Short note on developmental study for pg

Short concept on
Development study
Asegede Kebede
asegedekebedeg@gmail.com
251938195059
Oct 24,2017

Content
• Economic development:
• Characteristic of developing countries
• Theories Economic growth and development
• Human development theory :-
• Modernization theory :-
• Dependency theory :-
• Development theory:-
• Development perspective
• Social change perspective and development
• Developmental state :-
• World system theory
• Post development theory:-

Economic development:
Concept, approaches and
Measurement

Economic growth and development
• This is certainly a notion including economic
growth, which can be measured quantitatively.
• But the meaning of development is distinct
from that of growth because the former implies
not only quantitative growth, but also
qualitative change in such aspect as
organization, institution and culture.

Core values of development
The three basic components or core values that serve as a conceptual basis
for understanding the inner meaning of development include:
1. Sustenance: The Ability to Meet Basic Needs: such as food, clothing, and
shelter, that are necessary to sustain an average human being at the bare
minimum level of living.
2. Self-Esteem: To Be a Person: The feeling of worthiness that a society enjoys
when its social, political, and economic systems and institutions promote
human values such as respect, dignity, integrity, and self-determination.
3. Freedom from Servitude: To Be Able to Choose: A situation in which a
society has a variety of alternatives at its disposal from which to satisfy
its wants and individuals enjoy real choices according to their
preferences.

Modern definition of development
 The New Economic View of Development
considers development as the process of changes
that allows the basic needs to be met: Social
justice, health, welbeing, education, freedom
etc
 Moving from easily defined quantitative criteria
to less easily defined qualitative critera
 It also considers sustainabilty of the process
 Sustainability refers the use of environmental
resources in a responsible way, without damaging
the opportunity for future generations to satisfy
their own needs

Sen’s “Capabilities” Approach
• Amartya Sen argued that economic growth can not
be sensibly treated as an end in it self.
• Neither income nor utility (happiness) constitute
or adequately represent human well-being and
deprivation
• To make any sense of the concept of human well
being in general and poverty in particular, we need
to think beyond the availability of commodities
• Sen defined “development” as freedom, being
free to use, access, own, administer, sale, transfer,
redistribute etc.

Amartya Sen Capacity approach
 Human well-being requires a more direct
approach that focuses on human function and
the capability to achieve valuable function(ing).
Sen (1985; 1993)
 Functioning: The concept of “functioning“
reflects the various things a person may value
doing or being.
 Capability: A capability refers to a person’s
ability to achieve a given functioning
( doing or being ) (Saith, 2001, p.8).

Amartya Sen
• The Human Development Index captures the importance of three critical
human capabilities – achieving knowledge (education), longevity (health)
and a decent standard of living (wealth and/or improved income)Sens.
• Sen’S Capability Approach (CA) has emerged as the leading alternative to
standard economic frameworks for thinking about poverty, inequality and
human development generally.
• The capability approach contains three central concepts: Functioning,
Capability and Agency.
 A functioning is a valuable activity or state that makes up people’s
wellbeing.
 A capability is a person’s ability to do valuable acts or reach valuable
states of being.
 Agency is a person’s ability to pursue and realize goals she has reason
to value.
It contains four key principles: Equity, Efficiency, Participation/empowerment
and Sustainability

Characteristics of Developing World

Common characteristics of developing countries
1. Low levels of living (low income, inadequate housing,
low life expectancy)
Eg. GNI per capita for Low income in 2013 = $ 635, middle
income =4,690 High income = $ 38,392
2. Low levels of human capital (health, education, skills)
3. High Levels of Inequality and Absolute Poverty
Poverty head count at $ 1.25 in 2011 in SSA= 46.8%;
Europe & Central Asia =0.5%
4. Higher Population Growth Rates
–Fertility rate (birth per woman) for low income in
2013 =4.8; middle income =2.4;high income =1.7

Common characteristics of …….cont.
5. Social Fractionalization (ethnic, linguistic, and other
forms of social divisions which sometimes leads to
political instability & civil conflict )
6. Large Rural Populations and Rapid Rural-to-Urban
Migration
Rural population for Low income in 2013 =71%, middle
income =52% High income =20%
7. Low Levels of Industrialization and Manufactured
Exports

Common characteristics of developing……..
8. Adverse Geography :- A number of developing countries located in tropical zone
characterized by:
 Relatively land locked countries,
 Suffer from tropical pests & parasites
 high burden of diseases such as malaria,
 poor agricultural productivity,
 water resource constraints,
 Extreme heat & negative effect on plant respiration
 Impact on psychological mind set up and hence on working culture ???
9. Underdeveloped Financial and Other markets
 Imperfect markets (validate property right, poor infrastructure, undeveloped
financial institutions & access to credit)Incomplete information for consumers and
produces about prices, quantities, & qualities of products)
10. Colonial Legacy and External Dependence
 Institutions favored extraction of resources rather than creation of wealth
 Introduction of different ideas (private property, personal taxation and taxes in cash
rather than in kind) in the way that facilitates elite rules rather than creating broard
based opportunities

World Bank ranks countries based on GNP per capita:
1.low-income economies are defined as those
with a GNI per capita of $1,045 eg. Ethiopia with
$470 in 2013
2.Middle-income economies are those with a GNI
per capita of more than $1,045 but less than
$12,746 eg, China with $ 6750
3.High-income economies are those with a GNI
per capita of $12,746 or more. Eg The
Netherlands with $51,060

Theories of Economic Growth
and Development

Classic Theories of Economic Development: Four Approaches
1. Linear stages of growth models (Rostow model and
Harrod-Domar model): 1950s and 1960s
2. Theories and Patterns of structural change (The Lewis
two-sector model and Chenery Model): 1970s
3. International-dependence revolution (Neoclassical
dependence model, The False Paradigm model,
Dualistic development thesis): 1970s
4. Neoclassical, free market counter revolution: 1980s
& 1990s

