The use of social media in higher education

ALL MY ROWDY ‘FRIENDS’:
THE USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION
By Andrew J. Lenartz
A Dissertation
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Education
in Educational Leadership
Northern Arizona University
May 2012
Approved:
Angelina Castagno, Ph.D., Chair
J. Michael Blocher, Ph.D.
JeanAnn Foley, Ph.D.
Troy Hutchings, Ed.D.

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ii
Abstract
ALL MY ROWDY ‘FRIENDS’:
THE USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Andrew J. Lenartz
The use of social media in higher education is escalating at a rapid rate, with
previous records for numbers of users being continuously broken. Institutions of higher
education have responded by increasingly using social media to connect with students. At
the same time, media horror stories about cyberbullying, suicides, and professional
misconduct related to social media have been receiving significant attention, becoming a
focus of the conversation on the use of social media in higher education.
This exploratory study examined the use of social media by administrators and
faculty at a large community college system to better understand how social media is
being used and to explore some of the negative issues that have been attributed to social
media. The study used a two-phased case study approach with electronic survey and
focus group methods utilized to collect data, then analyzed the data using a concurrent
convergent method.
Key themes which emerged through the data analysis were 1) personal choice, 2)
barriers to expanded use, 3) blurred boundaries, 4) continuing challenges, and 5)
institutional role. The research found that use of social media will continue to increase in
the near future, although some participants felt that increased use was no longer a
personal choice but an expectation. Participants identified the establishment of a social

iii
media strategy to be the most important and desired focus of the institution’s role in the
use of social media. Instead of focusing on the issues with serious legal and life-changing
consequences, which have been highlighted in the mainstream media’s focus on social
media, participants described less serious but more frequently encountered issues such as
a blurring of boundaries between their personal and professional lives and social media as
a distraction as being their major concerns.

iv
Acknowledgements
“What a long, strange trip it’s been.”
While I am not part of the generation who was able to truly appreciate the
Grateful Dead, I do now recognize the idea of setting out on a journey without having a
vision of the ultimate destination where you will end up. This experience has certainly
made me appreciate the journey.
I would like to acknowledge the contributions of my wife Tracy and daughter
Cicily. Having given up so much of our time together to allow me to pursue this work,
this is at least as much their achievement as it is mine. My ultimate goal with this
research is for Cicily to see that if her knucklehead of a father can get a Doctorate, it is a
given that she will get one someday.
Members of my cohort in the Northern Arizona University/Maricopa Community
Colleges Doctoral program have been the driving force to get me through this experience.
I could not have achieved this without your guidance, wisdom, support, and friendship.
Dr. Angelina Castagno has been all you could ask for in a Dissertation Chair. She
pushed me to achieve my best work, while being supportive and helping me navigate the
process. I feel fortunate to have had her guidance during this process. I would like to
thank the members of my Dissertation Committee, Dr. Michael Blocher, Dr. JeanAnn
Foley, and Dr. Troy Hutchings for all of their suggestions, guidance, and
recommendations which helped to focus and refine my work. Their contributions made
the final product far better than it would otherwise have been.
Finally, thank you to all of my wonderful family and friends. You supported me
throughout the process, provided encouragement for me to finish, gave me a push when

v
needed, and finally told me to shut up and stop complaining when it became enough. For
this and everything else that you do, I appreciate having each and every one of you in my
life.

vi
Table of Contents
Page
List of tables................................................................................................................. x
Chapter 1 - The Race to Get Connected............................................................... 1
Purpose of the study............................................................................ 2
Significance of the study .................................................................... 3
Definition of terms.............................................................................. 3
Summary............................................................................................. 4
Chapter 2 – Technology and Higher Education .................................................... 6
Technology and higher education ...................................................... 6
Web 2.0 ............................................................................................... 8
Social media and social networking................................................. 12
Uses and benefits of social media .................................................... 17
Potential challenges with the use of social media............................ 28
Role of administration ...................................................................... 42
Guidelines ......................................................................................... 43
Chapter 3 – Exploring the Issue ........................................................................... 48
Restatement of the purpose .............................................................. 48
Research design ................................................................................ 48
Case study methodology................................................................... 50

vii
Positionality of the researcher.............................................. 51
Phase 1 .............................................................................................. 52
Population and sample ......................................................... 52
Institutional permission and IRB......................................... 54
Instrument............................................................................. 55
Phase II.............................................................................................. 56
Population and sample ......................................................... 57
Instrument............................................................................. 57
Data analysis ..................................................................................... 59
Limitations ........................................................................................ 63
Delimitations ........................................................................ 63
Chapter 4 – Divergent Perspectives ..................................................................... 64
Introduction....................................................................................... 64
Population and participants .............................................................. 66
Key themes........................................................................................ 71
Personal choice..................................................................... 71
Barriers to expanded use...................................................... 88
Blurred boundaries............................................................... 91
Continuing challenges.......................................................... 96
Institutional role ................................................................. 102
Summary......................................................................................... 115

viii
Chapter 5 – An Alternative Future .................................................................... 116
Study summary............................................................................... 116
Implications..................................................................................... 120
Personal choice................................................................... 120
Barriers to expanded use.................................................... 121
Blurred boundaries............................................................. 122
Continuing challenges........................................................ 123
Institutional role.............................................................................. 125
Next steps........................................................................................ 125
Connecting.......................................................................... 126
Expectations for use ........................................................... 127
Google+.............................................................................. 127
Driving force ...................................................................... 128
Future direction .................................................................. 129
Unofficial rules of conduct ................................................ 129
Productivity in the workplace............................................ 129
Further exploration of negative issues............................... 130
Additional uses of social media......................................... 130
Strategic approach to social media .................................... 131
Action research................................................................... 132
Conclusion.......................................................................... 134
References............................................................................................................... 138

ix
Appendix A: Letter of introduction........................................................................ 151
Appendix B: Electronic survey .............................................................................. 152
Appendix C: Focus group....................................................................................... 155
Appendix D: Informed consent.............................................................................. 156

x
List of Tables
Number Table Name Page
1 Role in Higher Education 66
2 Gender 67
3 Racial/Ethnic Background 69
4 Age of Respondents 70
5 Please Rank Your Familiarity with Social Media 72
6 Do You Use Social Media for Professional Activities [Frequency] 73
7 Is Your Opinion of Social Media 74
8 Social Media Websites Focus Group Participants Reported Using 77
9 Are You Currently Using any of the Following Social Media Websites 78
10 Please Describe How You are Using Social Media 80
11 Key Themes from Focus Group Question Regarding Use Over Next Year 83
12 Over the Next Year Will Your Use of Social Media 84
13 Which of the Following Reasons Prevent You From Increasing Your Use of
Social Media Activities? 90
14 Over the Next Year Will Your Use of Social Media 92
15 Are You Personally Aware of Any Negative Issues That Have Resulted From the
Use of Social Media in Higher Education? 96
16 Are You Aware of Social Media Guidelines at Your College or the Maricopa
Community Colleges? 103
17 Key Themes from Responses to Focus Group Question Regarding Steps that can
be Taken to Prevent Issues Resulting from use of Social Media 104
18 Key Themes from Focus Group Question Regarding the Use of Social Media
Guidelines 106
19 Examples of Social Media Guidelines from Institutions of Higher Ed. 112

1
Chapter One: The Race to Get Connected
The use of social media has been increasing at an exponential rate, to the point
where the most widely used social media website, Facebook, has more than 500 million
users and the number of users will likely be twice the United States population in the near
future (Facebook, 2011). As further evidence of the website’s popularity, the company’s
founder and CEO was named Time magazine’s 2010 Person of the Year and a movie
based on the creation of the website was nominated for 8 Academy Awards (Grossman,
2010; King & Lynch, 2011).
Based on the rapid increase in use of social media, institutions of higher education
have responded by increasingly using social media to connect with students (Martinez-
Aleman & Wartman, 2009). The increased use of social media has in turn led to pressure
on faculty and staff to utilize social media inside and outside the classroom, based on the
real and theoretical potential benefits to institutions that can be obtained through the use
of social media (Kear, 2011). The potential benefits include enhancing the overall college
experience (Banaria, 2004), expanding educational opportunities (Brown & Adler, 2008),
making admission decisions (Anderson, 2009; Kaplan, 2010), library services (Chu &
Meulemans, 2008; Connell, 2009), and recruitment (Ferguson, 2010). In conjunction with
the rapid increase in the use of social media by students, administration, and faculty in
institutions of higher education, problems resulting from the use of social media are
becoming increasingly apparent, such as the posting of inappropriate materials, students’
right to privacy, censorship, cyberbullying, and cyberstalking.
Several stories highlighting the severe consequences that can result from the use
of social media have received extensive media coverage. At this point in time, the

2
consequences associated with the use of social media are largely driven by the
mainstream media, which is shaping the conversation and has resulted in discussions
focusing on sensationalized stories with significant impact and often serious legal
ramifications. The stories that receive publicity often feature events such as
cyberbullying, suicides, arrests, and teachers being fired for posts on social media
websites.
This study identifies the challenges that users are more concerned with on a day-
to-day basis as being less serious but more frequently encountered. These issues include
the blurring of personal and professional boundaries and social media as a distraction in
the workplace. While the serious issues certainly need to be addressed, the less
sensationalized issues which have a greater impact on the day-to-day lives of those using
social media in higher education are often being ignored. The focus on “dangerous” and
“criminal” issues is ignoring those “rowdy friends” whose behavior falls far short of
criminal but is still presenting challenges for institutions using social media.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the use of social media among faculty
and administrators in institutions of higher education. Specifically, this study identified
the extent to which social media is utilized in higher education and identified challenges
associated with the use of social media in higher education.
By examining the extent to which administrators and faculty use social media and
the issues that have resulted from this use, I was able to suggest how institutions of
higher education can most effectively utilize social media while reducing the potential
negative consequences that can result.

