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UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW
Orthodontic Bone Anchorage Devices
Mohammed Almuzian
2013
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 1
Contents
Conventional osseointegrated implants ................................................................................... 2
Temporary bone anchorage devices (TAD’s)...........................................................................2
1. Osstiointegrated retained devises............................................................................................ 2
Biological response to Osseointegrated devices: ............................................................................. 2
Advantages and disadvantages.......................................................................................................3
A. Mid-palatal implants.............................................................................................................. 3
Disadvantages....................................................................................................................... 3
B. Onplant.................................................................................................................................4
Advantage....................................................................................................................................4
Disadvantage................................................................................................................................ 4
2. Mechanically retained devises................................................................................................ 4
Biological response to Mechanically retained devices .....................................................................4
Advantages ..................................................................................................................................5
A. Mini-plates (Maxillofacial bone plating kits) ...................................................................5
Advantages........................................................................................................................... 5
Disadvantages....................................................................................................................... 5
B. Mini-implants or mini-screw .......................................................................................... 6
Ideal requirements for orthodontic bone anchorage systems............................................................. 6
Indication of TADs....................................................................................................................... 6
Contraindication of TADs............................................................................................................. 8
Some terminology use in the literature regarding TADs ................................................................ 10
Direct versus indirect anchorage by TAD..................................................................................... 11
Pre-drilling or self-drilling? ......................................................................................................... 12
Success rate of mini-screws......................................................................................................... 12
Parameters affecting bone anchorage success ............................................................................... 13
A. Patient factors.............................................................................................................. 13
B. Mini-implant design factors.......................................................................................... 14
C. Operator related factors................................................................................................ 15
Mini-implant’s clinical steps ....................................................................................................... 16
Complications of TADs (Kravitz and Kusnoto, 2007) ................................................................... 18
Evidences................................................................................................................................... 20
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 2
Orthodontic bone anchorage
Definition
Orthodontic bone anchorage devise (BAD) can be defined as the use of implants, plates,
screws or screw-retained devices inserted into bone to provide resistance to unwanted tooth
movement (indirect anchorage) or a point from which traction can be applied (direct
anchorage).
Bone anchorage devices can broadly be divided into two categories:
1. Conventional osseointegrated implants.
2. Temporary bone anchorage devices (TAD’s).
Conventional osseointegratedimplants
Conventional implants may provide a useful point of absolute anchorage in patients for
whom an implant-born restoration is planned following pre-restorative orthodontics, or who
already have an implant-born restoration in place. Orthodontic attachments can be mounted
on implants using temporary copings, to allow them to be incorporated into a fixed
appliance (Ödman et al., 1994). Whilst it is useful to have conventional implants available
for anchorage control during pre-restorative orthodontic treatment, it is important that they
are in the correct position, since they cannot easily be re-sited later on. Where the implant(s)
are already in situ, the teeth will have to be positioned around them, which may not always
give the best result (Fig. 2, Kesling or even “simplant” type illustration).
Temporary bone anchorage devices (TAD’s)
A TAD is mini-implant, plate, screws or screw-retained devices which are placed purely for
the purpose of providing orthodontic anchorage and are then removed once it has served its
purpose (Cope, 2005). They can be categorised as follows:
1. Osstiointegrated retained devises
Biological response to Osseointegrated devices:
• 1-2 day after implantation, RBCs and inflammatory cells are present between the bone and
the TAD.
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 3
• From 3 to 7 days after implantation, inflammatory cell infiltration gradually disappears and
spindle-shaped cells (fibroblast) start to appear in the interface between pre-existing bone
and orthodontic TADs.
• From 2-4 weeks osteoblasts are visible at the bone-TAD interface.
• 4-6 weeks after TAD placement active bone remodelling appears to decrease.
• Application of orthodontic loading to the TAD causes increased bone tissue turnover and
increased density of the adjacent alveolar bone.
Advantages and disadvantages
• Delayed loading is mandatory. Loading protocols for implants involve a minimum waiting
period of 2 months before applying orthodontic forces.
• Osseointegration make removal difficult
• It provide the ability to withstand greater orthodontic forces
• Success rates for implants were on average higher than for screws. (Ohashi 2006)
A. Mid-palatal implants
Mid-palatal implants are designed to osseointegrate, but are surgically removed following
use. In comparison to conventional restorative implants, they tend to be shorter in length
(typically 4–6 mm) and in diameter (typically 3–4 mm) (Wehrbein et al., 1999). An
example is the OrthoSystem implant.
Disadvantages
 Cost
 These dimensions limit their insertion into edentulous sites, typically the mid-palate and
retromolar areas.
 Invasive surgery in insertion and removal as well as the associated laboratory work.
 These anchorage devices rely on osseointegration, which requires a 3 months’ delay in
orthodontic loading.
 High failure rate in growing patient in the midpalatal suture (Wilmes et al., 2009).
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 4
B. Onplant
Onplants: These are based on the impressive research of Block and Hoffman (Block and
Hoffman, 1995). These authors used a subperiosteal titanium alloy disk, 2 mm thick and 10
mm wide, coated with hydroxyapatite. This disk-type ‘’onplant’’ was inserted
subperiosteally and left unloaded for four months to osseointegrate before uncovering and
placement of attachments.
Advantage
There is no need for any bone depth, so the onplant can be placed in a much wider range of
sites than a conventional implant.
Disadvantage
 Cost
 The need for two soft tissue surgical interventions.
 These anchorage devices rely on osseointegration, which requires a 3 months’ delay in
orthodontic loading.
2. Mechanically retained devises
Biological response to Mechanically retained devices
Areas of the screw in direct contact with the bone are responsible for primary mechanical
stability of the device. There are also gaps hundreds of microns in size between the screw
surface and bone.
• 1 day after insertion, there are mineralized bone tissue contacts present between the surface
of the implant and bone and the osteoblasts are also attached firmly to the titanium implant
surface.
• From 3 to 7 days after implantation, no invasion of inflammatory cells occurs
• After 1-2 weeks, the bone is resorbed and replaced with newly formed viable bone. After
this stage the screw can be loaded.
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 5
Advantages
• Immediate loading is possible. Loading protocols for screws involve immediate loading or a
waiting period of 4-6 weeks to apply forces
• Lack of osseointegration which make removal easier
• Ability to withstand lesser orthodontic forces
A. Mini-plates (Maxillofacial bone plating kits)
Mini-plates, e.g. the Bollard and Skeletal Anchorage (SAS) systems, arose from the
adaptation of maxillofacial bone plates. In particular, the orthodontic versions have
transmucosal necks and customised heads to facilitate their connection to fixed appliances
Advantages
1. The fixing screws are above the root apices and therefore much less of a risk to the
tooth roots.
2. No need for reposition the plate when the teeth are retracted, opposite to the TAD
where the screw should be replaced when their positions interfere with the prospective
movement.
3. The force application can still be brought close to the occlusal plane by extending the
powered arm of the plate, so it easily avoid unwanted intrusion
4. Successful for a range of en masse tooth movements (Lai et al., 2008).
5. Successful for intermaxillary skeletal traction (such as maxillary protraction in Class
III cases (De Clerck et al., 2009)
6. Some authors have found slightly higher percentage success rate with miniplates than
with miniscrews (Kuroda et al., 2007)
Disadvantages
1. Cost
2. Their insertion is limited to extra-alveolar sites such as the zygomatic process and inferior
mandibular body. Also, they are difficult use in the anterior maxillary area due to
anatomical limitation
3. Require much more invasive surgical placement and removal than other devices as well as
require an experienced surgical operator to insert them.
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 6
B. Mini-implants or mini-screw
 Orthodontic mini-implants are derived from bone plating technology, but are much
more user friendly to both the orthodontist and patient. e.g. Absoanchor, Infinitas,
Frostodent and Vector. They typically consist of head, neck and body sections.