Development as Growth and Linear-Stages Theories
• Rostow model and Harrod-Domar model
• All countries must pass through a series of successive
stages of economic growth.
• Saving, investment and foreign aid are all that are
essential
• Emphasized the role of accelerated capital accumulation
in economic development

Rostow’s development stages of Growth
1. Traditional society
 simple and traditional society
 labor intensive techniques,
 traditional social norms,
 land owner holds the power,
 high share of agriculture & low agricultural productivity
2. Precondition for take-off stage
 perquisites for “take off” are installed,
 traditional boundaries and norms collapse;
 modern form of production and innovations are accepted,
 consciousness for development and national spirit

3. Take off “phase”
 economic growth and technical innovation become a
national phenomena
 social and political structures become more
susceptible to change steady growth,
 Broad acceptance of technical progress, wide
production base
4. Drive to maturity
 The economy becomes mature and is capable of
generating self-sustained growth
 Multiple industries expand
 Diminishing return of old industries and new ones
take root quickly for manufacturing processes
 Rapid development of transportation infrastructure

5. Age of High mass consumption
 High per-capita-income above the minimum for
existence; social security systems (welfare state),
services
 Steady growth, structural changes, old industries
disappear, and new industries arise
 The industrial base dominates the economy; the
primary sector is of greatly diminished weight in
economy & society widespread and normative
consumption of high-value consumer goods
consumers typically (if not universally), have
disposable income, beyond all basic needs, for
additional goods

Conclusion from the Harrod-Domar Model
The H-D model suggests that in order to grow, economies must save and invest a certain
proportion of their GNP. The more they can save and invest, the faster they can grow
(e.g., The Marshall Plan for Europeans in the post WW II).
Open economies (free trade, foreign investment), technological progress and
liberalized, national markets are the cornerstone of economic growth; but more
emphasis to industrial sector.

Criticisms of the Stages Model
1. Saving and Investment are necessary but are not
sufficient condition for accelerated economic
growth.
2. Necessary infrastructure and other structural,
institutional and attitudinal changes are not in place
to stimulate savings and investment in LDC.
3. Resources in the LDC are generally underutilized.
Growth can occur by better use of the existing
resources without further investment. The model
does not consider such possibilities.
4. The model ignores external (international)
influences on the economy and policies of LDCs

Structural-Change Models
• Introduction about Structural Transformation in order to bring long term
fundamental changes in the economy (consists 6 elements):
1. Making changes or shifting resources from low to high
productivity activities
2. Changes in demand patterns: e.g., changes in income elasticity of
demand for food, agricultural raw materials, and other
manufactured goods
3. Changes in composition of trade (from exports of primary
agricultural goods to low wage manufacturing goods)
4. Changes in composition of production factors (changes in
capital labor ratio, and development of knowledge capital
& physical capital)
5. Changes in social institutions and attitudes
6. The Need for new structural policies (industrial policies,
technology policies, education policies and social policies)

Structural-Change : The Lewis two-sector model
 Lewis Two-sector model theory focuses on the mechanism by which
underdeveloped economies transformed from a traditional subsistence
agriculture to a more modern, more urbanized and industrialized diverse
manufacturing and service economy.
 The Lewis model is also called Dualistic model
 The model assumes that the underdeveloped economy consists of two
sectors traditional (subsistence agriculture sector) and modern
(industrial sector).
 It focuses on the labor transfer, employment and output growth

Criticisms of the Lewis Model
 Rate of labor transfer and employment creation may not be
proportional to rate of modern-sector capital accumulation
 It is not realist to assume surplus labor in rural areas and full
employment in urban
 The model assumes perfect labor market competition but
there could be interventions by different institutional factors
like union bargaining power
 The Lewis model assumes diminishing returns in modern
industrial sector

The International-Dependence Revolution (1970s)
External policies, institutional and political interest of
the North are critical to economic development of LDC.
Neo-Marxists attributed the worsening poverty in LDC to
the existence and policies of the capitalist countries
Underdevelopment is seen as externally induced
phenomenon.
This argument includes Neoclassical dependence model,
the False Paradigm model, and dualistic development
thesis

The neocolonial dependence model
 Under development is the result of dominance by
and dependence on industrialized countries,
international special interest groups (MNCs, foreign aid
agencies, WB, IMF)
 Small, elite ruling class in LDCs perpetuates the
dependence
 A large part of under developed world ’ s continuing
poverty due to the existence the small elite and
policies of industrialized countries
 Hence, revolutionary struggles or major restructuring
of world capitalist system needed to free LDC from
economic control of DCs and elite oppressors.

The dualistic-development thesis
 Superior and inferior elements can coexist; (e.g: Prebisch-Singer
Hypothesis which argued that the price of primary commodities
declines relative to the price of manufactured goods over the long
term, which causes the terms of trade of primary-product-based
economies to deteriorate)
 Views the world as composed of divergences between
rich and poor nations and of rich and poor people
Four key arguments:
1) Different sets of conditions can coexist
2) such coexistence is chronic
3) The discrepancies between superior and inferior
conditions will increase over time
4) There is no “trickle down” from the rich to poor

The Neoclassical Counterrevolution:
Market Fundamentalism (1980s)
•During the 1980s, conservative governments in the US,
Canada, UK, and West Germany, brought their political
ascendancy with a neoclassical counterrevolution in
economic theory and policy.
•In DCs, the counterrevolution favored supply-side
macroeconomic policies, rational expectations theories
and the privatization of public corporations.
•In LDCs, it called for free markets and the dismantling
of public ownership and government regulation of
economic activities.