3
This study answered the following research questions:
1. To what extent, and for what purposes, is social media used by faculty and
administration in the MCC system?
2. What challenges and barriers are associated with the use of social media among
faculty and administration at MCC?
Significance of the Study
I anticipate that this research has filled some of the holes which exist in the
current literature and added to the knowledge required for colleges and universities to use
social media effectively. As a new field that is only beginning to be examined critically,
significant work is required to identify the potential advantages, consequences, and
appropriate use of social media by institutions of higher education. This study was
intended to identify these aspects of social media for the institution of study.
Definition of Terms
Facebook: The most frequently used social networking website in the world and the most
popular social networking website among college students (Facebook, 2011).
Guidelines: Guidelines are best practices, tips, and standards for users to follow.
Guidelines are typically not mandatory, they can either be recommendations or can
be part of the terms of use.
Policies: Policies are standards that users are expected to follow, mandated by the
institution. Policies may often require approval according to a set process, can have
a legal status, and can result in serious consequences when not followed.
Social Media: User-generated content for a mass audience, typically with a specific
agenda or message. Social media is a way to transmit information that can often

4
have a public relations aspect as a component of the communication generated.
Social media utilizes social networking tools in addition to a number of other Web
2.0 applications such as wikis, blogs, content communities, and virtual worlds.
Social Networking: The use of online tools, websites, and applications to establish a
relationship between individuals and groups of people with a common area of
interest. Social networking is one frequently utilized component of social media.
The members of a social network may or may not be acquainted outside of the
virtual connection. The most visited social networking websites in 2011 include
Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, LinkedIn, and Ning (eBizMBA, 2011).
Web 2.0: Second generation iteration of the World Wide Web, with users generating an
increasing amount of the information available. Previously, there were a limited
number of authors responsible for generating material for a wide audience. With
Web 2.0, the entire audience has the ability to generate content, making it a more
interactive process. Includes online applications such as blog, wikis, social
bookmarking, media-sharing services, social networking, collaborative editing
tools, syndication, and modification technologies (Alexander, 2006; O’Reilly, 2007;
Donelan, Kear, and Ramage, 2010).
Summary
Social media has the potential to significantly impact the field of education in
both the short and long-term future. However, given both the benefits of social media and
the negative issues that have occurred, there is no assurance that this impact will be
positive. In order to obtain the benefits of social media while minimizing the pitfalls,
institutions of higher education need to better understand the extent and impact of social

5
media use and to identify solutions to the negative consequences that can result from the
use of social media. There is a significant hole in our current knowledge about social
media in higher education, and my research will help to close this gap.

6
Chapter Two: Technology and Higher Education
Hector Camacho sighed audibly. He loved teaching, was energized and inspired
every minute that he was able to spend with students, but days like today were just
draining. The Fall semester would be starting at Millennial Community College in just
three days and Hector had spent most of his day learning the new instructional
technology system that the College purchased. Hector could get by with most technology,
but adapted to the changes more slowly than some of his colleagues, so it took him most
of the day to simply navigate his way through the system. And now he had to spend the
rest of the afternoon in some meeting to learn more ways that technology was going to
make his life at the College easier. His teaching methods were fine, had always served
him well. Why did they have to keep messing with a good thing? This was one of those
times Hector wished he had never quit smoking.
The italicized narrative presented in this chapter is a fictional account based in
part on actual events.
Technology and Higher Education
The use of technology has historically been linked to the field of higher education
and the use of social media has continued this trend. The use of technology in education
has been studied at least as far back as 1974 (Gagne, 1974), but began to resemble the
current use and format in the late 1990s, with the introduction of the Microsoft Windows
platform (Martinez-Aleman & Wartman, 2009). The introduction of the personal
computer made computers accessible to a wider group of users for the first time, by
making the computer more user-friendly and reducing the skill set required to operate a

7
computer. This led to the wide-spread use of the home computer and ignited the use of
personal computers on college campuses. This also cemented the link between
technology and education. Based on this connection, the field of higher education needs
to pay particular attention to new developments in the area of technology, as a significant
percentage of new technology will likely have an impact at some point.
Hector dragged himself back into his office and slumped into his chair. He felt
even more overwhelmed after his meeting and was beginning to wonder how many more
semesters of these changes he could handle. He wanted simply to teach students to
appreciate literature, how to write. He wanted to inspire them and give them a well-
rounded education. But that alone was not enough anymore. First he had to learn a new
instructional technology, now this meeting about the latest and greatest technological
features and how they would change the institution. The Vice President of Academic
Affairs, Cynthia May, had certainly been on a roll, going on about how it was a new
world, the incoming students would be different from any they had ever seen. How does a
world change in one semester, Hector wondered? She was all fired up about this Web
2.0, so excited about some social media thing. And now she wanted them all to start
friendbooking, or whatever she called it. Hector had no idea what this even was, how was
he supposed to learn yet another new technology? He was searching for his pension
administrator’s phone number to re-verify exactly how many months remained until he
was eligible to retire, when his cell phone rang. Hector saw his nephew Anthony’s
number, and his face immediately lit up as he answered the call.

8
Web 2.0
Alexander (2006) states that there is not one clear, singular definition of Web 2.0
at the present time. Alexander defines Web 2.0 as a series of tools, utilities, websites, and
applications based around social software and enhanced by the social connectivity of the
World Wide Web. Alexander states that a key feature of Web 2.0 is user-driven,
collaborative content provided through openness and the sharing of services and
platforms. Alexander identifies social software as including blogs, wikis, trackback,
podcasting, videoblogs, and social networking. Donelan, Kear, and Ramage (2010)
provide a similar definition, describing Web 2.0 as an evolution of the World Wide Web,
which involves a shift from static content to a dynamic platform based on collaboration.
They do acknowledge a dispute regarding what exactly Web 2.0 refers to and state that
the specific components included have not been clearly defined and can vary depending
on the definition used.
Another early attempt to define Web 2.0 was undertaken by O’Reilly (2007), who
describes Web 2.0 as an “architecture of participation,” continuously updated and
remixed by multiple users, which provides a user-driven network beyond what was
possible with Web 1.0. O’Reilly (2007) describes the seven core competencies of Web
2.0 as: 1) “services, not packaged software, with cost-effective scalability,” 2) “control
over unique, hard-to-recreate data sources that get richer as more people use them,” 3)
“trusting users as co-developers,” 4) “harnessing collective intelligence,” 5) “leveraging
the long tail through customer self-service,” 6) “software above the level of a single
device,” and 7) “lightweight user interfaces, development models, and business models”

9
(p.37). These criteria can be applied to websites, applications, and software to determine
if the qualifications to be considered part of Web 2.0 are met.
According to Kaplan and Haenlein (2010), the term Web 2.0 was first used in
2004 and is best described as the platform used by social media, a concept which is not
easily delineated. They also present an interesting definition of social media as a
reversion to the original intent of the World Wide Web, which was the facilitation of
information between users. They also add several items to the list of applications
considered a part of social media: collaborative projects, content communities, virtual
game worlds, and virtual worlds.
The differentiation between the terms Web 2.0, social media, and social
networking has not been clearly established. The term social media can be used to
categorize Web 2.0 applications, including social networking. Social media reflects the
definition of Web 2.0 as the creation of user-generated content, often with a specific
agenda or message that the creator is intending to promote. The purpose is similar to that
of traditional media networks, using a new format that relies on social networking and
other Web 2.0 applications, services, and websites (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). To
confuse the issue even further, boyd and Ellison (2007) state that the terms “social
network site” and “social networking sites” are used interchangeably, leaving significant
room for clarity and definition of these terms. Kear (2010) agrees, stating that Web 2.0
describes a category of communication technology which can include social software,
social media, and social interactive technologies, but that the terms are not clearly
defined and are not clearly differentiated from each other.