 Endosseous dimensions of 1.2–2.0 mm diameter and 5–10 mm length. In general, an
approximate diameter of 1.5 mm is recommended for interproximal sites in order to
maximise the surface area of bone engagement yet limit the proximity to dental
roots (not less than 0.25 mm from the root) and the periodontal ligament. To place
these dimensions in context, the mean interproximal distance between the upper
second premolar and first molar mesiobuccal root is 2.5 mm.
 For clarity, it is worth explaining screw insertion behaviour: all bone screws are able
to form a thread within the adjacent bone, i.e. they are self-tapping (self-threading),
but the addition of self-drilling properties entails more distinctive cutting (body)
threads and a sharper body tip. These features frequently obviate the need for pre-
drilling (except to perforate the dense mandibular cortex) but increase the risk of
screw fracture during insertion.
Ideal requirements for orthodontic bone anchorage systems
(Prabhu and Cousley, 2006)
1. Cheap
2. Easy to use
3. Biocompatible
4. Acceptable for patients – no discomfort during insertion, use or removal.
5. Less damage to the adjacent structures.
6. Accept direct loading of force.
7. Versatile and convenient for application of orthodontic forces, and allow
flexibility in means and direction of force application.
Bicortical anchorage
To increase bothprimarystabilityandthe chancesof success,bicortical anchorage shouldbe
obtainedif possible (Brettin2008) Bicortical anchorage iscommonlyobtainedinthe buccal alveolus.
To obtainbicortical anchorage,the buc-colingual widthof the alveolusismeasured,andaTSADwith
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 7
a threadlengthequivalenttoorslightlyshorterthanthismeasurementischosen.The TSADisthen
insertedtowardthe buccal while the lingual ispalpated.Once the tipof the screw is palpatedonthe
lingual softtissue,ithasperforatedthe lingual cortical bone,andbicortical anchorage hasbeen
obtained.Insertionshouldbe stoppedat thispoint,andthe clinicianshouldturnthe driverslightly
counterclockwise tobackthe TSAD awayfrom the softtissue topreventthe riskof inflammationand
patientdiscomfortfromcontactbetweenthe TSADandthe tongue.
Pitchand flute
 The pitch of the TSAD is the distance betweenthreads,whichistypically0.75 to1.25 mm.
 Whenthe threadsare spacedfar apart, the TSAD hasa highpitch;
 conversely,whenthe threadsare spacedclose together,the TSADhasa low pitch.
 Decreasingthe pitchof the TSAD resultsinan increase inprimarystabilitybutmayincrease
torque and stressonthe bone.
 The recommendationof apitchof 1.0 mm.
 Flutesare recessedareasinthe cross-sectionalareathatcarry bone chipsawayfromthe
cuttingedge as the screwrotates.
 The greaterdepthof the flute canprovide more mechanical interlockbetweenthe TSADand
bone to assistinprimarystability.
 As flute depthincreases,however,there isincreasedtorque andstressonthe bone because
of an increase inthe pressure neededtoinsertthe TSADasa resultof more resistance upon
insertion.
 There isalso increaseddamage tothe bone,more bone chips,andthe potential formore
bonymicrofractures.
Indication of TADs
1. Provision of anchorage
A. Moderate to maximum anchorage need eg. full unit Class II relationship or adults and older
adolescents (where functional appliances cannot be used to gain anchorage).
B. Mild to moderate anchorage need when the anchor unit is limited by an inadequate number
of anchor teeth (e.g early tooth loss or hypodontia) or periodontal support.
2. Specific teeth movement
 En mass retraction especially in high angle class II malocclusion where the extrusive tooth
movements would be unfavourable which contraindicates the use of intermaxillary traction
to achieve the desired tooth movement.(Park et al., 2005)
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 8
 Canine retraction. Sharma et al. compared the anchorage loss with the use of TPAs or TADs
and found 2.5 mm of mesial movement of the U6s with the former while the latter provided
absolute anchorage (Sharma et al., 2012).
 Bimaxillary protrusion. Liu et al concluded that a better dental, skeletal and soft tissue
effects of the TADs in treating these groups. For this reason, they recommended the TADs
as routine anchorage device in patients with bialveolar dental protrusion (Liu et al., 2009).
 Molar distalization (Sugawara et al., 2006, Sugawara et al., 2004)
 For intrusion of anterior teeth (Lee et al., 2009)
 For intrusion of posterior teeth (Cousley, 2010). Regarding stability of molar intrusion by
TADs. It was 83% stable Lee 2008, Minimum 3 months retainer after molar intrusion
 For unilateral intrusion to correct cant of occlusion (Lee et al., 2009)
 To control expansion using Q helix by holding the normal side and allowing unilateral
expansion (Lee et al., 2009)
 Adjunctive treatment when full orthodontic appliance is not required and the aim is corrects
the position of single tooth.
3. Skeletal orthopaedic correction of class III (Ballard technique) (De Clerck et al., 2009)
4. Miscellaneous
 Provide attachment for artificial teeth in hypodontia cases.
 To provide IMF during orthognathic surgery (Harris and Reynolds, 1991)
Contraindication of TADs
1. Absolute
 Bleeding Disorders
 Bone Metabolism Disorders (bisphosphonate use)
 Immuno-compromised
 Diabetes Mellitus
 Anti-coagulant treatment
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 9
 Pregnancy
 Xerostomia
 Titanium allergy
2. Relative
 When other conventional methods of anchorage are adequate.
 Poor Oral hygiene
 Smoking
 Local Bone pathology
 Inadequate bone depth and quality
 Local factors like bone amount and local infection
Composition of TADs
1. First attempts at using screws as skeletal anchorage-1945-Cobalt-chromium base alloy
2. High grade steel is biocompatible but also gets a layer of connective tissue around it.
Currently only one miniscrew material made of SS which is the Leone. Their reasons why
the SS is still used by Leone are:
 Steel suffer less bending and breakage.
 Osseointegration is very poor, so it is easy to be removing.
3. Today most mini-implants are made from either titanium or titanium alloy (usually with
aluminium and vanadium) because:
A. Biocompatible.
B. Corrosion resistance (a protective, passivating oxide layer develops on the surface of the
metal when in contact with oxygen and fluids)
C. Forms a direct contact between the bone and the metal surface
D. In comparison with pure titanium, titanium alloy (usually with aluminium and vanadium)
offers more favourable mechanical properties in terms of:
• Strength(yield strength several times greater)
• Stress-strain behaviour
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 10
• Wear resistance
Some terminology use in the literature regarding TADs
1. Yield strength: stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. Prior to the yield
point the material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the
applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation
will be permanent and non-reversible approximately 0.1%.
2. Tensile strength: is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched
or pulled before cross-section starts to significantly contract. Tensile strength is the opposite
of compressive strength and the values can be quite different.
3. Pre-drilling: some screws require a pilot hole to be drilled before insertion. This
preliminary procedure is sensibly called pre-drilling. It is required for screws that are blunt
at their tip and are thus not self-drilling. The only potential confusion in terminology is
when referring to the creation of a very small preliminary indentation in the cortex with a
round bur or specialised initiator bur. This very limited ‘pre-drilling’ is sometimes referred
to as ‘pilot drilling’. This can be advisable even with self-drilling screws when the bone is
dense or the intended path of insertion is very oblique to the bone surface.
4. Self-drilling: as the paragraph above infers, these screws have a sharp, pointed end
and need no preliminary drilling. Again, there is a potential subdivision of design which
may cause confusion of terminology, because some such screws have an additional notch or
groove at their tip which adds to the bone-cutting capability. These self-drilling screws are
sometimes referred to as self-cutting. This additional bone-cutting notch has previously
been considered by some authors to increase the chance of fracture of the screw tip, but with
current designs this is not a well-supported concern. The additional cutting power is
designed to ease screw insertion, particularly in areas of more dense bone in the jaws such
as the retromolar area.