Central argument of the neoclassical counterrevolution:
1. Underdevelopment results from poor resource allocation due
to incorrect pricing policies, corruption, inefficiency and too
much sate intervention
2. By permitting competitive free markets to flourish, privatizing
sate-owned enterprises, promoting free trade and export
expansion, welcoming foreign direct investment, etc., both
economic efficiency and economic growth will be stimulated.
3. The leading writers of the counterrevolution school (including
Lord Peter Bauer, Deepak, and Anne Krueger) argue that it is
this very state intervention in economic activity that slows the
pace of economic growth.
4. The Third World is underdeveloped because of the heavy hand
of the state and the corruption, inefficiency, and lack of
economic incentives

Central argument of the neoclassical counterrevolution:
5. Competitive free market ensures the allocation of
resources that may occur with the greatest efficiency possible
and economic growth is raised and stabilized.
6. Markets alone are efficient—product markets provide
the best signals for investments in new activities; labor
markets respond to these new industries in appropriate
ways.
Neoclassicists obtained controlling votes from the World Bank
and the International Monetary Fund (Todaro, M and
Stephen S. 2006)

The concept of liberalism
 Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of
liberty and equality
 Liberals espouse a wide array of views and support ideas and program
such as
˃ Freedom of speech,
˃ Freedom of the press,
˃ Freedom of religion,
˃ Free markets,
˃ Civil rights,
˃ Democratic societies,
˃ Secular governments,
˃ Gender equality, and
˃ International cooperation

Cont…
• The focus and measure of development was on
industrialization and increasing production which
result in the accumulation of capital.
• The need to avoid the interference of the
government in market affairs as it is coined by
the classical economists has been the focus.
• Then thoughts of neo liberalism which promotes
strong private ownership of the economy and
reducing the role of the government dominated
the world economic system.

Liberalism and Neo-liberalism:
Evolution, Assumptions, Arguments and the Critiques
The Evolution of Liberalism and Neo-liberalism
 The spirit of paleo liberalism or old liberalism rooted back to
the times of Adam Smith and David Ricardo who advocates
free market economy for the growth of nations (Willis,
2005).
 Economic liberalism which was founded by Adam Smith in his
writings of the wealth of nations is the base for the earlier
liberalist ideology (Stegmann, 2004).
 Since then, the present neo-liberalism and capitalist economic
system evolved within the liberalist ideology of promoting
private ownership of properties and free markets.
 However, the classical economists belief on free market
economy was challenged by the economic crisis of USA in
the 1930s.

The Evolution of Liberalism and Neo-liberalism
• In response to this, the Keynesian economics came to advocate the
intervention of the state …through expansion of infrastructure
investment which have greater role for employment creation (Willis,
2005).
• However, the proponents of neo-liberalism came in 1970s to blame the
intervention of the state in the economy.
• The neo-liberal theorists believe that the interference of the state drags
the growth rate of the economy below the expectation.
• The free market economy is the decisive instrument for the growth of
the economy and efficient allocation of the resources.
• Thus, the recommendation was that governments have to withdrew from
the market and left the forces of the market to determine prices and
wages (Ibid).

2.2 Key Assumptions and Arguments of Liberalism and Neo-liberalism
• The basic essence of economic liberalism concerned on four
points (Stegmann, 2004).
• The first one is the economic system flows naturally by itself
as it is predetermined by the invisible hands and no way of
intervention is necessary by the state.
• The second notion of economic liberalism is the total
abstinence of the state intervention in the economy. The only
responsibility of the state is to regulate law and order, keeping
security,...
• The third point of economic liberalism is the economic system
is driven by the self interest of individuals. The provision of
products and services by producers is for the sake of their own
advantages not for the needs of customers.
• The fourth belief of economic liberalism is the believe that
competition can steer the economic order. Every individual is
free to compete in the market through his products and services
and this brings harmony of the entire community to lead secured
life through stabilization of prices

… Key Assumptions and Arguments of Liberalism and Neo-
liberalism
The ideas of Neo liberalism were:
1) the involvement of the government should be eliminated,
leaving the economy to market forces,
2) devaluation of currencies,
3) deregulation,
4) privatization and freeing restrictions of markets since the state
led development resulted in economic failure (Kiely, 2005).
• As stated by Peet and Hartwick (2009), the principle of neo
liberalism emerges from the ideology of classical economists and
strengthens the avoidance of state intervention in the economy.
• In general, as Huang (2011) put it clearly neo-liberalism is a
theory of political economic practice that proposes human well-
being as being advanced by the freedom of individual
entrepreneurial skills and characterized by free trade, strong
property rights and free market.
• The role of the state is to preserve and create the institutional
frameworks which are necessary for the application of the free
market economy.

2.3 Liberalism and Neo-Liberalism in Africa
• The neoliberal paradigm agued that economic crisis in African economies is
the excessive state regulation of the economies that, distorts the process of
economic development and leads to inefficiency in the allocation of economic
goods (Simutanyi, 2006).
• The Western neo liberalism ideology implemented in the third world countries
through the Washington Consensus proposed by John Williamson in the 1980s,
suggests about 10 policy prescriptions, such as: promote foreign direct
investment, deregulation, tax reform, reduction in public expenditure,
competitive exchange rate, trade liberalization, financial deregulation and
privatization (Peet and Hartwick, 2009).
• Neo-liberalism argued that by removing all the bureaucratic controls over the foreign
exchange markets, African entrepreneurs would be able to import the necessary
inputs for their industries while more foreign investments would be attracted
into the continent.
• However, experience suggested it was structured in favor of the developed
capitalist countries restriction on export market. On the other hand, imports
from developed capitalist countries have had free entry into African markets (Ibid).