10
An example of this issue from a similar field is provided by Moore, Dickson-
Deane, and Galyen (2011), who examined how the terms used for learning environments
are defined. Their study found that the terms “e-learning,” “distance learning
environments,” and “online learning” are used interchangeably in many cases,
inconsistently, and without a consensus on how the terms are differentiated or utilized.
The individuals in their study had different perspectives on how each term should be
used, and what each term meant.
The terms “social networking” and “social media” appear to present a similar
issue, often being used interchangeably and without a clear definition of either term. In
general, the term “social media” seems to be most often used as a broader umbrella term
that includes many of the Web 2.0 functions, including social networking. The term
“social media” is generally more appropriate to define methods of conveying a message
as an extension of traditional media outlets. The term “social media” also seems more
appropriate when the intention is for organizations or individuals to convey an intentional
message to an audience. Organizations often use this new technology to achieve a
specific purpose such as conveying a message, connecting with an identified group,
sharing a message, or promoting their organization. Use of a range of Web 2.0
applications in this manner is most appropriately referred to with the umbrella term
“social media”. Kear (2010) defines “social networking” as a subset of Web 2.0 and
social media, specifically described as consisting of social networking websites. Kear’s
(2010) perspective on the issue of defining social networking is that “The category is not
well-defined, but has the common theme of facilitating online connections between
people” ( p.6).

11
The term “social media” will be used in this paper when discussing use of the
applications from the institutions’ point of view. Because students are typically using the
technology for general communication, the term “social networking” is often more
appropriate to describe the functions and applications from the students’ perspective. The
term “social networking” will also be used to describe social networking websites used
primarily as a means of communication and building community. For the sake of this
dissertation, the term “social media” will refer to a broader category that contains social
networking, used for communication but also to share a specific message with an
audience or to achieve a specific goal.
For example, Twitter would be considered a social media application used to
share a message or achieve a goal, but does not fit the description of a social networking
website. Facebook, on the other hand, is used primarily as a communication device and to
build community, so is considered a social networking website, as well as being part of
the broader category of social media tools. Social networking applications are
automatically part of social media, but the inverse is not necessarily true. Having a clear
understanding of these concepts and an appropriate definition will help to ensure that my
research successfully addresses the intended subject area.
As Monday drew to a close, Hector was in a much better mood than he had been
at the end of the week. He was still on an emotional high from the first day of classes;
Hector always loved the rush that the beginning of the school year provided. Most years,
he was probably more excited than half of his students in anticipation of the new
semester. This year had been no exception, Hector’s two English courses that day had

12
been full and both seemed like a bright and energetic group of students. His enthusiasm
was enhanced by the assistance his nephew Anthony had provided the previous weekend
by creating a Facebook page for Hector. Anthony had created a profile, added a picture
of Hector, and showed him how to use the page. Hector did not really understand most of
it or what the purpose was, but he was participating as requested by the administration.
Even though he didn’t really understand, it seemed interesting enough. Anthony had
connected Hector to his niece Adrianna, and Hector had enjoyed looking at her profile,
photos, and seeing what she was up to. Two students had already contacted Hector
through Facebook to ask questions about the course. Anthony had added them as friends
to Hector’s account, and he could see some information about them as well. He didn’t
really understand the point, but he was onboard as requested.
Social Media and Social Networking
boyd and Ellison (2007) defined social networking as web-based services that
allow users to do three things: “(a) construct a public or semi-public profile within a
bounded system, (b) articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection,
(c) view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the
system” (p.211). What makes social networking sites unique is that the networks are
visible to others online, allowing for connections to new acquaintances which would not
be possible if the connections were not visible to others. Donelan, Kear, and Ramage
(2010) further expanded upon the value of connections as the key to social networks,
describing the social structures that represent the connections between people as the
critical component for online social networking. By creating an online method to display

13
and expand people’s social networks, an important component of human interaction
becomes accessible online.
boyd (2008) also defined social networks as “networked publics,” space
constructed through a combination of networked technology and the imagined
community that emerges online. boyd explained that there are four properties present in
social networks: searchability, persistence, replicability, and scalability. boyd also
identified three dynamics which differentiate social networks: audiences, collapsed
contexts, and a blurring of public and private. There are currently hundreds of social
networking websites that meet these qualifications across a wide range of technology,
interests, and practices. These websites target people who are seeking a wide range of
services and who are part of a wide range of cultures.
Social networking websites vary from those intended primarily to establish
connections between users, such as LinkedIn, Facebook, and MySpace; to websites
directed toward a specific function such as Flickr for photo sharing, Last.FM for music,
and YouTube for sharing video (boyd & Ellison, 2007). Another type of social
networking website allows users to create their own social networks, Ning is an example
of this type. In addition to the variation in purpose across social networking websites, the
functions which can be performed on specific websites varies, but many have some
similar features. Most social networking websites allow users to leave messages on the
pages of other users they are connected to and many also have private message systems
similar to email or instant messaging. Other functions available on social networking
websites include photo and video sharing, blogging, mobile-specific applications, and

14
games. These functions and the specific way the functions are used can vary from
website to website.
Arriving shortly after the use of personal computers began to become wide-
spread, social networking in a format similar to what exists today began in the late 1990s.
The first incarnations included the websites SixDegrees, which was launched in 1997;
and LiveJournal, which was launched in 1998 (Martinez-Aleman & Wartman, 2009).
These initial social networking websites sought mainly to connect users that were also
acquainted outside of the Internet, allowing them to transfer this connection to an online
environment.
Both SixDegrees and LiveJournal still exist today, however, they have changed
their formats from the social networking websites they were initially developed as. These
early incarnations were subsequently replaced by a second generation of social
networking websites, which increasingly sought to connect users who were not
acquainted outside of the Internet, in addition to continuing to provide an alternative
format for people who were previously acquainted outside of an online environment.
Although social media websites have existed in a format approximating the current
incarnation for less than 15 years, a number of different websites have fluctuated between
increasing and subsequently waning in popularity during this time. The most popular
social media websites at any given time varies significantly. Some of the popular
websites as of this writing include Twitter, LinkedIn, Friendster, Xiaonei, hi5, Orkut,
Bebo, Ning, Flickr, YouTube, Xanga, MySpace, Meetup, and Tagged (Espejo, 2009;
Martinez-Aleman & Wartman, 2009). The popularity of these websites has varied over
time and by country, with the websites ranked as most popular changing frequently.

15
However, one website that has gained a significant advantage in number of users
is Facebook. Facebook is currently the leading social networking website by a wide
margin, having surpassed 500 million users in 2010 (Facebook, 2011). Users of the
website are accessing Facebook on a regular basis, 50% of them visiting the website on a
daily basis. Facebook is popular both in the United States and internationally; with 35%
of the United States population utilizing the website, yet 75% of the more than 500
million users are located outside the United States. In particular, the use of Facebook is
especially popular at colleges and universities, with an estimated 85% of students using
Facebook, a number which continues to increase (Martinez-Aleman & Wartman, 2009).
These students are on average spending 30 minutes per day on the website (Pempek,
Yermolayeva & Calvert, 2009), as it becomes increasingly interconnected into the
students’ everyday lives
Founded by a group of Harvard University students in their dorm room, Facebook
expanded this higher education connection when the company relocated to Palo Alto,
California and developed a strong connection to Stanford University. When first created,
the website was only accessible to college and university students, requiring an “.edu”
email address to register (Kirkpatrick, 2010). From this initial connection to higher
education, Facebook expanded to colleges across the country, becoming an integral part
of the lives of modern students. Because of this connection and the utilization by
students, a discussion of social media needs to include a focus on Facebook. However,
this discussion should be vast and adaptable enough to include other current and future
forms of social networking as well. In a field that has seen multiple leaders during its
brief 15 year history, a focus solely on Facebook would be short-sighted, and would