5. Self-tapping: all current miniscrews are self-tapping. Whether or not they are self-drilling,
they require no separate tapping of a thread. The potential confusion here is that some
authors e.g. Chen et al use the term self-tapping to be synonymous with screws which
require predrilling. Self-tapping is therefore not a helpful term in our view (Chen et al.,
2008).
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 11
Direct versus indirect anchorage by TAD
A. Direct Anchorage, The implant is directly connected to the dental unit(s) to be moved.
Mechanics of force systeminclude:
1. Compression spring
2. Tension spring
3. Elastic chain
4. Lever arm
5. Wire ligature, tube and compression spring
Advantages
• Simple activation
• Efficient mechanics
• No dental anchorage loss
Disadvantages
• Greater load is applied to the implant than with indirect anchorage,
• Poor force control in three dimensions,
• Mechanics are not fail safe
B. Indirect anchorage, The mini-screw stabilizes the dental anchorage unit and an
implant reinforced dental anchorage unit is the result. Mechanics of force system
include:
1. Cross tubes or double tube
2. Acid-etch technique
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 12
3. Connection with a TPA/QH/Horseshoe arch
4. Wire ligature
Advantages
• Generally less load is applied to the implant than with direct anchorage,
• Fail-safe mechanics.
Disadvantages
• Loss of anchorage in terms of undesired dental movement of the anchorage teeth is possible,
• Complicated and time consuming to install,
• Breakage of appliance may go unnoticed and result in anchorage loss
Pre-drilling or self-drilling?
Indications of Pre-drilling
A. in some cases where the bone is especially dense (most commonly the posterior mandible)
B. If the intended path of insertion is significantly oblique to the bony surface – this is a
situation where the screw is prone to slip up the cortical surface causing soft-tissue trauma.
C. An alternative strategy to avoid this slipping is to by placing the screw at right angles to the
bone surface and then altering to an oblique angle once the first ‘bite’ in the cortex has
occurred.
Advantages of self-drilling
A. Simpler and cheaper procedure (no specialised drills required).
B. Probable better overall success rate and better primary stability (Kim et al., 2005).
C. Better screw-bone contact after 6 months (Heidemann and Gerlach, 1999).
D. Less chance of damage to tooth roots.
Success rate of mini-screws
 Most studies report success rates between 80% and 96% (Park et al., 2005).
 Lim reported 83% success (Lim et al., 2009).
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 13
 A systematic review by Reynders identified 19 studies of sufficient quality and the
success rate was mainly in excess of 80% (Reynders et al., 2009)
Parameters affecting bone anchorage success
A. Patient factors
1. Gender is not considered as influential factors in the success of TADs. (Miyawaki et al.,
2003)
2. Age: the failure rate is significantly higher in adolescents than adults (Chen et al., 2007)
because of thinner buccal plate thickness.
3. Poor oral hygiene leads to: Peri implantitis, Epithelial infiltration, Bleeding on probing,
Suppuration, Loss of bony support, Mobility and finally Implant failure (Miyawaki et al.,
2003). So that regular tooth-brushing and chlorhexidine (0.12%, 10 ml) mouthwash is
recommended. The cationic nature of chlorhexidine allows for its sustantivitiy, or persistent
adherence to the enamel and soft tissue, providing a prolonged bacteriocidal and
bacteriostatic effect. However, this sustantivitiy stains enamel, frequently causing patients
to want to brush immediately after rinsing. The clinician should strongly advise the patient
against this for 2 reasons: the surface contact from the toothbrush can remove the
chlorhexidine coating, and the anionic agents in the toothpaste can rapidly reduce the
activity of the cationic rinse (Kravitz and Kusnoto, 2007).
4. Smoking is a risk factor for implant success (Melsen, 2005).
5. ANB value, crowding, TMD are not considered as influential factors in the success of
TADs. (Miyawaki et al., 2003)
6. Maxillo-mandibular planes angle: high angle cases have a higher failure rate for maxillary
buccal mini-implants. This might be a result that a high angle cases may have thinner
cortical plate causing low torque with resultant poor primary stability. On the other hand,
with a thick bone, a high torque force is needed which might increase secondary failure rate
(Miyawaki et al., 2003).
7. Insertion site: Variations in success rates occur depending on the location of the insertion
site within the mouth because:
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 14
• Upper or lower: Approximately 80% and 90% mini-implant success rates for mandibular
and maxillary alveolar insertions, respectively. This is because of the different thickness of
the cortical plate with variable insertion torque. If the insertion torque (the resistance
encountered during insertion) is excessive then it is likely that secondary failure will occur
because of ischaemic pressure effects on the adjacent alveolar bone (Miyawaki et al., 2003).
• Mucosa: Studies found that non-keratinized mucosa was a risk factor for miniscrew failure
(Chen et al., 2007) (Miyawaki et al., 2003(Park et al., 2005).
• Bone density: Stationary anchorage failure is often a result of low bone density due to
inadequate cortical thickness. Bone density is classified into 4 types D1, D2, D3 and D4.
D1, D2, D3 are optimal for self-drilling miniscrews. Implant placement in D4 not
recommended due to the reported high failure rate.
• Proximity to the roots reduce the success rate because of the giggling effect of the
occlusion that transferred to the root and cause TADs failure.
• Left side success is high because of brushing bias for right handed patients, however, it is
better to avoid electric brush because of the vibration and giggling effect. (Park 06).
B. Mini-implant design factors
1. Diameter
 A diameter less than 1.1 mm is associated with a higher failure rate (Miyawaki et al., 2003,
Park et al., 2006).
 A diameter greater than about 1.6 mm seems to confer no advantage and clearly wider
screws run an extra risk of contact with tooth roots. This consideration is now largely of
historic interest because almost all screws are currently between 1.4 and 1.8 mm in
maximum diameter (Park et al., 2006).
 2.0 mm screws are suitable for sites such as the zygomatic ridge or retromolar pad, where
avoidance of roots is not an issue (Park et al., 2006)
2. Length
• This usually refers to the intraosseous threaded part of the screw.
• The range of available body lengths is typically 6 - 12 mm.
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 15
 This length does NOT seem to be a factor in stability if the screw is more than 5 mm long
(intraosseous length) (Miyawaki et al., 2003, Park et al., 2006).
• All manufacturers produce screws of different lengths and longer screws may be advocated
if the mucosal thickness is greater e.g. in the palate for alveolar placement.
3. Miniscrew head: The head must be of sufficient dimension to accept and hold any coupling
elements selected for a particular application. Different head designs also require different
dimensions. A small diameter and lower profile of the miniscrew head are important for oral
hygiene and patient comfort (Lee et al., 2009)
4. Shape
• There are two basic body shapes: cylindrical and tapered. The former is typically associated
with non-drilling insertion behaviour and the latter with self-drilling designs
• Animal research results indicate that self-drilling techniques result in higher primary
stability and better preserve the original bone (histologically) around mini-implant threads
(Chen et al., 2008).
• However, pre-drilling, at least through the cortical plate, may be valuable in avoiding
excessive torque generation in thick/dense cortex sites e.g. the posterior mandible (Wilmes
et al., 2008)
C. Operator related factors
1. Selection of implant site
In order to avoid root contact, implants should be placed in safe zones. The minimal space
requirement between roots is 0.5 mm mesial and distal to the implant or 1 mm more than
the implant diameter. In the maxilla, the more anterior and the more apical, the safer the
location becomes.
2. Insertion angle
 To achieve the best primary stability, an insertion angle ranging from 60° to 70° is
advisable (to reduce insertion torque) while 30 degree has low stability (Wilmes et al.,
2008). However the latest systematic review by Jung 2013 showed that insertion angle has
no value in relation to avoid root contact.
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 16
 If the available space between two adjacent roots is small, a more oblique direction of
insertion seems to be favourable to minimize the risk of root contact
3. Implant placement torque
 Motoyoshi et al recommended an implant placement torque range of 5 to 10Ncm.
Very high insertion torques leads to higher failure rates due to excessicve bone compression
(Motoyoshi et al., 2006).