2.4 The Critiques of Liberalism and Neo-liberalism
• One of the major limitations of the liberal economy was manifested during the great
depression which has been occurred between 1929 and early 1939.
• As a result, what the distinguished economist Adam Smith (2005) argued for the
invisible hand to operate through the demand and supply function signaled
stoppage (Willis, 2005).
• the decline of aggregate demand (Romer, 2003; Matziorinis, 2007). … much of the
investors’ loss trust with the market and tried to sell their stock at panic selling
which subsequently led to the fall in prices (Ibid).
• At the same time, as per Professor Stegmann (2004) raised as “social question” …
treated people as a commodity to be governed by the mechanical market principles
of supply and demand.
• Thus, it is argued that letting the mechanical principle to govern the social setting
as inhumane attempt of the capitalist system; which gives an advantage for the
elites and the capitalists to exploit the proletarian life of irrationally.

…The Critiques of Liberalism and Neo-liberalism
• Polanyi (2001) argued that the economy should never be seen as autonomous;
rather should be embedded with the cultural, political and social aspects of the
whole system.
• Moreover, social development, the very essential ingredient for accelerating growth, is
undersupply by market forces which is enabled through “creating the proper blend of
norms, values and rules to reduce uncertainty and transaction costs is a critical
factor in accelerated growth and development” (Melese Zenawi, n.d:3).
• Strongly, Polanyi also stated that nothing has happed naturally, laissez-faire and free
market too. Further he argued that “Laissez-faire itself was enforced by the state”
(Polanyi, 2001:145).
• At the same time, the concept of liberalism as well as neo-liberalism also is criticized
of being so elusive in terms of the scientific stand of the argument. For instance
Boldeman (2007: 207) characterized the recent neo-classical economics as “…
lack of methodological rigor, lack of empirical testing, and normative nature of its
assumptions and the irrelevance of its conclusions for policy analysis”.

Summary of historical perspectives to MT
1. Post World War II increased the depth of poverty in some
countries
2. Ideological competition from communism was looming
3. Building an anti-communist order was, therefore, considered
very much important
4. There was a need for a theory that can provide a policy
framework to fight communism
5. Anti-colonial movements and the emergence of newly
independent countries that are ready to align themselves to
either of the ideological blocks increased the urgency of doing so
6. As a key dimension of the new order, ‘democracy’ and
advocating for its prominence was also seen as an ideal element
in the long-term
7. Hence, such perceptions of threats to capitalism, and
especially to US led to the development of modernization
theory in the 1950s & 60s, mainly by US economists and policy
makers,

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Modernization Theory
 For the ideas of development theory to make sense, it was
necessary to recognize differences between
developing and developed societies
 The US based liberal scholars, in the early post-war
period, thought it was important to frame a
comprehensive theory of development called
modernization theory’, which was loaded explicitly
with an anti-communist political agenda
 The main focus was on non-Western and decolonised
societies that were to be ‘developed’
 These theories addressed the twin problem of creating
economic growth and building effective institutions.

45
Modernization ...
Key assumptions of modernization theory
1. Modernization is a global and irreversible
process, beginning with the dual revolutions
(industrial and democratic) in Europe and to
the rest of the whole world

46
Modernization ...
2. Modernization is a historical process,
leading from traditional to modern societies,
implying a strong antithesis or binary
distinction between traditional and modern
societies;

47
Modernization ...
3. In traditional or so-called 3rd World countries,
there is a dominance of personal attitudes,
values, and role structures which can be
described as ‘ascription’, ‘particularism’,
and ‘functional diffuseness’.
-These constitute barriers for modernization

48
Modernization ...
4. In modern or Euro-Atlantic societies, there is
a predominance of secular, individualistic,
and scientific values and roles. These are
considered to be part of modernity;

49
Modernization ...
5. Modernization is a more or less endogenous
process in societies that should be regarded
as wholes;

50
Modernization ...
6. Social change towards modernity in different
societies will take place in a rather uniform
and linear way.

51
Structural-functionalism ... Pattern variables
Character. of pre-modern societies: Type "A“
1. Ascription - status is largely ascribed (that is
"given" to you by others). In basic terms, individual
status is determined by the type of family into which
you are born.

52
Character of pre-modern societies:
2. Diffuseness People develop relationships that satisfy
a large range of needs.
For example, a mother - child relationship satisfies a
range of sociological and psychological needs.
3. Particularism
 People act differently towards particular people,
based on the nature of their relationship.
 For example, you may trust your immediate family,
but not a stranger.

53
4. Affectivity
Relationships between people are largely affective
(based on love, trust, close personal involvement
and so forth), rather than instrumental (impersonal
relationships based on what people can do for us in
any given situation).
5. Collective Orientation
People put the interests of the social groups to which
they belong before their personal interests.

54
Character of modern societies:
1. Achievement
Status in society is achieved through the things one do
(one’s personal merits), rather than simply being ascribed.
2. Specificity
People enter into a wide range of relationships, each of which
satisfies a specific need.
For example, the relationship between a shop assistant and a
customer is structured to fulfill a particular need.
3. Universalism
Individuals act according to values and norms that are
"universal" in their society.
For example, the universal value that all are equal in the
eyes of the law.

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4. Instrumental
Relationships are largely based on what people can
do for us in particular situations (and what we can
do for them).
5. Self Orientation
People give primacy to the pursuit of their
own interests, rather than those of the group
or groups to which they belong.