16
ignore other current and to-be-developed websites that could very well be the most
influential among college students at some point in the future. My research included any
of the social media applications that are currently used within the organization, but a
significant focus ended up being placed on Facebook because of the wide-spread use of
this website.
Hector Camacho couldn’t believe it was already the midpoint of the semester. It
had just flown by, as usual. It had been a good semester, enrollment was at an all-time
high, and the new engagement initiatives seemed to be working because his attendance
had remained steady throughout the semester. Hector was even getting the hang of the
new instructional technology system. The social networking was a different story. His
nephew Anthony had been managing his page for him, so that part was going well, but he
just didn’t get the point. He had connected with a decent number of people; relatives, a
few old friends, other faculty, and a considerable number of his students. But other than
superficial conversations and a few questions from students, Hector just did not have
much use for it. He barely looked at the website most weeks, depending on his nephew to
post messages for him and to let him know if students posted a request for information.
Other faculty members were excited about the technology, talking about it
constantly and some even incorporating it into the classroom. Hector just couldn’t see
the value. At first he had enjoyed looking at people’s profiles, pictures, and postings. But
after the semester had started, that began to make him very uncomfortable. The shots of
students at parties shocked him, he could not believe the behavior they were willing to
make public. Hector thought this was a very good reason to keep your personal and

17
public personas separate, and marked it up as another strike against social networking.
Then there was the student in his English 101 class, Brooklyn Jacobs. The young man
posted a message to Hector about an assignment, wanted to know if he could change the
assignment to an exploration of his sexuality. Apparently, Brooklyn was struggling with
identity issues and thought an English assignment would be a good way to address this.
Hector had looked at the comments and updates posted on Brooklyn’s page, and realized
that the young man did seem to be having a difficult time. As many people do during their
first years of college, he was struggling with who he was and had to manage the internal
and external conflicts that had ensued. Hector was sympathetic, but did not understand
how everyone had become so public with things. How could someone put such personal
information on their page for everyone to see? There was so much of today’s world that
escaped his comprehension.
Uses and Benefits of Social Media
Social media has quickly made a significant impact on the field of higher
education. Espejo (2009) quoted Ewan McIntosh as saying “Social networking in all its
forms has already begun to transform the way teachers teach, learners learn, and
education managers lead learning, and will continue to do so” (p. 78). Due to a
combination of the significant use of social networking by college and university students
and the desire of institutions of higher education to meet students where they already are;
colleges and universities are increasingly anxious to develop a social media presence.
Social media is being used for a wide range of activities, including increasing the overall
college experience (Banaria, 2004), expanding educational opportunities (Brown &

18
Adler, 2008), making admission decisions (Anderson, 2009; Kaplan, 2010), library
services (Chu & Meulemans, 2008; Connell, 2009), counseling students after tragedies
(Shelton, 2009), conducting courses in Second Life (Kear, 2010), and recruitment
(Ferguson, 2010). Additionally, student organizations and student life departments are
increasingly relying on social media to promote events and activities (Martinez-Aleman
& Wartman, 2009).
Institutions and individuals have also begun experimenting with novel approaches
for the use of social media in a wide range of higher educational functions. This includes
the City University of New York’s (CUNY) creation of a closed social network for
faculty, graduate students, and staff (Kaya, 2010). Their online community is accessible
only to members of CUNY, with the goal of connecting the University’s various
campuses. Another example is the London School of Business and Finance, which is
offering Master’s in Business Administration materials on Facebook (Kaya, 2010b). The
materials, offered at no cost to users, include message boards, lectures, and discussions.
The institution’s stated goal is to get students to register and pay for the course, sparked
by their interest in the materials offered on Facebook. Institutions including Arizona State
University are using social media as part of their online emergency alert system, utilizing
applications including Facebook, Twitter, and RSS feeds to alert students and staff of
emergency situations (Mendoza, 2010). Another example is a social networking website
specifically designed for social scientists, created by the academic publisher Sage
Publications (Wieder, 2011).
Minocha (2009) provided a series of case studies on social software use at English
Universities, including the use of virtual world website Second Life and blogs by students

19
to create animated films and learn about film making, students using wikis as a tool for
small group discussion, a Facebook group specifically created for first year English
students, a library blog using the social bookmarking website Delicious, a social network
specifically designed for doctoral students, the development of an e-portfolio in a wiki,
blogging as a support network for trainee teachers, and the use of social photo sharing
website Flicker as a tool for photography students. It seems doubtful that all of these
innovative uses of social media will prove to be successful, but as the period of time the
tools are in use builds and additional research is able to be performed, it will be
interesting to see which of the many uses of social media in higher education will prove
to be successful and become part of the educational experience.
In a particularly novel example of the use of social media in higher education,
University of Nevada – Las Vegas student Devin Valencia won a College Affordability
Challenge grant for a Facebook application she developed to help students locate
financial aid (Pratt, 2011). Ms. Valencia’s application links financial aid databases to the
social networking website Facebook, allowing students to search for financial aid, refer
opportunities to each other, and announce aid they have applied for or received. For her
work, Ms. Valencia was awarded a grant by the Gates Foundation, who sponsored the
College Affordability Challenge. Another unique example is Mixable, a social network
application developed for students at Purdue University (Purdue University, 2010).
Mixable allows students to complete coursework on Facebook, use Dropbox to share
files, and establish online study groups. Purdue describes the purpose of Mixable as
allowing students to combine their academic and personal lives.

20
Drexler, Baralt, and Dawson (2008) described another use of social networking,
which is a consortium of educators working together to learn and utilize social
networking tools. This innovative approach uses the tools themselves to help educators
collaborate, learn the tools, and apply what they learn in a group setting. The teachers
who participated in the consortium found that the tools did indeed enhance student
learning.
Another example is Aalborg University in Denmark, which is using an open
source social networking environment called Ekademia to supplement an online course.
As reported by Ryberg, Dirckinck-Holmfeld, and Jones (2010), the goal is to create
networks within the class between students and others in the field, and to provide
additional tools for collaboration. The researchers found that students ended up using
Ekademia primarily for communication, but did not use the other features extensively,
which included blogs, links, and additional resources. In fact, the students seemed to
view the tool as useful more for social purposes such as social interactions and posting
invitations to parties and sporting events, as opposed to academic activities. This study
brings up the issue of whether social and academic uses of social media should be kept
separate, or if students would prefer the two are blended. There appears to be an
assumption in academia that because students are using social media in their personal
lives, they would also like to use social media in their academic lives. Based on some of
the studies discussed above, this assumption may not actually be valid. This is an area
which requires further clarification and resolution.
One particularly promising avenue for social media is in establishing a
community for online learning. Anderson (2009) described how social software can be

21
used to support distance education learners, enhancing the connections that can be more
challenging to establish with online learning. And Brown’s (2001) study found that
establishing a community in online courses reduced students’ feelings of isolation,
increased satisfaction and retention, and supported overall levels of learning. Students
reported that establishing a community was more complex and took a longer period of
time in online learning, so a tool which aids in this process could certainly provide a
benefit.
A connection to online learning will also provide a more concrete theoretical
foundation to base social media research on. Significantly more research exists on the
established field of distance learning than is available for social media, in both quantity
and validation of the existing work. Work that has been completed on computer mediated
communication, in particular, could have a significant influence on future work in the
area of social media.
Wenger (1998) described a concept called “communities of practice”, which was
defined as groups of people who engage in collective learning using a shared domain.
According to Wenger, these groups share an interest in what they are doing and a
collective desire to do it better. The keys to “communities of practice” are the domain,
community, and practice. It does not require intentionality, but all three key concepts
must be able to be defined in order for a “community of practice” to exist. Wenger stated
that this domain can include, and increasingly will include, an online environment. The
online environment allows for learning connections to a vastly increased number of
colleagues, expanding the “community of practice”. This also set the stage for Wenger’s
concepts to be applied to distance learning.