 There is a study show that holding the screw driver by using the index and thumb
(digital torquing) is better than palm (brachial torquing) because less force would be applied
and so less necrosis and failure (Estelita et al., 2012).
4. Loading protocol
Chen found that completely unloaded screws had a success rate of 75% compared with 90%
for screws immediately loaded with a 200 gm force (Chen et al., 2009). The explanation is
that the immediate loading believed to be related to higher bone turn over and remodelling
than delayed loading.
5. Sterilization and asepsis are mandatory throughout the procedure.
6. Clinician experience and skill do contribute to the success of mini implants.
Mini-implant’s clinical steps
1. Determine the area of placement and the amount of the intra-radicular bone using PA
radiograph
2. 0.2% chlorohexidine mouth wash for 30 seconds will improve the success rate of TADs
(Baek et al., 2008)
3. Few drops of LA infiltrated at the area of insertion.
• Only the superficial soft tissues (gingiva/mucosa and periosteum) should be anaesthetised.
The patient’s sensory feedback from the periodontal tissues can warn if the mini-implant
begins to approximate the root of an adjacent tooth.
• Kravitz and Kusnoto used topical anaesthesia in placing the TADs (Kravitz and Kusnoto,
2007)
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 17
• TADs placement has a similar pain level to separators placement and less than the effect of
0.016NiTi wire. Almost 50% of patients require LA and 10% require postoperative
analgesia. (Kuroda et al., 2007)
4. Avoiding contact of the adjacent anatomical and tooth roots which likely contribute to
reduced success rates.
• Several animal and clinical studies have provided clear reassurance that even when pilot
drills or mini-implants have been used to directly traumatise the periodontal and root
tissues, these heal without clinically detectable damage (in terms of loss of vitality,
irreversible root resorption, Ankylosis).
• The use of an insertion guidance stent, and oblique (rather than horizontal) insertion
(Cousley, 2010)proposed advantages of stent:
a) Stable insertion point,
b) Prevents slippage.
c) Reduces directional variation,
d) Reducing fracture of the self-drilling tip.
e) Reduce root trauma
f) Minimizes radiation exposure of the patient, since the stent fabrication requires no
additional radiographs
g) Help left handed dentist to insert easily on right sude and vice versa
h) Prescription for other how to use if the job is allocated to other
5. A manual insertion technique or slow motor-driven insertion may be used. The slow HP
should be 128:1 torque, torqueing force 5-100Ncm and 60 RPM.
6. Direct loading
• It is feasible to apply an orthodontic (unidirectional) force immediately after insertion,
although it is commonly recommended that full force application be delayed for the first
month, especially in adolescents (where there is a higher failure rate).
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 18
7. Once the anchorage demand has abated, the mini-implant may be left in situ or removed.
There have been no clinical case reports of mini-implant osseointegration.
Complications of TADs (Kravitz and Kusnoto, 2007)
1. Root trauma
Cho et al reported a 13% in experience clinician to 21% in non-experience clinician
incidence of root contact (Cho et al., 2010). Practical steps to minimise the chances of root
contact are:
a) Use screws of 1.4-1.8 mm maximum thread diameter
b) Choose a favourable site. In the maxillary buccal region, the greatest amount of inter-
radicular bone between the second premolar and the first molar is located at a level of 5 to 8
mm from the alveolar crest. In the mandibular buccal region, the greatest amount of
interradicular bone is either between the second premolar and the first molar, or between the
first molar and the second molar, approximately 11 mm from the alveolar crest.
Theoretically, the more apically the miniscrew is placed, the less is the risk of root damage.
c) Placing miniscrews at an angle to the bone surface puts the screw tip nearer the wider
space between to root apices whilst keeping the screw head in the attached mucosa.
d) Consider placing screws in the palate.
e) Align the adjacent teeth thoroughly before screw insertion
f) Use stent
g) Pre-insertion radiograph
2. implantation in the nasal or maxillary sinus
If the maxillary sinus has been perforated, the small diameter of the miniscrew does not
warrant its immediate removal. Orthodontic therapy should continue, and the patient should
be monitored for potential development of sinusitis and mucocele (Kravitz and Kusnoto,
2007).
3. Trauma of nerve (greater palatine, inferior alveolar, mental)
Nerve injury can occur during placement of miniscrews in the maxillary palatal slope, the
mandibular buccal dentoalveolus, and the retromolar region (Kravitz and Kusnoto, 2007).
4. Trauma of vessel (palatine artery)
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 19
5. Mini-screw slippage
Causes
a) Fail to fully engage cortical bone during placement and inadvertently slide the
miniscrew under the mucosal tissue along the periosteum.
b) Placement of miniscrews less than 30° (very oblique insertion) from the occlusal
plane can increase the risk of slippage.
Management
a) The clinician can initially engage bone with the miniscrew at a right angle before
reducing the angle of insertion after the second or third turn.
b) Only minimal force should be used with the hand-driver, regardless of bone density.
c) Predrilling
d) Using stent
6. Infection/peri-implantitis
Inflammation of the peri-implant soft tissue has been associated with a 30% increase in
failure rate. So that regular tooth-brushing and chlorhexidine (0.12%, 10 ml) mouthwash is
recommended Kravitz and Kusnoto, 2007
7. Soft tissue impingement/coverage
Miniscrews placed in alveolar mucosa, particularly in the mandible, might become covered
by soft tissue.
8. Mini-screw migration
9. Fracture of screw
Increased torsional stress during placement can lead to implant bending or fracture, or
produce small cracks in the peri-implant bone, that affect miniscrew stability (Park et al.,
2006). 1.2mm screw has a high fracture rate of 10%. But in general the fracture rate around
5% and the TAD must be removed.
10. Failure
Failure which is either immediate success 80-95% (Park et al., 2006)..
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 20
11. Local emphysema
12. Patient discomfort
90% of pain disappears after 24h (Baxmann et al., 2010).
NICE guidelines for Mini/micro screw implantation for orthodontic anchorage 2007
1. There is limited evidence that mini/micro screw implantation provides adequate orthodontic
anchorage
2. There are no major safety concerns.
3. During the consent process clinicians should ensure that patients understand that there is a
failure rate associated with the use of mini/micro screws and that the success of dental
alignment cannot be guaranteed.
4. Evidence about optimal screw size and site of implantation (upper/lower jaw or
buccal/lingual side of the bone) is limited. Therefore, further audit and research to clarify
these issues would be useful
5. Efficacy: success rate 80-85%
6. Safety : breakage 3%
Evidences
1. Skeggs 2008 in his Cochrane review found there is little evidence to support the use
of surgical anchorage systems over conventional means of orthodontic anchorage
reinforcement. However there is evidence from one recent trial by Benson 2005 that showed
mid-palatal implants are an acceptable alternative to conventional techniques for reinforcing
anchorage. So that Surgical anchorage via palatal onplant or miniscrew is effective with a
difference of 1.75mm in term of anchorage preservation.
 Sharma et al 2012 compare in their RCT compare the use of TAD with TPA and
found significant difference in the anchorage control with the former (Sharma et al., 2012).
 Feldmann & Bondemark (Feldmann and Bondemark, 2008) in their RCT measured
the anchorage loss with Onplant (gp1), TADs (gp2), HG (gp3) & TPA (gp4). They found
anchorage loss only in gp4 after levelling/aligning phase (approximately 1mm) but this had
been increased to reach 2mm. additionally, gp3 showed 1.6 mm of anchorage loss while the
Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 21
anchorage was stable in the gp 1 & 2 from the start until the end of treatment. Three years
later, the same authors measured the difference patient perception in the four groups in term
of pain, discomfort, and jaw dysfunction. They concluded a very few significant differences
between skeletal and conventional anchorage systems in term of patient perceptions
(Feldmann et al., 2012)
 For the treatment of bimaxillary protrusion, the use of TADs and TPAs to provide
anchorage during En-mass retraction and space closure had been compared. The study had
been conducted by Liu et al on adult Chinese. They concluded that a better dental, skeletal
and soft tissue effects of the TADs in treating these groups. For this reason, the
recommended the TADs as routine anchorage device in patients with bialveolar
dental protrusion (Liu et al., 2009).