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Criticism of MT
- External critique to modernization theory
1. Negligence of international factors and learning or
imitation effects
2. Evolutionary model of development in stages not
confirmed by reality/ Western-centric;
3. Traditional – modern distinction
problematic/simplistic;
4. Western society as endstate;
5. Variety of pathways to modernity

Core aspects of evolutionary social change
1. Key Concepts:
Evolution, Progress, Change, Social Change,
Modernity, Growth, and Development
2. Perspectives of social change and
Development as per pioneer thoughts by
different scholars

Key Concepts development perspective
• In this lesson key concepts related to sociology of development are
defined.
• Distinctions have also been made among the following Key
term/concepts.
1. Evolution:- stages of advancement of society with fixed end
2. Progress:- forward march/walk or advancement towards desirable
end
3. Change:- move upward or backward
4. Social change:- refers to significant transformation in social
behaviour ,social system and modifications
5. Modernity:-Generally modernization refers to transformation from a
traditional, rural, agrarian society to a secular, urban, industrial
society. encompass profound economic, social, political, and cultural
changes
6. Growth:- refers to increase in production and diversification of
economic activities.
7. Development:- The notion of development is often used in positive
sense indicating the process of advancement of individuals or
collective phenomena or objects or actions

2.2. Early or Classical Sociologists
Early sociological/social thoughts are represented
by many social thinkers. These include:
1. August Comte (1798-1857)
2. Morgan (1818-1917)
3. Karl Marx (1818-1883)
4. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
5. Ferdinand Toennies (1855-1936)
6. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
7. Max Weber (1864-1920)
8. L. T. Hobhouse (1864- 1929)
9. Talcott Parsons (1902- 1979)

August Comte (1798-1857)
• Comte’s law of the three stages
maintained that human intellectual
development had historically moved
from:
- theological (non-scientific) stage … to
- metaphysical (transitional) stage ….. to
- modern positive stage (rational scientific
knowledge called positivism).

2.2. Early or Classical Sociologists…… Comte
• Generally, Comte saw the progress of thought
and human society through three stages:
1. With regard to human intellectual development
(mind or knowledge), Comte saw the progress of
thought through three stages, what are called
“laws of three the stages”.
These are:
 theological,
 metaphysical, and
 positivism.

2.2. Early or Classical Sociologists…… Comte
2. With regard human society, Comte saw the
progress of society through three stages:
 primitive,
 Intermediary,
 scientific.

L.H, Morgan (1818-1881)
• Morgan posited that advances in social organization
arose primarily from changes in food production.
• Society had progressed from a hunting-and-gathering
stage (which he denoted by the term “savagery”) to
a stage of settled agriculture (“barbarism”) and then
on to an urban society possessing a more advanced
agriculture (“civilization”).
• Accordingly, Morgan identified three main epochs through
which human society progressed. These are:
I. savagery:- lower(fruits), middle(fish) and upper(animals)
II. Barbarism:-Lower(pottery),Middle( domestic animals) and Upper
(smelt iron)
III. Civilization:-

3. Karl Marx (1818-1883)
• Marx was:-
 political revolutionary (political activist),
 social theorist,
 sociologist,
 economist and
 philosopher.
• He considered himself to be a political activist.
• And yet his ideas have a strong influence on
sociology, philosophy, history, social
psychology, economics and political science.

3. Karl Marx (1818-1883)
• Marx emphasized material conditions, i.e.
economic factors as basic causal forces
determining both individual motivation and the
history of man.
• Marx used ‘mode of production’ as analytical
model to explain the materialist conception
on history.
• The two distinct categories of mode of
production are:
(1) productive forces and
(2) production relations.

Marx five modes of production:
1. Primitive mode of production (Asiatic, Ancient production
relations):
Primitive communities are characterized by:
 community (collective) ownership of means of
production.
 cooperation, mutual assistance and harmony in the social
order.
 absence of exploitation of man by man.
2. Slavery mode of production In ancient mode of production,
slavery provided the foundation of the production system. The
slavery mode of production was characterized by:
 productive relations that are embedded in private
ownership of means of production.
 Conflict between slave owners and slaves.
 Exploitation of man by man.

Marx five modes of production:
3. Feudal mode of production: In the feudal mode of production, serfdom provides the foundation
of the production system. This mode production is characterized by:
 Private ownership of means of production.
 Class struggle between serfs and the feudal landlords.
 Exploitation of serfs by feudal landlords.
4. Capitalist mode of production: It is characterized by:
 large-scale commodity production,
 emergence of free labor markets,
 rapid growth of technology,
 private ownership of production,
 exploitation of workers by capitalists,
 struggle between proletariats and bourgeoisie.
5. Socialist mode of production
• It is characterized by:
 state-ownership or communal ownership of means of production,
 the dominance of working class,
 absence of exploitation,
 equal distribution of wealth,
 cooperation and mutual assistance,
 absence of contradiction.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)
 Hence, Marx saw class struggles as the driving force
of social change and development.
 To Marx then “the history of the hitherto existing
society is a history of class struggles”.
 Finally, Marx concluded that the dichotomous class-
based societies would be replaced through a
vehement (intense) class struggle to bring in an
epoch of classless, stateless society whereby:
 each would contribute according to one’s capacity
and
 would receive according to one’s need (i.e.
communism).

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
• The aggregate of some compound societies
gives rise to very much more complex
societies: e.g.
 Simple societies, according to Spencer,
consist of families united into clans.
 Doubly complex societies consist of clans
united into tribes;
 Treble complex (compound) societies have
tribesbrought together forming nations or
states.

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
Very important to note that:
• Spencer’s model of evolution helped explain the
emergence and expansion of the Laissez-faire
doctrine of the free market in Europe and
America.
• Spencer was of the view that progress was largely
due to pressure of population.
• he presented a comprehensive theory, by
including a variety of factors in his theory of
social evolution and progress.

Ferdinand Tonnies (1855-1936)
• identified two types of society:
i. Gemeinschaft (community):
In such communities human beings are
united by their natural condition, i.e.
 by blood relation,
 by marriage or
 through a strong relationship between:
- husband and wife,
- mother and child, and
- among siblings.

5. Ferdinand Tonnies (1855-1936)
2. In the Gesellschaft:
 there is no common will, as individuals are
guided by self-interest.
 every relationship is measured in terms of its
values or worth which are measured in terms of
amount of labor used for their production.
 Thus, the relationship in Gesellschaft is a
production relation, i.e.
 contractual agreements between individuals
motivated by self-interest.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
• Like social evolutionist, Durkheim also conceived
society in terms of an evolutionary scheme.
• He talked about social solidarity by which he
meant the moral beliefs and ideas, which
defined the “commonsense” underlying social
life.
• He identified:
 two forms of social order found in primitive and
modern societies.
 two types of social solidarity (mechanical and
organic solidarity).

