is the universal gas constant, and n is the number of
moles. One gram-mole of a substance contains
as many particles (atoms or molecules) as there are atoms in 12
grams of the isotope carbon-12. According
to experiments, 12 grams of C-12 have 6.022 x 1023 atoms. The
number of atoms per mole is called
Avogadro’s number NA. The ratio between the universal gas
constant R and the number of moles n is defined
as Boltzman’s constant k. Please note, the product n and NA is
the total number of particles. So, the product
of pressure P and volume V is expressed as NkT.
If the temperature is not changing, that is, T = constant, the
pressure P is inversely proportional to the volume
V of the gas: PV = constant. This is called Boyle’s law. See
Figure 14.6 on p. 385 in the textbook. The

10. respiration through the lungs/alveoli allows the oxygen into and
the carbon dioxide out from our bodies. When
the lung volume increases by the contraction of the diaphragm
and other respiratory muscles, the pressure of
the lung decreases by Boyle’s Law (PV = constant), and this
leads the inward air movement to the lung.
If the pressure P is constant, the volume V is proportional to the
temperature T: V / T = constant. This is
called Charles’ law.
Kinetic Theory of Gases
The kinetic theory of gases illustrates the microscopic behavior
of elementary particles, and it describes the
macroscopic picture of the motion. We assume that the number
of particles is very large. Also, the separation
between particles is large. The motion of particles is assumed to
be random with a constant speed. The
kinetic theory states that the kinetic energy of the gas particles
is proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the
system. The Kelvin temperature is also proportional to the
product of the mass of the particles and the square
of the rms speed of the particles. The internal energy of the gas
is also related to its Kelvin temperature.
In this unit, we have explored the detailed mechanism of heat
transfer methods with the behavior of the ideal
gas. In addition, the kinetic theory and ideal gas law explain the
various physical phenomena. In the next unit,
we will utilize these concepts to understand thermodynamics
laws.

11. Reference
Nave, R. (n.d.). Blackbody intensity as a function of frequency.
HyperPhysics. http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/mod6.html#c5
Learning Activities (Nongraded)
Nongraded Learning Activities are provided to aid students in
their course of study. You do not have to submit
them. If you have questions, contact your instructor for further
guidance and information.
1. Solve questions 46 and 47 on p. 379 in the textbook.
2. Solve questions 66 and 67 on p. 400 in the textbook.
PV = nRT = NkT
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VIIRequired Unit
ResourcesUnit LessonThe Three Methods to Transfer HeatThe
Sun’s Influence on the EarthIdeal Gas LawKinetic Theory of
GasesReferenceLearning Activities (Nongraded)
OSH 2305, Fleet and Driver Safety 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VII
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

12. 1. Summarize fleet safety management programs and practices.
1.1 Identify performance incentives to benefit a company’s fleet
safety.
3. Describe fleet-safety-related responsibilities.
3.1 Discuss changes to improve a company’s fleet safety.
4. Apply hazard analysis and control techniques to fleet safety.
4.1 Discuss the compliance, safety, and accountability score of
a company.
4.2 Recommend benchmarking and record-keeping systems for a
company.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
1.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 8, pp. 169–186
Unit VII Case Study
3.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 8, pp. 169–186
Article: “Benchmarking Health and Safety—Key
Considerations”
Unit VII Case Study

13. 4.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 1, pp. 7–8
Chapter 8, pp. 169–186
Unit VII Case Study
4.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 8, pp. 169–186
Article: “Benchmarking Health and Safety—Key
Considerations”
Article: “The Safety Ladder: Developing an Evidence-Based
Safety
Management Strategy for Small Road Transport Companies”
Unit VII Case Study
Required Unit Resources
Chapter 1: DOT Regulations, pp. 7–8
Chapter 8: Benchmarking and Performance Criteria, pp. 169–
186
In order to access the following resources, click the links
below.
Nævestad, T.-O., Elvebakk, B., & Phillips, R. O. (2018). The
safety ladder: Developing an evidence-based
safety management strategy for small road transport companies.
Transport Reviews, 38(3), 372–393.
Retrieved from