22
Moore’s (2007) theory of transactional distance provides the framework for
theories of distance education, describing distance education as a pedagogical concept,
more than simply a physical distance between learners. This separation can include space
and/or time and ensures that each learner’s experience is never exactly the same. Moore
stated that this requires specifically designed teaching and learning techniques, and
identified the selection and integration of communications media as a key for effective
distance learning. Moore recommended the use of multiple forms of media, which could
certainly include social media if future research validates the impact on distance learning.
An example of an area where social media could potentially have an impact on
online learning is provided by Tu and McIssac’s (2002) research on social presence in
online learning. They found three important dimensions which impact social presence:
social context, online communication, and interactivity. Tu and McIssac’s study found
that all three dimensions are key to establishing a sense of community in an online
environment, along with familiarity with the learning environment. If social media can
enhance any of these dimensions, it could have an impact on social presence in online
learning. Given the high levels of social media usage that students engage in, as discussed
earlier, social media has an advantage in the familiarity aspect. Future research again can
identify whether this is the case and whether social media can influence social presence
in online learning. The authors of this study did not believe that computer mediated
communication could replace face to face communication in learning environments. It
remains to be seen whether this new tool, social media, can be a step in this direction.
Moore (2002) also studied the link between social presence and satisfaction with
distance learning and found a strong link between the instructor’s social presence and

23
satisfaction with distance learning. Moore found that computer mediated communication
has been important for enhancing learner-learner interaction, allowing for networks and
friendships to be developed, which are important aspects of classroom learning. Moore’s
perspective is that the social aspects of distance learning are in many ways as important
as the actual lessons taught. This may be an area where social media can be used as a tool
to enhance distance learning.
An example of the impact social media can have when used with online learning
was identified through a study by Schroeder and Greenbowe (2009). They examined
voluntary use of Facebook to complement the online learning system WebCT for a
chemistry course, with the goal of increasing participation in the course. Their study
found that there was four times the number of student posts when Facebook was added,
demonstrating that participation was indeed increased by the use of social media. The
instructors attributed the rapid increase in posting to the fact that students were already
using Facebook and comfortable with the technology.
Hoffman (2008) found that students do indeed view Facebook as meeting their
needs for a community, as an extension of their off-line community. The frequency of
interactions by users indicates strong social ties created through the use of Facebook, and
Hoffman stated that online social networks are similar to traditional definitions of
community, particularly in reference to shared norms and values, and extended
relationships of caring.
Kear (2007) also studied the role of community for students and found that
students felt it was important to have contact and build community in online courses,
which students felt helped to establish an identity for themselves as part of the university.

24
In Kear’s study, students felt that asynchronous communication, occurring at different
periods of time, had more value for creating community in online courses than
synchronous communication, where those involved in the communication were
participating at the same time. However, students did feel that there was a role for both
and particularly liked the use of chat functions, a synchronous communication method, to
compliment asynchronous communications.
In another example, Kervin, Mantei, & Herrington (2010) studied a community-
based website for students which included a blogging section where students could write
about their experiences and other students could comment. They analyzed the experience
using usage data, posts, comments, student reports, and discussions of activities; and
found that benefits to students included creation of community and opportunity for
reflection.
This is only a sampling of the ways educational institutions have begun using
social media to connect with students. The use can be driven by the institution or by
students themselves. With basic use of the technology adding no or limited additional
cost, experimentation with social media can be conducted with minimal use of
institutional resources and institutions are increasingly open to trying different
applications of social media. Since the most prominent social networking website,
Facebook, was developed less than 10 years ago, it appears the use of social media and
the applications it is used for are just getting started.
One of the challenges in assessing the effectiveness of social media is that the
field does not have a significant history. One can identify how educational institutions are
using social media and review anecdotal evidence and perspectives on the effectiveness

25
of social media; however, limited conclusive research has been performed to assess the
impact of social media in the field of higher education. Widespread use of social media
and the identification of important goals to achieve through the use of social media does
not actually indicate whether or not these goals are being achieved, and whether social
media is enhancing the educational experience. Institutions are likely to report the
number of users and frequency of contacts or activity as a measurement of successful
implementation, but this still does not identify whether the intended objectives have been
met or even whether objectives were established in the first place.
In addition to the research previously discussed regarding the formation of an
online community, social media has been found to have a positive impact on maintaining
social capital, expression of identity, and increasing engagement. Specifically, Pempek,
Yermolayeva, & Calvert (2009) found that social networking websites are used by
students to express their identity, observe and disseminate information, and engage in
social interaction. Ellison, Steinfeld, & Lampe (2007) found that the use of Facebook
promotes the formation and maintenance of social capital. Based on the initial research
and anecdotal accounts, it certainly appears there is potential for social media to have a
positive impact in multiple areas of higher education. However, to truly assess the impact
of social media and to identify how the applications can be utilized most effectively,
additional research is needed in this area.
The use of social media was also linked to higher levels of motivation, affective
learning, and a more positive classroom environment by Mazer, Murphy, and Simonds
(2007). They performed an experimental study designed to examine the effect of
instructor self-disclosure via Facebook on student motivation, affective learning, and

26
classroom climate. The study found a positive impact on all three areas studied and found
that the presentation of personal information can lead students to identify areas of
connection with teachers, as well as enhancing communication and engagement with
students. This study provides evidence that the use of social media may indeed have a
positive impact on student learning.
The 2010 CCCSE report identified that social networking tools can have an
impact on community college student engagement. The study surveyed more than
400,000 students from 660 institutions, and the 2010 report asked several questions
regarding student engagement and social networking. The study found that 95% of
students age 18 -24 used social networking, along with 68% of students over the age of
24. The study also found that students who used social networking for academic purposes
reported higher levels of engagement than those who did not. This does not identify
causation, but is a promising initial link between social media and student engagement,
which is another area for future research.
Similarly, a doctoral dissertation by Banaria (2004) found that functions of a
social network were positively correlated with students’ satisfaction in college and level
of academic achievement. Banaria stated that the use of a social network can lead to the
accumulation of social capital, which can have a positive impact on performance and
achievement. Online social networks are certainly an additional mechanism to create the
connections that lead to this positive association. A study by Gunawardena and Zittle
(1997) found a similar result, that students’ sense of social presence is a strong predictor
of satisfaction with the experience of online learning. They identified that participants
can create a social presence through online education, but that it takes intentional

27
interaction. This study was conducted prior to the mass popularity of social media, but it
is not a stretch to imagine that social media could fulfill the need for this presence.
There is, however, also evidence to dispute this perspective. A study by O’Brien
(2010) found that although students expressed an interest in using Facebook as part of the
classroom experience, there was no identified difference in student engagement for
Facebook participants compared with students who did not utilize Facebook as part of the
course. With a limited amount of research available in this area, it appears the most
accurate conclusion is that the use of social media certainly has the potential to enhance
student engagement. However, how, why, and to what extent this occurs has not been
clearly established.
Other advantages of social media in higher education were identified by Durkee,
et al. (2009), who studied the use of Facebook by architectural and visual arts students.
They found advantages to using Facebook that included allowing for alumni to
participate and assist with student learning, and access to potential employers and
practitioners which was not possible with online learning systems which are closed to
participants who are not part of the class. They also found, contrary to a popular concern,
that few technical barriers existed for students in the use of Facebook, most of whom
were already using the website, and many of whom could access the website on various
equipment including mobile devices.
As described in this section, there are many potential benefits that can be achieved
through the use of social media in higher education. Additionally, the benefits associated
with social media have likely not been fully identified yet, due to the relatively short
period of time this technology has been in existence. Understanding these benefits is

28
important because educators could use any tool available to aid in connecting with
students. The potential advantages of social media are significant, given that it is a tool
which can be implemented at low cost and is something many students are already using.
This research provides an enhanced understanding of how extensively social media is
used within an institution of higher education and additional insight into the specific
ways that social media is being used.
The promising semester at Millennial Community College had turned horribly
tragic. The many successes that had occurred were overshadowed by the fate of Brooklyn
Jacobs. The young man’s parents had returned home from their religious services on
Christmas Eve to find that he had hung himself in their garage. The ensuing investigation
led to the discovery of a series of Facebook posts from earlier that day where the
increasingly despondent Brooklyn had described being tormented by his classmates as he
struggled with understanding his sexual identity. His final post had read simply “I’m
sorry. It’s just too much for me to handle.” And with that, the lives of Brooklyn’s parents
sunk into a spiral of despair that would also engulf Hector Camacho and Millennial
Community College.
Potential Challenges with the Use of Social Media
Assessing the positive impact of social media will require examining large
numbers of students, and can be carefully and deliberately examined over an extended
period of time. Researchers identifying the problems that can result from social media,
however, do not have this same luxury of time or the ability to assess trends over large

29
populations of students, because even one significant negative issue can have a major
impact on an institution. The problems that can result from social media need to be
identified upfront, with attention paid to individual cases that have occurred in order to
prevent similar scenarios from occurring in the future. While this may seem like a
daunting task, many of the problems that have arisen and those that are likely to arise in
the near future are issues that educators have addressed in the past. Many of the
challenges that can result from the use of social media are not entirely new; the negative
consequences have simply been transferred to a new format. For example, while the use
of social networking for cyberbullying is novel, bullying has likely been a part of the
field since higher education was first established.
Some of the current problems that have been identified as occurring from the use
of social media in higher education include the posting of inappropriate or illegal
material, cyberbullying, cyberstalking, online threats, sharing of protected information,
privacy, critical remarks about staff, faculty, or students, and distractions in class.
The most frequently encountered issue related to social media is with the material
posted on social networking profile pages. This issue involves students, faculty, or staff
posting material deemed inappropriate, which can include violations of privacy,
photographs and discussions of illegal behavior including drug use or underage drinking,
promoting dangerous and offensive behavior, and risqué behaviors (Associated Press,
2009; Chretien, et al., 2009; Espejo, 2009; Martinez-Aleman & Wartman, 2009). The
posting of these types of materials appears to be a frequent issue, as identified by
Chretien, et al. (2009). Their study asked medical school administrators to identify the
frequency of social networking incidents at their institutions. The study found that 60%