Max Weber (1864-1920)
 examined the question of development of human
society in the context of his study on capitalism.
 pointed out that capitalism, as a symbol of
progress, emerged out of rationalization of:
 work ethics,
 saving,
 frugal life style,
 beliefs,
 values, and
 attitudes.

Max Weber (1864-1920)
What is rationalization?
• Weber presented rationalization as the master trend
of Western capitalist society.
• Rationalization is the process whereby every area of
human relationships is subject to calculation and
administration. Calculation in
 factory discipline,
 the labor process,
 all social spheres (politics, religion, economic
organizations, university administrations,
laboratory, and even musical notations.

L. T. Hobhouse (1864- 1929)
• was strongly influenced by both Comte and
Spencer:
1. Following Comte he propounded that “the
development of the human mind was the
crucial factor in social development”,
2. From Spencer he took the viewpoint of social
evolution or development as a process of
increase in scale, complexity and internal
differentiation.

Talcott Parsons (1920- 1979)
• has used an evolutionary perspective to explain the
development of human society through several stages
• also emphasized on a historical and comparative
analysis of major types of evolutionary stages of the
social system across the globe ranging from primitive
to the modern society.
• analyzed the following types of evolutionary
societies:
1. Primitive/Archaic societies.
2. Intermediate societies.
3. Modern societies.

PERSPECTIVES OF SOCIAL CHANGE AND
DEVELOPMENT

The Concept of Social Change
Social Change:
1. is a change in social relationship.
2. is a process responsive to many types of changes:
(a) responsive to changes in man-made
conditions of living,
(b) responsive to changes in attitudes and
belief of men.
3. refers to any modification in established
patterns of relationships and standards of
conduct.

The Concept of Social Change…..continued
Social Change:
4. is used to describe variations in modification of
any aspect of social process, social patterns,
social interactions or social organizations.
5. refers to alterations that affect the organization,
structure and function of social organizations.
6. refers to succession of differences in time within
a persisting identity.
7. refers to the transformation of culture and
social institutions over time.

The Concept of Social Change ….. continued
• All of these types of definitions indicate that
social scientists underline social change in terms
of change in:
 Relationships,
 Organization,
 Culture,
 Institution,
 Functioning of the social system.
• Generally, SC is the alteration of mechanisms within the
social structure, characterized by changes in cultural symbols,
rules of behavior, social organizations, or value systems.

Characteristics of Social Change:
1. SC happens everywhere, but the rate of
change varies from place to place.
2. SC is sometimes intentional, but often
unplanned.
3. SC may generate controversy.
4. Some changes matter more than others do:
e.g. The invention of personal computers was
more important than, say patch or doll).

Causes of Social Change
SC is caused by many factors. Some of these
include:
1. Cultural change:-invention, discovery and
diffusion
2. Ideas and Change:-
3. Demographic Change,
4. Conflict and Change:-social
5. Social Movements and Change

Causes of Social Change …. Continued
In general social change is caused by so many
broad processes which include:
1. Urbanization,
2. Industrialization,
3. Modernization,
4. Westernization
5. Globalization
6. Spread of education and literacy
7. Enactment (making) of new laws,
8. Penetration of mass media and communication,
9. Network, etc.

Perspectives of Social Change and
Development
1. Evolutionary Perspective
2. Structural-functional Perspective
3. The Conflict perspective
4. The Socio-Psychological Perspective

Evolutionary Perspective
• the concept of evolution assumed a central place in the explanations of all forms of
human development in both the social sciences and biological science.
1. Morgan distinguished three stages of humanity.
2. August Comte argued that the idea of intellect passing through three historical
phases of sophistication:
 theological,
 metaphysical and
 positivism
3. Spencer argued that human societies passing through a course of natural
development:
 from simple pattern of organization to more complex structure – specialization.
According to the evolutionary perspective,
1. Social change was thought to involve basic stages of development.
2. Thus, society progressed from:
 simple/rural/agrarian forms …..
to
 complex, differentiated/industrial-urban

Structural-functional Perspective
• According to this perspective:
 society consists of integrated parts that work
together for the purpose of maintaining internal
balance.
• The importance of parts of a social system is seen in
terms of their contribution to the survival and maintenance
of the whole system.
• According to structural-functional perspective, social
change is seen as:
 as the adaptation of a social system to its
environment by:
(i) the process of differentiation and,
(ii) by increasing structural complexity.

Conflict perspective
• The conflict perspective:
 tries to explain change in term of tension and
conflict between groups and individuals.
 views change as intrinsic/basic process in
society.
1. According to Marx:
 social changes take place based on
antagonistic class relations based on ownership
of the means of production, between the haves
and the have-nots.

The Conflict perspective … continued
• In general, the conflict perspective:
 emphasizes the importance of class conflict
and political struggle as the principle
mechanisms of fundamental structural
change .
(this view is mainly from the Theories of
Revolution).
considers conflicts between groups and
individuals as the deriving forces for social
change.

The Socio-Psychological Perspective
Activities of people constitute the essence of change in society.
 modifications in behavior can facilitate change and play an
essential role in social develop’t.
E.g.
1. Weber believed that:
 “modernity was replacing traditional views with a
rational way of thinking”.
2. Hagen believed that:
 Traditional societies are characterized by fixed status.
 The personalities are authoritarian/ rigid, uncreative, and non-
innovational.
3. David McClelland focused on:“need for development” symbolized by
“n” achievement.
 To McClelland:
“the greater the development of the “n” factor, the greater the
economic development in any society.