 Al-Sibaie and Hajeer 2014 TPA against TAD

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TADs in Orthodontics by almuzian

  • 1. UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW Orthodontic Bone Anchorage Devices Mohammed Almuzian 2013
  • 2. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 1 Contents Conventional osseointegrated implants ................................................................................... 2 Temporary bone anchorage devices (TAD’s)...........................................................................2 1. Osstiointegrated retained devises............................................................................................ 2 Biological response to Osseointegrated devices: ............................................................................. 2 Advantages and disadvantages.......................................................................................................3 A. Mid-palatal implants.............................................................................................................. 3 Disadvantages....................................................................................................................... 3 B. Onplant.................................................................................................................................4 Advantage....................................................................................................................................4 Disadvantage................................................................................................................................ 4 2. Mechanically retained devises................................................................................................ 4 Biological response to Mechanically retained devices .....................................................................4 Advantages ..................................................................................................................................5 A. Mini-plates (Maxillofacial bone plating kits) ...................................................................5 Advantages........................................................................................................................... 5 Disadvantages....................................................................................................................... 5 B. Mini-implants or mini-screw .......................................................................................... 6 Ideal requirements for orthodontic bone anchorage systems............................................................. 6 Indication of TADs....................................................................................................................... 6 Contraindication of TADs............................................................................................................. 8 Some terminology use in the literature regarding TADs ................................................................ 10 Direct versus indirect anchorage by TAD..................................................................................... 11 Pre-drilling or self-drilling? ......................................................................................................... 12 Success rate of mini-screws......................................................................................................... 12 Parameters affecting bone anchorage success ............................................................................... 13 A. Patient factors.............................................................................................................. 13 B. Mini-implant design factors.......................................................................................... 14 C. Operator related factors................................................................................................ 15 Mini-implant’s clinical steps ....................................................................................................... 16 Complications of TADs (Kravitz and Kusnoto, 2007) ................................................................... 18 Evidences................................................................................................................................... 20
  • 3. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 2 Orthodontic bone anchorage Definition Orthodontic bone anchorage devise (BAD) can be defined as the use of implants, plates, screws or screw-retained devices inserted into bone to provide resistance to unwanted tooth movement (indirect anchorage) or a point from which traction can be applied (direct anchorage). Bone anchorage devices can broadly be divided into two categories: 1. Conventional osseointegrated implants. 2. Temporary bone anchorage devices (TAD’s). Conventional osseointegratedimplants Conventional implants may provide a useful point of absolute anchorage in patients for whom an implant-born restoration is planned following pre-restorative orthodontics, or who already have an implant-born restoration in place. Orthodontic attachments can be mounted on implants using temporary copings, to allow them to be incorporated into a fixed appliance (Ödman et al., 1994). Whilst it is useful to have conventional implants available for anchorage control during pre-restorative orthodontic treatment, it is important that they are in the correct position, since they cannot easily be re-sited later on. Where the implant(s) are already in situ, the teeth will have to be positioned around them, which may not always give the best result (Fig. 2, Kesling or even “simplant” type illustration). Temporary bone anchorage devices (TAD’s) A TAD is mini-implant, plate, screws or screw-retained devices which are placed purely for the purpose of providing orthodontic anchorage and are then removed once it has served its purpose (Cope, 2005). They can be categorised as follows: 1. Osstiointegrated retained devises Biological response to Osseointegrated devices: • 1-2 day after implantation, RBCs and inflammatory cells are present between the bone and the TAD.
  • 4. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 3 • From 3 to 7 days after implantation, inflammatory cell infiltration gradually disappears and spindle-shaped cells (fibroblast) start to appear in the interface between pre-existing bone and orthodontic TADs. • From 2-4 weeks osteoblasts are visible at the bone-TAD interface. • 4-6 weeks after TAD placement active bone remodelling appears to decrease. • Application of orthodontic loading to the TAD causes increased bone tissue turnover and increased density of the adjacent alveolar bone. Advantages and disadvantages • Delayed loading is mandatory. Loading protocols for implants involve a minimum waiting period of 2 months before applying orthodontic forces. • Osseointegration make removal difficult • It provide the ability to withstand greater orthodontic forces • Success rates for implants were on average higher than for screws. (Ohashi 2006) A. Mid-palatal implants Mid-palatal implants are designed to osseointegrate, but are surgically removed following use. In comparison to conventional restorative implants, they tend to be shorter in length (typically 4–6 mm) and in diameter (typically 3–4 mm) (Wehrbein et al., 1999). An example is the OrthoSystem implant. Disadvantages  Cost  These dimensions limit their insertion into edentulous sites, typically the mid-palate and retromolar areas.  Invasive surgery in insertion and removal as well as the associated laboratory work.  These anchorage devices rely on osseointegration, which requires a 3 months’ delay in orthodontic loading.  High failure rate in growing patient in the midpalatal suture (Wilmes et al., 2009).
  • 5. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 4 B. Onplant Onplants: These are based on the impressive research of Block and Hoffman (Block and Hoffman, 1995). These authors used a subperiosteal titanium alloy disk, 2 mm thick and 10 mm wide, coated with hydroxyapatite. This disk-type ‘’onplant’’ was inserted subperiosteally and left unloaded for four months to osseointegrate before uncovering and placement of attachments. Advantage There is no need for any bone depth, so the onplant can be placed in a much wider range of sites than a conventional implant. Disadvantage  Cost  The need for two soft tissue surgical interventions.  These anchorage devices rely on osseointegration, which requires a 3 months’ delay in orthodontic loading. 2. Mechanically retained devises Biological response to Mechanically retained devices Areas of the screw in direct contact with the bone are responsible for primary mechanical stability of the device. There are also gaps hundreds of microns in size between the screw surface and bone. • 1 day after insertion, there are mineralized bone tissue contacts present between the surface of the implant and bone and the osteoblasts are also attached firmly to the titanium implant surface. • From 3 to 7 days after implantation, no invasion of inflammatory cells occurs • After 1-2 weeks, the bone is resorbed and replaced with newly formed viable bone. After this stage the screw can be loaded.
  • 6. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 5 Advantages • Immediate loading is possible. Loading protocols for screws involve immediate loading or a waiting period of 4-6 weeks to apply forces • Lack of osseointegration which make removal easier • Ability to withstand lesser orthodontic forces A. Mini-plates (Maxillofacial bone plating kits) Mini-plates, e.g. the Bollard and Skeletal Anchorage (SAS) systems, arose from the adaptation of maxillofacial bone plates. In particular, the orthodontic versions have transmucosal necks and customised heads to facilitate their connection to fixed appliances Advantages 1. The fixing screws are above the root apices and therefore much less of a risk to the tooth roots. 2. No need for reposition the plate when the teeth are retracted, opposite to the TAD where the screw should be replaced when their positions interfere with the prospective movement. 3. The force application can still be brought close to the occlusal plane by extending the powered arm of the plate, so it easily avoid unwanted intrusion 4. Successful for a range of en masse tooth movements (Lai et al., 2008). 5. Successful for intermaxillary skeletal traction (such as maxillary protraction in Class III cases (De Clerck et al., 2009) 6. Some authors have found slightly higher percentage success rate with miniplates than with miniscrews (Kuroda et al., 2007) Disadvantages 1. Cost 2. Their insertion is limited to extra-alveolar sites such as the zygomatic process and inferior mandibular body. Also, they are difficult use in the anterior maxillary area due to anatomical limitation 3. Require much more invasive surgical placement and removal than other devices as well as require an experienced surgical operator to insert them.