30
of schools reported at least one incident, including violations of patient confidentiality
(13%), use of profanity (52%), discriminatory language (48%), intoxication (39%), and
sexually suggestive materials (38%). In a key finding, 7% of schools reported an incident
that resulted in a student being removed from the medical school program. Removal from
a program or school is a serious consideration, which will have a major impact on a
student’s life and future career path. The importance of this decision and the factors
which play into it will be discussed later in this chapter. Another study by Chretien
(2011) found that 3% of the Twitter posts reviewed in the study were categorized as
unprofessional. This includes such challenges as patient privacy violations, profanity,
sexually explicit material, and discriminatory statements.
The posting of inappropriate material is also the issue that appears most
frequently in the media. One particularly egregious example involves the City of
Phoenix’s former chief spokesperson, David J. Ramirez, who was fired for inappropriate
postings on Facebook which included profanity, a homophobic slur, jokes about
religions, and sexual comments on the page of an intern (Wong, 2009). Rather surprising
behavior given Mr. Ramirez’s position as chief spokesman for the city, he almost single-
handedly provided a comprehensive list of behaviors to avoid when using social media.
There is certainly no shortage of cases involving the misuse of social media
reported in the traditional media. In another example, a 2009 Associated Press story
described a prank with a cadaver that a medical student posted on YouTube. There is also
the widely publicized ‘Drunken Pirate’ incident, where Millersville University refused to
issue a degree to student teacher Stacy Snyder, who posted a photo of herself titled

31
‘Drunken Pirate’ on her MySpace page. Ms. Snyder challenged the University’s decision,
which was upheld by a circuit court (Krebs, 2008).
In another example of the issue of posting inappropriate material on social media
websites, a nursing student at Johnson County Community College was removed from
the school months prior to graduation due to posting a photo of herself with human
placenta on Facebook (Campbell, 2010). The student, Doyle Byrnes, filed a temporary
restraining order and preliminary injunction attempting to force the school to reinstate her
following the incident, in which four other unidentified students were also expelled.
Demonstrating that inappropriate behavior can be exhibited by teachers as well as
students, Neuburger (2008) described an incident where Jeffrey Spanierman’s contract
was not renewed due to misbehavior on MySpace. A non-tenured teacher at a public
school in Ansonia, Connecticut, the reason for non-renewal stemmed in part from Mr.
Spanierman’s MySpace page, which contained pictures of naked men, inappropriate
comments, and personal conversations with students. A federal court upheld the school’s
decision when Mr. Spanierman challenged the decision in court.
Chiaramonte and Gonen (2010) reported that three separate educators from New
York City high schools were fired for inappropriate material posted through social media.
This includes a teacher who made sexual comments on high school students’ pages and
asked students on dates, a teacher who posted a photo of herself kissing a former student
which revealed their sexual relationship, and a teacher who sent inappropriate messages
to students through Facebook. The district that the three teachers were employed at stated
that it did not have a social media policy.

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While many of these incidents cross into illegal behavior and are clearly over the
lines of what is considered acceptable behavior, there are other incidents which have
resulted in discipline that are not so clearly inappropriate and may cross into the area of
free speech. One example is demonstrated by CNN reporter Octavia Nasr, who was fired
by the media outlet for posting a note on Twitter praising an anti-American leader of the
group Hezbollah (Bauder, 2010). Nasr apologized publicly for the tweet, but her
organization stated that her credibility was compromised by the remarks and terminated
her employment. Another example reported by Rubin (2010) involves a waitress at Brix
Wood Fired Pizza who was fired for breaking a company policy forbidding criticizing
customers. This action was based on complaints about a customer at the restaurant that
the waitress posted on Facebook. In another widely-publicized example, Philadelphia
English teacher Natalie Munroe was suspended by her school district for a blog she
wrote, in which she was often critical of students. An example post from Ms. Munroe’s
blog includes the comment that “They are rude, disengaged, lazy whiners” (Peyser,
2011).
Although these three examples which potentially violate the principle of free
speech are not in the field of higher education, it is still an issue that educational
institutions need to be aware of and consider. The issue of critical remarks about faculty,
staff, and students through the use of social media is complex, particularly in higher
education where the standard of the individual’s right to free speech has historically been
set quite high. Balancing an individual’s right to free speech while protecting the rights of
other individuals from online attacks is a challenging balance for institutions to achieve.

33
A recent court case seeking to clarify the issue involved the National Labor
Relations Board (NLRB) filing a complaint against an ambulance service, American
Medical Response of Connecticut, seeking to clarify the rights of employees to free
speech using social media (Greenhouse, 2010). The NLRB claimed that the company
illegally fired an employee for remarks critical of her supervisor on Facebook. This is the
first case where the NLRB has argued that criticism using social media is a protected
activity. This case was settled in 2011 with the company agreeing to change its policy
regarding social media to be less restrictive and not forbid criticism of the company or its
supervisors (Trottman, 2011). This is an area where the court system will be likely be
continuing to weigh in, providing clarification on an institution’s authority to restrict
inappropriate material versus the individual’s right to free speech.
Cyberbullying and cyberstalking mirror the issues of bullying and stalking that
occur offline, transferring the behavior to an online forum which can include social
networks. These negative issues include unwanted contact, tracking of behaviors, and
threatening behavior in an online setting. One example of cyberbullying in higher
education is presented by Kaczor (2010), who wrote about sorority pledges at the
University of Miami who were contacted through Facebook by individuals claiming to be
part of their sorority. The individuals made it clear they were tracking the students’
behaviors, focused on sexual conversations, and threatened the potential sorority
members while stating the behavior was part of the pledging process. The relative
anonymity provided by the Internet makes cyberbullying a significant issue for
institutions to be aware of, and an important issue to take steps to prevent. And the

34
consequences that result from cyberbullying can be severe, Lane (2011) identified at least
six suicides associated with cyberbullying.
Herring’s (1999, 2009) work on gender harassment online provides some insight
into the issue of cyberbullying. Herring performed a study in 1999 comparing
interactions on an Internet Relay Chat channel and an academic listserv discussion group
and identified a problem with male participants harassing female participants in online
forums. Herring found that asymmetrical gender and power dynamics can, and are,
transferred to the online world. In some cases, these incidents seem more aggressive and
hostile, potentially due to the anonymity provided by the Internet. Herring’s (2009) later
work had a different finding, that females posted more frequently and posted longer
messages in an online forum. This differed from previous findings using more traditional
methods of communication where men were found to talk more in public settings. The
implication is that computer mediated communication may be a key to changing
previously identified gender roles. More research will be needed to identify the role of
gender harassment in online bullying, as well as the impact of social media on gender
roles.
After several highly publicized shootings and violent incidents at high schools,
colleges, and universities over the past two decades, institutions are taking any threats of
violence seriously, often enacting severe penalties against students who post threats
online. With the ability to send information instantly to a wide audience, individuals
reacting emotionally when posting material online can face harsh consequences,
irrespective of whether they intended to follow through on the threatened behavior.
Young (2010) described an incident where a Lynn University student was arrested for

35
allegedly posting threats on Facebook. The student stated that he was going to create a
“Columbine-type incident,” referring to an infamous 1999 school shooting. The student
also reportedly posted threats directed toward his ex-girlfriend.
In another example, a Mortuary Science student was banned from the University
of Minnesota after posting threatening messages on Facebook. Her comments included
discussions of stabbing people in the throat with a mortuary tool and stating that she is
creating a death list. She was banned from the campus after instructors reported feeling
threatened and removed her from the Mortuary Science program (Ross, 2009). The issue
of threatening behavior is not isolated to students, faculty and staff have been disciplined
for these incidents as well. One example is reported by Miller (2010) where an Associate
Professor of Sociology at East Stroudsbury University of Pennsylvania was suspended
and escorted off campus after posting comments on Facebook that she wanted to kill
students. Her comments included asking where to find a hitman and stating a good day is
when she does not want to kill a student.
Privacy is another area of concern where potential consequences could arise from
the use of social media. boyd and Ellison (2007) describe the issue of privacy as
involving several components: safety, protection of information, identity theft, and
control over posted information. A study by Chretien, et al. (2009) found that 13% of
medical schools reported disciplining a student for a violation of patient confidentiality
on a social networking website. This study provides a glimpse into violations that can
occur in the area of sharing protected information and privacy violations through social
media. With extensive laws and policies designed specifically to protect student
information, this problem is one that institutions of higher education need to be aware of