The Socio-Psychological Perspective… continued
• The Socio-Psychological Perspectives or theories:
 Consider these very factors as main determinants
of underdevelopment and development.
 Thus, these theories add a new component to
the discussion on social change and development
 Because, they reduce causes to aspects of one
discipline, like “economic theories), and thus
they are partial explanations as well.

World systems theory – summary
 A multidisciplinary, macro-scale approach to world history and social
change, emphasizes the world-system (not nation states) as the
primary (but not exclusive) unit of social analysis,
 "World-system" refers to the inter-regional and transnational division
of labor, which divides the world into core countries, semi-periphery
countries, & the periphery countries.
 Core countries focus on higher skill, capital-intensive production, and
the rest of the world focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive production
and extraction of raw materials.
 This constantly reinforces the dominance of the core countries
 The world system, however, has dynamic characteristics, in part, as a
result of revolutions in transport technology, and individual states can
gain or lose their core (semi-periphery, periphery) status over time.
 So far, some countries become the world hegemon; during the last few
centuries, as the world-system has extended geographically and
intensified economically,
 This status has passed from the Netherlands, to the United Kingdom
and (most recently) to the United States of America.

Post-development theory
• Holds that the whole concept and practice of
development is a reflection of Western-Northern
hegemony over the rest of the world.
• Western interests are guiding its direction and
outcome, and so development itself fundamentally
reflects the pattern of Western hegemony.
• Leading members of the post-development school
argue that development was always unjust, never
worked, and at this point has clearly failed.

Post-development theory…..
• The post-development school of thought points out that the
models of development are often ethnocentric (Eurocentric),
universalist, and based on western models of
industrialization that are unsustainable in this world of
limited resources and ineffective for their ignorance of the
local, cultural and historical contexts of the peoples to which
they are applied.

The idea of post-development:
Discontents in the Third World upon development led post-
development theorists to suggest some ideas like:
1) The possibility of creating different discourses and
representations that are not so mediated by the construct
(ideologies, metaphors, language, premises, etc.) of
development.
2) The need to change the practices of knowing and doing
and the ‘political economy of truth’ that defines the
development regime.
3) The need to multiply the centers and agents of knowledge
production – in particular, there is a need to emphasis to
the forms of knowledge produced by those who are
supposed to be the ‘objects’ of development so that they
can become subjects of their own right.

Responses to the post-development
There were three main objections to post-development:
1. With their focus on discourse, the post-development proponents
overlooked poverty and capitalism, which are the real problems of
development
2. They presented an over-generalized and essentialized view of
development, while in reality there are vast differences among
development strategies and institutions;
 Post-development advocates considered development as
homogeneous while it is diverse, i.e., development is heterogeneous,
contested, impure, hybrid
 In response, the post-development theorists acknowledged the
importance and validity of this criticism
3. They romanticized local traditions and social movements, ignoring
that the local is also embedded in power relations

Main elements of post-structuralist critiques
1. As a historical discourse, ‘development’ emerged in the early post-Second World
War period, even if its roots lie in deeper historical processes of modernity and
capitalism.
2. The development discourse made possible the creation of institutional
apparatus through which the discourse was deployed, that is, through
which it became a real and effective social force, transforming the
economic, social, cultural and political reality of the societies in
question.
3. The discourse of development can be said to have operated through two
principal mechanisms: (a) the professionalization of development
problems, which included the emergence of expert knowledge and fields
to deal with every aspect of ‘under-development’ and (b) the
institutionalization of development, the vast network of organizations
already mentioned above.
4. Finally, the post-structuralists’ analysis pointed at the forms of exclusion that went
along with the development project, particularly the exclusion of the
knowledge's, voices and concerns of those whom, paradoxically, development was
supposed to serve: the poor of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

Post-Development theory
 Post-development theory became known through the works of scholars like A. Escobar,
G. Esteva, M. Rahnema, W. Sachs, J. Ferguson, S. Latouche, G. Rist and F. Sabelli.
 Leading members of the post-development school argue that development was always
unjust, never worked, and at this point has clearly failed.
 According to Wolfgang Sachs, a leading member of the post-development school, "the
idea of development stands like a ruin in the intellectual landscape" and "it is time to
dismantle this mental structure”
 To explain this "mental structure", development theorists argued the concept of
development has resulted in the hierarchy of developed and underdeveloped nations,
where the developed nations are seen as more advanced and superior to the
underdeveloped nations that are conceived as inferior, in need of help from the
developed nations, and desiring to be like the developed nations.
 The post-development school of thought points out that the models of development are
often ethnocentric (Eurocentric), universalist, and based on western models of
industrialization that are unsustainable in this world of limited resources and
ineffective for their ignorance of the local, cultural and historical contexts of the
peoples to which they are applied.
 In essence, the problem post-development theorists see in development and its practice
is an imbalance of influence or domination by the west.
 Post- development theorists promote more pluralism in ideas about development.

Developmental state: Origins of the concept
• It contends that the rapid growth of these economies was triggered by
market led outward-oriented development strategies that ensured
optimal allocation of resources
• The Bank also acknowledged the role of government policies in the
areas of skills acquisition, technological progress, and financial
and labor markets.
• Trade liberalization - removal or reduction of restrictions or barriers
on the free exchange of goods between nations.
• The performance of these countries is underscored by strategic
development and industrial policies that derive from a symbiotic
relationship between the political/ bureaucratic elite and
entrepreneurs.
• Laissez-faire state is an economic system in which transactions in the
economy is left free from government interference such as
regulations, privileges, tariffs, and subsidies.

• Fundamentally, while the ‘developmental
state’ idea emphasizes the effectiveness of
the state, the ‘good governance’ concept
emphasizes the need to control the state.