  • 7. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 6 B. Mini-implants or mini-screw  Orthodontic mini-implants are derived from bone plating technology, but are much more user friendly to both the orthodontist and patient. e.g. Absoanchor, Infinitas, Frostodent and Vector. They typically consist of head, neck and body sections.  Endosseous dimensions of 1.2–2.0 mm diameter and 5–10 mm length. In general, an approximate diameter of 1.5 mm is recommended for interproximal sites in order to maximise the surface area of bone engagement yet limit the proximity to dental roots (not less than 0.25 mm from the root) and the periodontal ligament. To place these dimensions in context, the mean interproximal distance between the upper second premolar and first molar mesiobuccal root is 2.5 mm.  For clarity, it is worth explaining screw insertion behaviour: all bone screws are able to form a thread within the adjacent bone, i.e. they are self-tapping (self-threading), but the addition of self-drilling properties entails more distinctive cutting (body) threads and a sharper body tip. These features frequently obviate the need for pre- drilling (except to perforate the dense mandibular cortex) but increase the risk of screw fracture during insertion. Ideal requirements for orthodontic bone anchorage systems (Prabhu and Cousley, 2006) 1. Cheap 2. Easy to use 3. Biocompatible 4. Acceptable for patients – no discomfort during insertion, use or removal. 5. Less damage to the adjacent structures. 6. Accept direct loading of force. 7. Versatile and convenient for application of orthodontic forces, and allow flexibility in means and direction of force application. Bicortical anchorage To increase bothprimarystabilityandthe chancesof success,bicortical anchorage shouldbe obtainedif possible (Brettin2008) Bicortical anchorage iscommonlyobtainedinthe buccal alveolus. To obtainbicortical anchorage,the buc-colingual widthof the alveolusismeasured,andaTSADwith
  • 8. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 7 a threadlengthequivalenttoorslightlyshorterthanthismeasurementischosen.The TSADisthen insertedtowardthe buccal while the lingual ispalpated.Once the tipof the screw is palpatedonthe lingual softtissue,ithasperforatedthe lingual cortical bone,andbicortical anchorage hasbeen obtained.Insertionshouldbe stoppedat thispoint,andthe clinicianshouldturnthe driverslightly counterclockwise tobackthe TSAD awayfrom the softtissue topreventthe riskof inflammationand patientdiscomfortfromcontactbetweenthe TSADandthe tongue. Pitchand flute  The pitch of the TSAD is the distance betweenthreads,whichistypically0.75 to1.25 mm.  Whenthe threadsare spacedfar apart, the TSAD hasa highpitch;  conversely,whenthe threadsare spacedclose together,the TSADhasa low pitch.  Decreasingthe pitchof the TSAD resultsinan increase inprimarystabilitybutmayincrease torque and stressonthe bone.  The recommendationof apitchof 1.0 mm.  Flutesare recessedareasinthe cross-sectionalareathatcarry bone chipsawayfromthe cuttingedge as the screwrotates.  The greaterdepthof the flute canprovide more mechanical interlockbetweenthe TSADand bone to assistinprimarystability.  As flute depthincreases,however,there isincreasedtorque andstressonthe bone because of an increase inthe pressure neededtoinsertthe TSADasa resultof more resistance upon insertion.  There isalso increaseddamage tothe bone,more bone chips,andthe potential formore bonymicrofractures. Indication of TADs 1. Provision of anchorage A. Moderate to maximum anchorage need eg. full unit Class II relationship or adults and older adolescents (where functional appliances cannot be used to gain anchorage). B. Mild to moderate anchorage need when the anchor unit is limited by an inadequate number of anchor teeth (e.g early tooth loss or hypodontia) or periodontal support. 2. Specific teeth movement  En mass retraction especially in high angle class II malocclusion where the extrusive tooth movements would be unfavourable which contraindicates the use of intermaxillary traction to achieve the desired tooth movement.(Park et al., 2005)
  • 9. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 8  Canine retraction. Sharma et al. compared the anchorage loss with the use of TPAs or TADs and found 2.5 mm of mesial movement of the U6s with the former while the latter provided absolute anchorage (Sharma et al., 2012).  Bimaxillary protrusion. Liu et al concluded that a better dental, skeletal and soft tissue effects of the TADs in treating these groups. For this reason, they recommended the TADs as routine anchorage device in patients with bialveolar dental protrusion (Liu et al., 2009).  Molar distalization (Sugawara et al., 2006, Sugawara et al., 2004)  For intrusion of anterior teeth (Lee et al., 2009)  For intrusion of posterior teeth (Cousley, 2010). Regarding stability of molar intrusion by TADs. It was 83% stable Lee 2008, Minimum 3 months retainer after molar intrusion  For unilateral intrusion to correct cant of occlusion (Lee et al., 2009)  To control expansion using Q helix by holding the normal side and allowing unilateral expansion (Lee et al., 2009)  Adjunctive treatment when full orthodontic appliance is not required and the aim is corrects the position of single tooth. 3. Skeletal orthopaedic correction of class III (Ballard technique) (De Clerck et al., 2009) 4. Miscellaneous  Provide attachment for artificial teeth in hypodontia cases.  To provide IMF during orthognathic surgery (Harris and Reynolds, 1991) Contraindication of TADs 1. Absolute  Bleeding Disorders  Bone Metabolism Disorders (bisphosphonate use)  Immuno-compromised  Diabetes Mellitus  Anti-coagulant treatment
  • 10. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 9  Pregnancy  Xerostomia  Titanium allergy 2. Relative  When other conventional methods of anchorage are adequate.  Poor Oral hygiene  Smoking  Local Bone pathology  Inadequate bone depth and quality  Local factors like bone amount and local infection Composition of TADs 1. First attempts at using screws as skeletal anchorage-1945-Cobalt-chromium base alloy 2. High grade steel is biocompatible but also gets a layer of connective tissue around it. Currently only one miniscrew material made of SS which is the Leone. Their reasons why the SS is still used by Leone are:  Steel suffer less bending and breakage.  Osseointegration is very poor, so it is easy to be removing. 3. Today most mini-implants are made from either titanium or titanium alloy (usually with aluminium and vanadium) because: A. Biocompatible. B. Corrosion resistance (a protective, passivating oxide layer develops on the surface of the metal when in contact with oxygen and fluids) C. Forms a direct contact between the bone and the metal surface D. In comparison with pure titanium, titanium alloy (usually with aluminium and vanadium) offers more favourable mechanical properties in terms of: • Strength(yield strength several times greater) • Stress-strain behaviour
  • 11. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 10 • Wear resistance Some terminology use in the literature regarding TADs 1. Yield strength: stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. Prior to the yield point the material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible approximately 0.1%. 2. Tensile strength: is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before cross-section starts to significantly contract. Tensile strength is the opposite of compressive strength and the values can be quite different. 3. Pre-drilling: some screws require a pilot hole to be drilled before insertion. This preliminary procedure is sensibly called pre-drilling. It is required for screws that are blunt at their tip and are thus not self-drilling. The only potential confusion in terminology is when referring to the creation of a very small preliminary indentation in the cortex with a round bur or specialised initiator bur. This very limited ‘pre-drilling’ is sometimes referred to as ‘pilot drilling’. This can be advisable even with self-drilling screws when the bone is dense or the intended path of insertion is very oblique to the bone surface. 4. Self-drilling: as the paragraph above infers, these screws have a sharp, pointed end and need no preliminary drilling. Again, there is a potential subdivision of design which may cause confusion of terminology, because some such screws have an additional notch or groove at their tip which adds to the bone-cutting capability. These self-drilling screws are sometimes referred to as self-cutting. This additional bone-cutting notch has previously been considered by some authors to increase the chance of fracture of the screw tip, but with current designs this is not a well-supported concern. The additional cutting power is designed to ease screw insertion, particularly in areas of more dense bone in the jaws such as the retromolar area. 5. Self-tapping: all current miniscrews are self-tapping. Whether or not they are self-drilling, they require no separate tapping of a thread. The potential confusion here is that some authors e.g. Chen et al use the term self-tapping to be synonymous with screws which require predrilling. Self-tapping is therefore not a helpful term in our view (Chen et al., 2008).