36
and take steps to prevent. However, a study by Acquisti and Gross (2006) found that
Facebook users’ stated privacy concerns and actual behavior were not consistent. In a
survey of Facebook users at a U.S. university, they found that students claiming to have
concerns about privacy did not differ in their use of Facebook or in the amount or type of
information shared when compared with those who did not express privacy concerns.
This may mean that students’ stated concerns about privacy are different from their actual
expectations or could be caused by users who truly are concerned with privacy believing
that their information is more private and secure than it actually is.
Examining the issue of privacy also requires determining whether students want
to connect with institutional representatives through social media. Just because students
happen to be using Facebook to communicate with their friends does not necessarily
mean they wish to connect with their instructors, administrators, or other staff at their
institution using the website. Connell (2009) performed a survey of university freshman
regarding their perceptions of librarians using social networks for student outreach. A
majority of students were supportive, but a vocal minority was strongly opposed to
librarians contacting them through social networking, citing privacy issues. Others,
including Harris (2008), believe that students may not want to connect with faculty or
administrators through social media. A study by Hewitt and Forte (2006) seems to
provide some evidence for this point of view, as 1/3 of students surveyed did not think
that faculty should use Facebook. There certainly appears to be a population of students
who believe some of the social media tools, particularly Facebook, should remain the
exclusive domain of the students who were the initial targeted users.

37
A dissertation by Silverman (2007) found that students are accepting of limited
interaction and presence from universities on social networks, but that there is also a
strong constituency of students that believe universities should not have a presence on
social networking websites. These students believe social networking is the domain of
students and use by a university is a violation of the students’ right to privacy. Again,
despite this vocal minority, a majority of students expressed that the presence of
individual staff, faculty, and administrators from universities as users and participants in
social networking websites is acceptable and may have benefits for the students. Students
described these benefits as including increased opportunities for socialization, instant
communication, increased sense of community, and greater involvement. These students
also described an awareness of the potential negative consequences associated with social
networking, but stated that they continued to use the technology because they feel that the
rewards outweigh the risk.
Another issue related to privacy is the right of law enforcement to view or use
information obtained through social media (boyd & Ellison, 2007). This is an area which
has not been clearly defined, but will likely become more conclusive and structured as
cases involving social media to gather evidence move through the court system.
Institutions of higher education should follow developments in this area closely, and
update their policies and procedures accordingly.
Bainbridge (2005) stated that the administration has a responsibility to address
safety and privacy concerns for students when using social networking as part of their
role at the institution. Institutions can accomplish this in part by becoming part of the
community which allows them to help build and monitor the community. Students do

38
support Facebook participation and communication by institutions of higher education,
when it fulfills specific demands (Bainbridge, 2005).
Privacy for users of social media is an area certain to be the subject of debate and
legal decisions in coming years. One recent court decision involved the American Civil
Liberties Union (ACLU) suing Maryland’s Department of Public Safety and Correctional
Services over a policy asking potential employees to provide their usernames and
passwords for social media accounts as part of the interview process in order to check for
gang affiliations (Davis, 2011). After the ACLU challenged this policy, it was suspended.
Early court rulings such as this will begin to define the legal landscape that encompasses
social media, which institutions should pay attention to. It will be important to ensure that
guidelines reflect current legal decisions since the field is being defined and evolving
continuously.
Although minor compared other challenges discussed, social media creating a
distraction in class is a problem for faculty teaching courses and other students who are
impacted. A Faculty Focus (2010) survey of 1,400 faculty members found that faculty
expressed a concern that social media is a distraction in the classroom and also that it can
lead to poor writing by students. The authors note that this is a perception expressed
through the survey and that there is not currently research to support or refute this
perception. An article by Bugeja in The Chronicle of Higher Education (2006) also
describes the distractions and lack of attention that can result from the use of Facebook in
the classroom. Institutions will want to address this problem in order to allow faculty to
manage a classroom most effectively.

39
In addition, a study by Kord (2008) found that social networking has a negative
influence on academic performance, potentially caused by the amount of time students
were spending on social networking websites, 2.5 hours per day according to this study.
Kord’s study also found that there was minimal social networking interaction between
students and faculty or staff. These findings raise some interesting questions. If social
media is creating an additional distraction for students with so many factors already
competing for their time, should educational institutions be promoting the use of social
media? Or will entering this arena allow institutions to utilize some of this time currently
spent on social media, and redirect it toward educational functions?
The excessive use and demands created by the use of social media could present
an issue for students in and of itself. Rennie and Mason (2004) reported that the volume
of electronic communication can result in communication overload for students, who
become overwhelmed trying to keep up.
Clearly, many challenges resulting from the use of social media by institutions of
higher education are very real and need to be considered by institutions. However, some
of the other potential challenges associated with the use of social media in higher
education may very well prove to be unfounded. As is the case with any new technology,
there is a concern with social media that it may widen the digital divide, creating an
additional barrier to academic success separating those who are familiar with the
technology from those who are not. However, a study by Greenhow and Robelia (2009)
found this was not the case. Their study of the use of online social networks by low-
income students found that the websites were used for identity formation and informal
learning. Students were using the atmosphere of social networks, which they found

40
enjoyable and unintimidating, to hone online and computer skills and to form identity.
The students used MySpace informally to work on school assignments and tasks and to
demonstrate technological fluency, although they stated not seeing the connection to
school applications. Greenhow and Robelia stated that the students were using social
networks to learn about digital citizenship, how to follow the guidelines of online
communities. The study found that the assumption that low-income youth do not have
access to computers is not accurate, that low-income youth have greater access to
computers than is often assumed. Greenhow and Robelia stated that this incorrect
assumption is lowering expectations for these students use of technology and reducing
opportunities for these students to incorporate technology into the learning experience.
Based on this research, rather than expanding the digital divide social media may
actually be the bridge allowing low-income students to span the divide for the first time.
With college applications, work life, and daily functions moving increasingly online;
saying that low-income students do not have access or cannot use technology is simply
not an option. We must locate and provide opportunities for these students to learn and
experiment with technology and find solutions to help the limited percentage that truly do
not have access. Otherwise, we are doing these students a disservice by eliminating a
chance to learn how to be a digital citizen by using technology in an engaging manner
that they are interested in.
The potential consequences from the use of social media that are outlined here are
provided by research, anecdotal evidence, and stories from the mainstream media. This
demonstrates how widespread these issues have become and provides examples of the
negative issues that can result when institutions do not have guidelines in place for the

41
use of social media. The intention of my research was to identify a mechanism to prevent
these negative issues from impacting the institution, staff, and students.
Hector Camacho’s life had been turned completely upside down. He was
despondent over the loss of his student, an individual who had shown such promise.
Hector had reluctantly allowed Brooklyn Jacobs to change the parameters of his final
paper to an exploration of his sexuality, and was overwhelmed by what the student had
submitted. It was raw, honest, emotional, and showed incredible talent as a writer. And
now that talent was gone. Hector’s personal and professional life was in turmoil as well.
Brooklyn’s parents had sued Hector and Millennial Community College, based on the
police investigation that had turned up a series of Facebook posts where Brooklyn had
described the verbal and physical abuse forced upon him by his classmates due to his
sexual orientation. Because of the post on Hector’s page, and because Hector could see
what Brooklyn posted, the lawsuit stated that Hector had a duty to intervene which had
been neglected. Hector had only seen a limited portion of what Brooklyn had posted,
having only accessed the website twice in the last half of the semester. Nonetheless, he
had been suspended pending an investigation. Although it was not enough to provide him
solace, at least the Facebook experiment was over at Millennial Community College.
After two weeks of front page headlines in the local and national media describing the
Facebook Suicide, the ensuing public uproar led the College President to quickly ban the
use of social media in any official capacity connected to the College. Millennial
Community College’s social media experiment was over, Hector couldn’t understand
why it had ever been viewed as a good idea in the first place.