14. https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://s
earch.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc
t=true&db=bsu&AN=128004193&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Tilleard, A. (n.d.). Benchmarking health and safety—Key
considerations. Retrieved from
https://eazysafe.com/blog/safety-management/benchmarking-
health-safety/
UNIT VII STUDY GUIDE
Benchmarking Principles and Safety Initiatives
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://s
earch.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bsu&AN=1280
04193&site=ehost-live&scope=site
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://s
earch.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bsu&AN=1280
04193&site=ehost-live&scope=site
https://eazysafe.com/blog/safety-management/benchmarking-
health-safety/
OSH 2305, Fleet and Driver Safety 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title

15. Unit Lesson
Introduction
Management and benchmarking guru Dr. Peter Drucker once
stated, “What gets measured gets managed”
(Haight, 2015, p. 132). Benchmarking and performance
indicators have long been utilized in measuring
performance for companies within a variety of situations.
Within fleet and company safety programs, choosing
the correct metrics for the benchmarking process is the
framework and foundation for effectively evaluating all
activities and outcomes related to fleet safety.
Some companies use industry benchmark data to spur
themselves on to be the best in class. Unfortunately,
there are other companies that notice that they are the best of a
mediocre lot and are content with that.
Safety should be recognized as a core value within a company.
Accident statistics have long been analyzed
to improve safety programs within fleets. Companies use these
types of results in addition to accident
reporting techniques to appraise overall safety performance
standards and to decide where further
improvements are needed. Accident statistics are recorded
within many different industry segments such as
the Federal Transit Administration, the American Trucking
Associations, the American Public Transportation
Association, and the American School Bus Council.
Procedures
Each fleet has different reporting features that are continuously
analyzed by safety managers and leadership

16. within the company. Another important procedure is proper
training on vehicle operations in alignment with
well-communicated driver expectations and qualifications. In
addition, procedures must be in place to quickly
report and thoroughly investigate all accidents.
Chapter 8 of the textbook contrasts the value of centralized
versus decentralized reporting systems. With
decentralized systems, a company could potentially have more
of an advantage if an accident were to occur
because management would be closer to the location to review
the incident and provide detailed information
in a timely manner. On the other hand, a more centralized
system provides uniform responses, unified record
keeping with daily data backups, and more consistent
interpretation of chargeability regarding accidents,
which is done from a main office as opposed to multiple offices
located in multiple locations.
The goal of benchmarking is to determine not only safe
practices but also accident prevention. The individual
responsible for conducting benchmarking must determine the
types of reported incidents to be recorded for
use by the company. Many companies record preventable versus
unpreventable accidents and link that data
to performance appraisals and/or bonus programs. Whatever
benchmark is set for recording incidents, it is
critical for a safety manager to properly record accidents and
no-injury incidents and utilize this information to
provide thorough training and proper vehicle maintenance for
his or her drivers to prevent future on-the-job
accidents. While there are some companies that are suspected of
altering the accident records, full
transparency and honesty is the best policy.
One of the key procedures is the accident reporting procedure.

17. It is crucial that fleet drivers be instructed and
held accountable to report all incidents immediately, including
minor ones that might be tempting to hide.
Drivers and supervisors must be taught what language to use
and not use in the first report because this
report could become an official court document. In addition,
drivers and supervisors should be taught how to
properly take photographs, including using reference points so
that distances are easier to gauge. Finally,
most companies have an accident kit, which is placed in each
fleet vehicle. This kit includes the insurance
card, a report form and pen, a bullet-point summary card of
what to do and say or not say, and a disposable
camera in case the driver does not have a cell phone with a
camera feature. Most organizations also have a
post-accident drug and alcohol testing protocol to follow.
Accident Record-Keeping Systems
Design and development of record-keeping systems can help
assist a company in having the data necessary
to conduct an accurate analysis of areas needing to be
addressed. Begin by creating a successful accident
record-keeping system that chooses meaningful data elements
for recording. These elements can be the
metrics that have the largest impact on the company’s safety
program. These types of elements demonstrate
OSH 2305, Fleet and Driver Safety 3
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

18. Title
the major parts of an accident—such as who was at fault, what
vehicles were used, why the accident
occurred, and where the accident occurred. The focus should be
primarily on capturing all information
regarding the accident, such as the number of vehicles involved,
if there were any injuries and fatalities, and
specific documentation as to the amount of damage that each
involved vehicle sustained.
According to the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA, n.d.), employers who have more
than 10 employees must keep a comprehensive record of all
incidents that happen within the company. This
includes any accidents within its fleets. The record of each
incident must be kept on file for at least 5 years
per OSHA regulations. Companies can use the following OSHA
regulations as guidelines for creating
accident record-keeping systems:
-related fatality, including incidents
involving fleet vehicles;
-the-job injury that results in loss of
consciousness or days off from work;
-related or on-the-job injuries that require
major medical treatment;
work-related accident; and