  • 12. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 11 Direct versus indirect anchorage by TAD A. Direct Anchorage, The implant is directly connected to the dental unit(s) to be moved. Mechanics of force systeminclude: 1. Compression spring 2. Tension spring 3. Elastic chain 4. Lever arm 5. Wire ligature, tube and compression spring Advantages • Simple activation • Efficient mechanics • No dental anchorage loss Disadvantages • Greater load is applied to the implant than with indirect anchorage, • Poor force control in three dimensions, • Mechanics are not fail safe B. Indirect anchorage, The mini-screw stabilizes the dental anchorage unit and an implant reinforced dental anchorage unit is the result. Mechanics of force system include: 1. Cross tubes or double tube 2. Acid-etch technique
  • 13. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 12 3. Connection with a TPA/QH/Horseshoe arch 4. Wire ligature Advantages • Generally less load is applied to the implant than with direct anchorage, • Fail-safe mechanics. Disadvantages • Loss of anchorage in terms of undesired dental movement of the anchorage teeth is possible, • Complicated and time consuming to install, • Breakage of appliance may go unnoticed and result in anchorage loss Pre-drilling or self-drilling? Indications of Pre-drilling A. in some cases where the bone is especially dense (most commonly the posterior mandible) B. If the intended path of insertion is significantly oblique to the bony surface – this is a situation where the screw is prone to slip up the cortical surface causing soft-tissue trauma. C. An alternative strategy to avoid this slipping is to by placing the screw at right angles to the bone surface and then altering to an oblique angle once the first ‘bite’ in the cortex has occurred. Advantages of self-drilling A. Simpler and cheaper procedure (no specialised drills required). B. Probable better overall success rate and better primary stability (Kim et al., 2005). C. Better screw-bone contact after 6 months (Heidemann and Gerlach, 1999). D. Less chance of damage to tooth roots. Success rate of mini-screws  Most studies report success rates between 80% and 96% (Park et al., 2005).  Lim reported 83% success (Lim et al., 2009).
  • 14. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 13  A systematic review by Reynders identified 19 studies of sufficient quality and the success rate was mainly in excess of 80% (Reynders et al., 2009) Parameters affecting bone anchorage success A. Patient factors 1. Gender is not considered as influential factors in the success of TADs. (Miyawaki et al., 2003) 2. Age: the failure rate is significantly higher in adolescents than adults (Chen et al., 2007) because of thinner buccal plate thickness. 3. Poor oral hygiene leads to: Peri implantitis, Epithelial infiltration, Bleeding on probing, Suppuration, Loss of bony support, Mobility and finally Implant failure (Miyawaki et al., 2003). So that regular tooth-brushing and chlorhexidine (0.12%, 10 ml) mouthwash is recommended. The cationic nature of chlorhexidine allows for its sustantivitiy, or persistent adherence to the enamel and soft tissue, providing a prolonged bacteriocidal and bacteriostatic effect. However, this sustantivitiy stains enamel, frequently causing patients to want to brush immediately after rinsing. The clinician should strongly advise the patient against this for 2 reasons: the surface contact from the toothbrush can remove the chlorhexidine coating, and the anionic agents in the toothpaste can rapidly reduce the activity of the cationic rinse (Kravitz and Kusnoto, 2007). 4. Smoking is a risk factor for implant success (Melsen, 2005). 5. ANB value, crowding, TMD are not considered as influential factors in the success of TADs. (Miyawaki et al., 2003) 6. Maxillo-mandibular planes angle: high angle cases have a higher failure rate for maxillary buccal mini-implants. This might be a result that a high angle cases may have thinner cortical plate causing low torque with resultant poor primary stability. On the other hand, with a thick bone, a high torque force is needed which might increase secondary failure rate (Miyawaki et al., 2003). 7. Insertion site: Variations in success rates occur depending on the location of the insertion site within the mouth because:
  • 15. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 14 • Upper or lower: Approximately 80% and 90% mini-implant success rates for mandibular and maxillary alveolar insertions, respectively. This is because of the different thickness of the cortical plate with variable insertion torque. If the insertion torque (the resistance encountered during insertion) is excessive then it is likely that secondary failure will occur because of ischaemic pressure effects on the adjacent alveolar bone (Miyawaki et al., 2003). • Mucosa: Studies found that non-keratinized mucosa was a risk factor for miniscrew failure (Chen et al., 2007) (Miyawaki et al., 2003(Park et al., 2005). • Bone density: Stationary anchorage failure is often a result of low bone density due to inadequate cortical thickness. Bone density is classified into 4 types D1, D2, D3 and D4. D1, D2, D3 are optimal for self-drilling miniscrews. Implant placement in D4 not recommended due to the reported high failure rate. • Proximity to the roots reduce the success rate because of the giggling effect of the occlusion that transferred to the root and cause TADs failure. • Left side success is high because of brushing bias for right handed patients, however, it is better to avoid electric brush because of the vibration and giggling effect. (Park 06). B. Mini-implant design factors 1. Diameter  A diameter less than 1.1 mm is associated with a higher failure rate (Miyawaki et al., 2003, Park et al., 2006).  A diameter greater than about 1.6 mm seems to confer no advantage and clearly wider screws run an extra risk of contact with tooth roots. This consideration is now largely of historic interest because almost all screws are currently between 1.4 and 1.8 mm in maximum diameter (Park et al., 2006).  2.0 mm screws are suitable for sites such as the zygomatic ridge or retromolar pad, where avoidance of roots is not an issue (Park et al., 2006) 2. Length • This usually refers to the intraosseous threaded part of the screw. • The range of available body lengths is typically 6 - 12 mm.
  • 16. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 15  This length does NOT seem to be a factor in stability if the screw is more than 5 mm long (intraosseous length) (Miyawaki et al., 2003, Park et al., 2006). • All manufacturers produce screws of different lengths and longer screws may be advocated if the mucosal thickness is greater e.g. in the palate for alveolar placement. 3. Miniscrew head: The head must be of sufficient dimension to accept and hold any coupling elements selected for a particular application. Different head designs also require different dimensions. A small diameter and lower profile of the miniscrew head are important for oral hygiene and patient comfort (Lee et al., 2009) 4. Shape • There are two basic body shapes: cylindrical and tapered. The former is typically associated with non-drilling insertion behaviour and the latter with self-drilling designs • Animal research results indicate that self-drilling techniques result in higher primary stability and better preserve the original bone (histologically) around mini-implant threads (Chen et al., 2008). • However, pre-drilling, at least through the cortical plate, may be valuable in avoiding excessive torque generation in thick/dense cortex sites e.g. the posterior mandible (Wilmes et al., 2008) C. Operator related factors 1. Selection of implant site In order to avoid root contact, implants should be placed in safe zones. The minimal space requirement between roots is 0.5 mm mesial and distal to the implant or 1 mm more than the implant diameter. In the maxilla, the more anterior and the more apical, the safer the location becomes. 2. Insertion angle  To achieve the best primary stability, an insertion angle ranging from 60° to 70° is advisable (to reduce insertion torque) while 30 degree has low stability (Wilmes et al., 2008). However the latest systematic review by Jung 2013 showed that insertion angle has no value in relation to avoid root contact.