42
Role of Administration
Getzels and Guba (1957) defined the role of administration as being to guide and
oversee a social system. Schools are social systems and they are also part of broader
social systems within communities. The administration is responsible for defining roles
and setting expectations to set a direction for these social systems. As will be described in
the following section, policies and guidelines are one method that administrators use to
set these roles and expectations. Hallinger and Murphy (1986) elaborate on this definition
by describing the components that differentiate effective schools. They found that one
key to effective schools is effective leadership. The key components of effective
leadership are clear expectations in policies and practices, developing and maintaining a
mission, and creating a framework of values. Again, polices and guidelines are identified
as a key to successful fulfillment of the role of an administrator.
March (1978) elaborated on this definition, describing educational institutions as
hierarchies, with the administration at the top. Under the model proposed by March, the
administration is ultimately responsible for setting direction for the institution. Weick
(1976) provided a variation on this perspective by describing educational organizations as
loosely coupled systems. This perspective demonstrated that the hierarchy is not a tight,
rigid, clearly defined system; but rather multiple systems within the same organization
which have connections that vary in strength. This impacts the role of the administration
in an organization, altering from the role that would be required of an organization that
was a strict hierarchy. In a strict hierarchy, the administration could simply manage the
enterprise, giving orders that were passed down along each level and followed
accordingly. The perspective provided by Weick defined a different role for the

43
administration, one based more heavily on communication and setting common
objectives for the organization. As March (1978) described this role, “Making
bureaucracy work involves effectiveness in executing a large number of little things” (p.
233). Policies and procedures are tools that can aid in executing this multitude of
functions across a diverse enterprise, including the use of social media.
Guidelines
Initial research has found that a majority of institutions do not currently have any
social media guidelines in place. Chretian, et al.’s (2009) survey of medial school
administrators found that only 38% of schools had any type of guidelines for the use of
social networking. Kind, et al.’s (2010) follow-up study examined the websites of all 132
accredited medical schools in the United States and found that 95.45% of the schools had
a presence on Facebook. However, use of the accompanying policies and guidelines
occurred at a much lower rate, with researchers being able to locate social media
guidelines at only 10.16% of the institutions. A similar survey of social media use by
state governments found that 66.6% of respondents did not have a social media policy
(NASCIO, 2010).
The limited available data on social media policies or guidelines for institutions of
higher education find that the existence of guidelines is not any more prevalent than in
the medical field. Kaplan (2010) found that the use overall in higher education was even
lower than the medical school studies, with only 13% of institutions reporting having a
policy in place that covered social media. It may be difficult to precisely identify the
scope of the issue with the limited research that has been conducted thus far, but it seems

44
clear that the development of guidelines for the use of social media is lagging behind the
adoption of social media applications in institutions of higher education.
A connection can be made between the lack of social media guidelines and the
prevalence of the negative issues previously discussed. Greysen, Kind, and Chretien
(2010) identified some of the underlying causes behind the issue of inappropriate material
being posted. Their research focuses on medical practitioners, but the concepts appear to
be applicable to educational professionals as well. They stated that many of the problems
result from the challenge of applying existing principles and commitments to the online
environment. Behavior which clearly would be unacceptable offline can appear more
acceptable behind the perceived anonymity provided by the Internet.
Additionally, there is a challenge in separating personal and professional behavior
when using social media. Their research found that some medical professionals intend to
develop separate personas for their work and personal lives. However, despite their
intentions to keep these areas of their lives separate, they are always perceived as a
medical professional and are always evaluated based on this standard. It appears this
concept would apply to higher education as well, a faculty member or administrator is
likely always viewed in this role by students and must behave accordingly.
This perspective is supported by a study of the impact of teacher self-disclosure
on student motivation, affective learning, and classroom climate by Mazer, Murphy, and
Simonds (2007). The study found a positive correlation with the attributes studied, but
did find some potential negative associations by students between teachers’ use of
Facebook and their credibility. Students expressed concern over how teachers would be
viewed as professionals if they were sharing details from their personal life. The students

45
in the study identified limits to the amount of disclosure that should occur, stating that
disclosure begins to have a negative impact on how the teacher is perceived at a certain
level.
The challenges associated with the use of social media in higher education have
been comprehensively documented earlier in this section, and the lack of guidelines at the
present time has been described in this section. What remains to be defined is the role of
guidelines in an organization, a description of why and how guidelines are needed to
guard against the negative issues that can occur through the use of social media.
Campbell (1998) defined the concepts of policies and procedures, and
differentiated between the two terms. Campbell described the focus of policies and
procedures as ensuring clear communication at all levels of the organization, so members
of the organization have the right information regarding the organization’s objectives and
expectations, in order for the organization to function properly. Campbell distinguished
policies as the what and why; an explanation of why the organization needs things to be
done a certain way, and what that way of doing things is. Campbell described the
procedures as the how aspect, more detailed guidelines of how to comply with the policy.
Page (1998) provided a similar definition that elaborated on the role of policy and
procedures. Page described policy as a general direction, objectives to be followed in
order to maintain alignment with an organization’s goals. Page described procedures, on
the other hand, as a method to accomplish these goals, providing the detailed steps to
follow. Policies provide expectations, procedures provide the mechanism to fulfill these
expectations and implement the policy. Page stated that procedures can also be referred to

46
as standards, and based on the definition provided, the term guidelines refers to a similar
component with a similar function in the organization.
This research focused in small part on the need for social media guidelines, using
a similar definition for guidelines as the role of procedures described by Campbell (1998)
and Page (1998). Previous research on institutional standards for the use of social media
has used the term guidelines (Chretian, et al., 2009; Kind, et al.), which was the term used
for this research. Although the process can be complex or cumbersome most institutions
have an existing process detailing how policies are created, who is responsible for
drafting and approving policies, and how policies are reviewed and updated. Whether or
not organizations have policies regarding social media is dependent more on an
awareness of the issue, rather than a lack of knowledge of the process for establishing
policy. Hopefully, my research will assist in spreading this awareness, so organizations
will be able to draft policies for the use of social media at a greater rate than is currently
occurring. Creating policies in addition to guidelines for the use of social media may be
important, but is not the focus of this research.
The creation of guidelines is not as straightforward as the creation of policy in an
organization. The process for establishing and reviewing guidelines, as well as ownership
of this process, can vary depending on the subject matter. While policies are generally
owned by the organization as a whole, ownership of guidelines can occur at multiple
levels, based on the subject matter involved. The lack of clarity regarding responsibility
for guidelines and the process of establishing guidelines may be a contributing factor in
the lack of guidelines for the use of social media. The cloud of confusion surrounding the

47
creation of guidelines in many organizations is the reason why the establishment of
guidelines was a partial focus of this research study.

48
Chapter Three: Exploring the Issue
Restatement of the Purpose
The purpose of this study was to examine the use of social media among faculty
and administrators in institutions of higher education. Specifically, this study identified
the extent to which social media is utilized in higher education and identified challenges
associated with the use of social media in higher education. By examining the extent to
which administrators and faculty use social media and the issues that have resulted from
this use, I was able to suggest how institutions of higher education might most effectively
utilize social media while avoiding the negative consequences that can result.
This study sought to answer the following research questions:
1. To what extent, and for what purposes, is social media used by faculty and
administration in the MCC system?
2. What challenges and barriers are associated with the use of social media among
faculty and administration at MCC?
Research Design
This study utilized a qualitative research approach to collect deep, descriptive data
that can be applied to solve a problem within the institution of study. According to
Glesne (2006), qualitative research is focused on understanding and interpreting the
information requested, requiring multiple perspectives from participants. This made
qualitative research the most appropriate form of research to accomplish the goals for this
specific research study.
According to Creswell (2005), a qualitative approach uses a participatory
perspective to collect open-ended data for the purpose of developing themes from the

49
data collected. Creswell described eight characteristics of qualitative research, which
were used to guide this study. The first characteristic described by Creswell is that the
research takes place on site in a natural setting, letting the researcher become involved.
This study took place at the place of employment for the research participants, allowing
me to be involved in their day-to-day environment. Creswell’s second characteristic is the
use of multiple methods of data collection. This study used two types of instruments to
collect data, a survey and multiple focus groups. The third characteristic described by
Creswell is the use of humanistic and interactive methods, which this study included
through the use of focus groups.
Creswell’s fourth characteristic is active participation by the participants in the
research, where the participants have a role in identifying a solution to the research
problem. As I elaborate later, this was accomplished in the focus groups. The fifth
characteristic described by Creswell is that the data collection method can change as the
research evolves. I am aware of the potential need for additional methods of data
collection in order to achieve the goal established by this research, and intended to
explore potential alternatives if this became necessary during the course of the research.
Creswell’s sixth characteristic is that the researcher interprets data through their personal
perspective, which they need to state. This is described in the positionality of the
researcher section below. The seventh characteristic described by Creswell is that the
researcher should be introspective, acknowledging their biases, values, and interests. This
will clarify how my interpretation of data through my own perspective will impact the
data that is collected and is described further in the positionality of the researcher section
below.

The use of social media in higher education

The use of social media in higher education

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