19. -related
injury cases (OSHA, n.d.).
The most accurate benchmark that can be utilized by safety
managers and senior management within a
company is a careful analysis of past accidents that occurred
within their own company. This should include a
look at the implementation of improvements to facilitate a safer
environment to evaluate effectiveness, with a
constant eye on preventing incidents in the future. Reviewing
incidents outside of a company can be
beneficial but not as important as reviewing those that happen
within the company.
Incentive Programs for Safety
A primary target for employers is to promote safety throughout
their company environment. In order to
facilitate effectiveness, employers need to keep employees
interested. Given this, many companies use
incentive programs to promote safety at their worksites and
within their fleets. The positive results of
incentive programs have been researched and linked to the
reward theory and also to what is called the
Hawthorne effect. The Hawthorne effect was established after a
study was conducted between 1927 and
1932 involving the possible connection between the worksite
environment (e.g., amount of lighting, color of
paint on the walls) and productivity (Haight, 2015). Study
results showed that while there was no established
connection between a worksite environment and the
productivity that resulted from it, it was demonstrated
that productivity is a direct result of the employees’ perceptions
because they felt more involved and because
they saw management paying more attention to what they were
doing. As a result, productivity went up

20. (Hindle, 2008).
Companies have developed reward programs specifically to
reward drivers for safe driving habits, such as
keeping a clean driving record, keeping their vehicles clean, and
avoiding accidents. By rewarding drivers for
safe behavior, companies are building a culture of safety
(Vergara, 2009). Employees often need incentives
to raise their levels of productivity and align themselves with
their company’s goals and objectives.
While companies want to reduce accident statistics, there is also
a need to increase communications with
employees to ensure this takes place. These types of
communications will help employees better understand
safety program parameters. For example, how would the
program be coordinated and implemented? What is
the period in which employees can receive awards? What types
of safety procedures do employees need to
follow while operating fleet vehicles? How will drivers qualify
for these safety awards?
Fleet and terminal managers need to be sure to enforce their
rules and safety regulations. Compliance is the
primary goal as a company needs to demonstrate that it means
business. Employees will most likely be
compliant in their operations of fleet vehicles if they see the
importance of doing so and notice results.
Employees also want to see that if they are held accountable,
management and frontline supervisors are also
held accountable. Credibility is gained and maintained when
drivers see demonstrated commitment and
consistency instead of just talk.
Conclusion

21. From benchmarking, effective metrics need to be established,
and statistical analysis should take place
involving this data to determine new and improved methods that
can be used by companies to reduce future
OSH 2305, Fleet and Driver Safety 4
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
on-the-job accidents. Companies can determine what data
should be gathered to successfully report while
also using the information to create a safety program that works
for the fleet. In developing an individualized
accident reporting system, the company can take accident and
incident data and employ it in the current
safety programs to improve training and hopefully mitigate
future incidents. Safe driving recognition and
incentive programs reinforce good driving performance
(Vergara, 2009). Fleet performance should be
determined through effective and efficient benchmarking
practices and should demonstrate not only
accountability for past accidents but responsibility in
preventing future ones.
References

22. Haight, J. M. (Ed.). (2015). Fleet safety: For safety
professionals and fleet managers. Park Ridge, IL:
American Society of Safety Professionals.
Hindle, T. (2008, November 3). The Hawthorne effect. The
Economist. Retrieved from
http://www.economist.com/node/12510632
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.).
Recordkeeping requirements. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/recordkeeping/
Vergara, L. (2009). How to develop a fleet safety award
program. Retrieved from http://www.automotive-
fleet.com/article/story/2009/03/how-to-develop-a-fleet-safety-
award-program.aspx
Suggested Unit Resources
In order to access the following resource, click the link below.
The Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration website
provides several means for researching safety-
related information for companies.
Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration. (n.d.). Company
safety records: Overview. Retrieved from
https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/safety/company-safety-records

23. Learning Activities (Nongraded)
Nongraded Learning Activities are provided to aid students in
their course of study. You do not have to submit
them. If you have questions, contact your instructor for further
guidance and information.
Develop a fleet incident first report of incident (brief) form that
you would use in your company and that would
provide meaningful data to you.
https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/safety/company-safety-records