  • 17. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 16  If the available space between two adjacent roots is small, a more oblique direction of insertion seems to be favourable to minimize the risk of root contact 3. Implant placement torque  Motoyoshi et al recommended an implant placement torque range of 5 to 10Ncm. Very high insertion torques leads to higher failure rates due to excessicve bone compression (Motoyoshi et al., 2006).  There is a study show that holding the screw driver by using the index and thumb (digital torquing) is better than palm (brachial torquing) because less force would be applied and so less necrosis and failure (Estelita et al., 2012). 4. Loading protocol Chen found that completely unloaded screws had a success rate of 75% compared with 90% for screws immediately loaded with a 200 gm force (Chen et al., 2009). The explanation is that the immediate loading believed to be related to higher bone turn over and remodelling than delayed loading. 5. Sterilization and asepsis are mandatory throughout the procedure. 6. Clinician experience and skill do contribute to the success of mini implants. Mini-implant’s clinical steps 1. Determine the area of placement and the amount of the intra-radicular bone using PA radiograph 2. 0.2% chlorohexidine mouth wash for 30 seconds will improve the success rate of TADs (Baek et al., 2008) 3. Few drops of LA infiltrated at the area of insertion. • Only the superficial soft tissues (gingiva/mucosa and periosteum) should be anaesthetised. The patient’s sensory feedback from the periodontal tissues can warn if the mini-implant begins to approximate the root of an adjacent tooth. • Kravitz and Kusnoto used topical anaesthesia in placing the TADs (Kravitz and Kusnoto, 2007)
  • 18. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 17 • TADs placement has a similar pain level to separators placement and less than the effect of 0.016NiTi wire. Almost 50% of patients require LA and 10% require postoperative analgesia. (Kuroda et al., 2007) 4. Avoiding contact of the adjacent anatomical and tooth roots which likely contribute to reduced success rates. • Several animal and clinical studies have provided clear reassurance that even when pilot drills or mini-implants have been used to directly traumatise the periodontal and root tissues, these heal without clinically detectable damage (in terms of loss of vitality, irreversible root resorption, Ankylosis). • The use of an insertion guidance stent, and oblique (rather than horizontal) insertion (Cousley, 2010)proposed advantages of stent: a) Stable insertion point, b) Prevents slippage. c) Reduces directional variation, d) Reducing fracture of the self-drilling tip. e) Reduce root trauma f) Minimizes radiation exposure of the patient, since the stent fabrication requires no additional radiographs g) Help left handed dentist to insert easily on right sude and vice versa h) Prescription for other how to use if the job is allocated to other 5. A manual insertion technique or slow motor-driven insertion may be used. The slow HP should be 128:1 torque, torqueing force 5-100Ncm and 60 RPM. 6. Direct loading • It is feasible to apply an orthodontic (unidirectional) force immediately after insertion, although it is commonly recommended that full force application be delayed for the first month, especially in adolescents (where there is a higher failure rate).
  • 19. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 18 7. Once the anchorage demand has abated, the mini-implant may be left in situ or removed. There have been no clinical case reports of mini-implant osseointegration. Complications of TADs (Kravitz and Kusnoto, 2007) 1. Root trauma Cho et al reported a 13% in experience clinician to 21% in non-experience clinician incidence of root contact (Cho et al., 2010). Practical steps to minimise the chances of root contact are: a) Use screws of 1.4-1.8 mm maximum thread diameter b) Choose a favourable site. In the maxillary buccal region, the greatest amount of inter- radicular bone between the second premolar and the first molar is located at a level of 5 to 8 mm from the alveolar crest. In the mandibular buccal region, the greatest amount of interradicular bone is either between the second premolar and the first molar, or between the first molar and the second molar, approximately 11 mm from the alveolar crest. Theoretically, the more apically the miniscrew is placed, the less is the risk of root damage. c) Placing miniscrews at an angle to the bone surface puts the screw tip nearer the wider space between to root apices whilst keeping the screw head in the attached mucosa. d) Consider placing screws in the palate. e) Align the adjacent teeth thoroughly before screw insertion f) Use stent g) Pre-insertion radiograph 2. implantation in the nasal or maxillary sinus If the maxillary sinus has been perforated, the small diameter of the miniscrew does not warrant its immediate removal. Orthodontic therapy should continue, and the patient should be monitored for potential development of sinusitis and mucocele (Kravitz and Kusnoto, 2007). 3. Trauma of nerve (greater palatine, inferior alveolar, mental) Nerve injury can occur during placement of miniscrews in the maxillary palatal slope, the mandibular buccal dentoalveolus, and the retromolar region (Kravitz and Kusnoto, 2007). 4. Trauma of vessel (palatine artery)
  • 20. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 19 5. Mini-screw slippage Causes a) Fail to fully engage cortical bone during placement and inadvertently slide the miniscrew under the mucosal tissue along the periosteum. b) Placement of miniscrews less than 30° (very oblique insertion) from the occlusal plane can increase the risk of slippage. Management a) The clinician can initially engage bone with the miniscrew at a right angle before reducing the angle of insertion after the second or third turn. b) Only minimal force should be used with the hand-driver, regardless of bone density. c) Predrilling d) Using stent 6. Infection/peri-implantitis Inflammation of the peri-implant soft tissue has been associated with a 30% increase in failure rate. So that regular tooth-brushing and chlorhexidine (0.12%, 10 ml) mouthwash is recommended Kravitz and Kusnoto, 2007 7. Soft tissue impingement/coverage Miniscrews placed in alveolar mucosa, particularly in the mandible, might become covered by soft tissue. 8. Mini-screw migration 9. Fracture of screw Increased torsional stress during placement can lead to implant bending or fracture, or produce small cracks in the peri-implant bone, that affect miniscrew stability (Park et al., 2006). 1.2mm screw has a high fracture rate of 10%. But in general the fracture rate around 5% and the TAD must be removed. 10. Failure Failure which is either immediate success 80-95% (Park et al., 2006)..
  • 21. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 20 11. Local emphysema 12. Patient discomfort 90% of pain disappears after 24h (Baxmann et al., 2010). NICE guidelines for Mini/micro screw implantation for orthodontic anchorage 2007 1. There is limited evidence that mini/micro screw implantation provides adequate orthodontic anchorage 2. There are no major safety concerns. 3. During the consent process clinicians should ensure that patients understand that there is a failure rate associated with the use of mini/micro screws and that the success of dental alignment cannot be guaranteed. 4. Evidence about optimal screw size and site of implantation (upper/lower jaw or buccal/lingual side of the bone) is limited. Therefore, further audit and research to clarify these issues would be useful 5. Efficacy: success rate 80-85% 6. Safety : breakage 3% Evidences 1. Skeggs 2008 in his Cochrane review found there is little evidence to support the use of surgical anchorage systems over conventional means of orthodontic anchorage reinforcement. However there is evidence from one recent trial by Benson 2005 that showed mid-palatal implants are an acceptable alternative to conventional techniques for reinforcing anchorage. So that Surgical anchorage via palatal onplant or miniscrew is effective with a difference of 1.75mm in term of anchorage preservation.  Sharma et al 2012 compare in their RCT compare the use of TAD with TPA and found significant difference in the anchorage control with the former (Sharma et al., 2012).  Feldmann & Bondemark (Feldmann and Bondemark, 2008) in their RCT measured the anchorage loss with Onplant (gp1), TADs (gp2), HG (gp3) & TPA (gp4). They found anchorage loss only in gp4 after levelling/aligning phase (approximately 1mm) but this had been increased to reach 2mm. additionally, gp3 showed 1.6 mm of anchorage loss while the
  • 22. Mohammed Almuzian, University of Glasgow, 2013 21 anchorage was stable in the gp 1 & 2 from the start until the end of treatment. Three years later, the same authors measured the difference patient perception in the four groups in term of pain, discomfort, and jaw dysfunction. They concluded a very few significant differences between skeletal and conventional anchorage systems in term of patient perceptions (Feldmann et al., 2012)  For the treatment of bimaxillary protrusion, the use of TADs and TPAs to provide anchorage during En-mass retraction and space closure had been compared. The study had been conducted by Liu et al on adult Chinese. They concluded that a better dental, skeletal and soft tissue effects of the TADs in treating these groups. For this reason, the recommended the TADs as routine anchorage device in patients with bialveolar dental protrusion (Liu et al., 2009).  Al-Sibaie and Hajeer 2014 TPA against TAD