Developmental state
Core aspect Emphasize on state capacity and ‘embedded autonomy’.
Political regime No particular type of political regime, though many examples of
‘successful’ developmental states are authoritarian.
State legitimacy Derived from state achievements and performance.
Political will Concern for national goals; commitment of core leadership is
essential.
Role of the state State should (actively) foster economic development but , should
try to avoid capture by particular groups.
Model of social
representation
Exclusionary, based primarily on close relations between the state
and selected business groups. Labor is controlled.

Basic Need approach to Dev’t
The paradigm shifts in the process of
development has been recognized and studied
mainly because of the failure of planned
economic development to improve the living
conditions of the poor.
The process of simultaneous growth of income
and growth of poverty has left economists
with no option but to think of another
alternative strategy.

BNA
 The most immediate solution has emerged as the state takes a lead
role in the form of intervention in alleviating poverty and sustaining
development
 The strategies of development may be divided in to two approaches :
- Growth-oriented,
- Basic needs oriented ,
• The fundamental difference is such that the
former approach is based on income while the
latter on supply of basic needs/services.
• The growth strategies emphasize growth,
employment and poverty alleviation, while basic
needs approach followed them as the latest
addition to those schools of developmental
thinking.

Growth oriented to dev’t
 The growth-oriented approach emphasized
the capital intensive modern sector
demanding for a relatively high level skill
from the average worker.
 It resulted in inadequate employment
opportunities and a widening gap between
the urban and rural areas

BNA to dev’t
 The earlier development strategies put major emphasis
on GNP or GNP per capita and their growth rates as
the principal performance test of development.
 It was assumed that economic growth would
automatically tend to 'trickle down' to the poor so
that they may attain better standards of living,
without any direct intervention from the state.
 The basic needs approach to development begins
with the objective of providing opportunities for the
full physical, mental and social development of the
human personality, and then derives the ways for
achieving this goal.

BNA argument
Some proponents of basic needs argue that the direct provision of
essential goods and services will be a more efficient and more rapid way
of eliminating poverty. While supporting efforts to raise productivity and
income, it emphasizes that these alone may not be sufficient or efficient
since: (
1) consumers are not sufficiently knowledgeable about health and
nutrition, and will therefore not spend incremental incomes wisely or
efficiently;
(2) there is known to be a serious maldistribution of incomes within
households which can be overcome only through a more direct
provision of goods and services;
(3) some basic needs can only be met efficiently through public services,
such as water supplies and sanitation; and
(4) it is difficult to find policies, investment, etc. that will increase the
productivity of all of the poor in a uniform way; very often the benefits
of these innovations reach only a few.

Dependency theory
 Their studies suggested that economic
activities in the richer countries often led to
serious economic problems in the poorer
countries.
 Prebisch's initial explanation stated that
LDCs exported primary commodities to DCs,
who then manufactured products out of those
commodities and sold them back to the poorer
countries.

Reason DT
• Main Thesis: underdevelopment is not the
result of of the persistence of “traditional”
societies and thier cultural valúes. Instead, it is
generated by the particular expansion of
capitalism in the global South… a response to
the assumption of modernización theory
The periphery is underdeveloped because of the
development of the center.

Import substitute
• His suggestion was also simple in a sense that poorer countries
should begin programs of ‘import substitution’ (IS) so that they
need not purchase the manufactured products from the DCs.
• Three issues made IS difficult to follow as policy .
1. The first is that the internal markets of LDCs were not large
enough to support the economies of scale used by the richer
countries to keep their prices low.
2. The second issue deals with the political will of the poorer
countries as to whether a transformation from being primary
products producers was possible.
3. The final and third issues revolved around the extent to which the
poorer countries actually had control of their primary products,
particularly in the area of selling those products abroad.

DeT three common features
There are three common features in these definitions
a) Dependency considers the international system comprised of two sets of states,
mostly described as dominant/dependent, or center/periphery or
metropolitan/satellite
1. The dominant states are the advanced industrial nations in the
Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
2. The dependent states are those states of Latin America, Asia, and
Africa which have low per capita GNPs and which rely heavily on the
export of agricultural commodities to generate foreign exchange
earnings.
b) Both definitions have in common the assumption that external forces (multinational
corporations, international commodity markets, foreign assistance, communications) are
of particular importance to the economic activities within the dependent states. External
forces are the means by which DCs can represent their economic interests abroad.
c) The definitions of dependency also indicate that the relations between dominant and
dependent states are dynamic because the interactions between them tend to not only
reinforce but also intensify the unequal patterns.

The Structural Context
• The Structural Context of Dependency: Capitalism or Power?
 Most dependency theorists regard international capitalism as the
driving force behind dependent relationships between countries,
 Hence, the capitalist system has enforced a rigid international
division of labor which is responsible for the underdevelopment of
many areas of the world.
 The dependent states supply cheap minerals, agricultural
commodities, and cheap labor, and also serve as the repositories of
surplus capital, obsolescent technologies, and manufactured goods.
 These functions orient the economies of the dependent states
toward the outside:

Human Development (HD)
1. HD is a process of enlarging choices for people:
- to lead a long and healthy life,
- to be educated and enjoy a decent standard of living,
- it also deals with other choices that include political freedom and human rights and self-respect
2. It also focuses on choices on what people should have, be and do to be able to ensure their own
livelihood
3. It refers to both the process of widening people’s choices and the level of their achieved wellbeing
4. The concept of HD deals with identifying its two sides: on one side, there is the formation of
human capabilities
such as improved health or knowledge and on the other side is the use that people can get their
acquired
capabilities for work or leisure
 HD brings together the production and distribution of commodities and the expansion and use
of human capabilities
5. More over, HD is concerned not only with basic needs satisfaction, but also with human
development as a
participatory and dynamic process
6. Human Development is understood as:
 the expansion of people’s freedoms to live long, healthy and creative lives;
 to advance other goals they have reason to value; and
 to engage actively in shaping development equitably and sustainably on a shared planet.
 People are both the beneficiaries and the drivers of human development, as individuals and in
groups.

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