Gold mineralization at the Kyaukpahto Mine Area, Northern Myanmar

RESOURCE GEOLOGY, vol. 54, no. 2, 197–204, 2004
197
Gold Mineralization at the Kyaukpahto Mine Area,
Northern Myanmar
YE MYINT SWE, Insung LEE*, THAN HTAY** and MIN AUNG*
Universities’ Research Centre, University of Yangon, Myanmar
* School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742 Korea
[e-mail (IL): insung@snu.ac.kr]
** Department of Geology, University of Yangon, Myanmar
Received on May 12, 2003; accepted on February 13, 2004
Abstract: Gold mineralization at Kyaukpahto occurs as a stockworks/dissemination style with localized breccia zones in
silicified sandstones of the Male Formation (Eocene). The mineralization appears to be closely associated with NNE-SSW
trending extensional faults probably related directly to the dextral movement of the Sagaing Fault system. Intense silicifica-
tion associated with sericitization, argillic alteration and decalcification is recognized in the Kyaukpahto gold deposit. The
important ore minerals associated with the gold mineralization are pyrite, arsenopyrite and chalcopyrite with minor amounts
of other sulfides. Gold occurs as free particles or locked with pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite. Silver, cop-
per, arsenic and antimony particularly appear to be good pathfinders and the best geochemical indicators of gold mineraliza-
tion at Kyaukpahto. Electron microprobe analysis indicates that the fineness for the native gold ranges from 844 to 866.
Present geological, mineralogical and geochemical investigations demonstrate that the Kyaukpahto gold deposit has been
formed as a result of hydrothermal processes in a shallow level epithermal environment.
Keywords: Kyaukpahto gold mine, Sagaing fault zone, extensional fault, stockwork/disseminated style, breccia zone,
epithermal environment
1. Introduction
The Kyaukpahto gold mine, the first open-pit gold
mine in Myanmar, is located in the Kawlin Township,
northern Myanmar. Calculations of ore reserves and
exploration works at Kyaukpahto began in 1982. By the
1990s, 318 holes had been drilled and at that time the
reserves were estimated at approximately 6 million tons
at an average grade of 3.0 g/t Au with a cut-off grade of
1.0 g/t (Saw Maung et al., 1991).
This study attempts to confine the geological, miner-
alogical and geochemical conditions of hydrothermal
system associated with the gold deposition. Some of the
conclusions obtained from this study may be applicable
to other similar epithermal type deposits throughout the
country.
2. Regional Geologic Setting of the Kyaukpahto Gold
Deposit
The geology and rock sequence of the Kyaukpahto
and surrounding areas are shown in Figures 1 and 2.
The region is mainly composed of Mesozoic and
Tertiary sediments, ultrabasic igneous rocks and upper
Paleozoic limestones. Metamorphic rocks are present in
minor abundance to the east.
The clastic sedimentary rocks of the Male Formation
ranging in age from lower to middle Eocene, were
deposited generally under a lacustrine-paludal to fluvial
environment (Myint Thein et al., 1987). These rock
sequences host the gold mineralization at Kyaukpahto.
Just east of the Kyaukpahto mine, the Tonkyauk Chaung
conglomerate rests on the Ngapyawdaw Chaung
Formation with an angular unconformity, and changes
gradually into overlying Male Formation. The Ubye ser-
pentinite occurs as the N-S trending linear lithologic unit
along the axial part of the Minwun range in the west of
the Sagaing fault, and was probably thrusted westwards
upon the Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation (United
Nations, 1978a). It was faulted against the Male Forma-
tion in the east. A narrow belt of the Pre-Mesozoic meta-
morphic rocks of the Mogok Series occurs in the eastern
part the area paralleling the Sagaing fault. In the mapped
area the Triassic Kywethe Chaung Limestone occurs as a
sausage-shaped faulted slices together with the Mogok
metamorphics along the western segment of the Sagaing
fault, at the same latitudes of the Kyaukpahto mine.
The area about 30 km west of the Kyaukpahto mine is
represented by a N-S trending central plutono-volcanic
arc, locally known as Wuntho massif. The massif is up to
40 km wide from east to west and is about 190 km long in
the north-northeast direction. There the mid-Cretaceous
and younger granodioritic batholiths and some plutons
intrude the thick folded sequence of basaltic andesite
and basaltic pillow lavas (Mitchell, 1993). The larger

YE MYINT SWE, I. S. LEE, THAN HTAY and MIN AUNG198 RESOURCE GEOLOGY :
intrusions in the Banmauk area have yielded K-Ar ages
of 93.7±3.4 and 97.8±3.6 Ma (United Nations, 1978b).
3. Structure
The Kyaukpahto region is situated within the Sagaing
fault zone. The Sagaing fault (Win Swe, 1972) is an out-
standing active, deep-seated, arc parallel, transcurrent
fault extending in a N-S direction along the eastern mar-
gin of the central lowland, which stretches over 1000 km
across the country (Curray et al., 1979; Win Swe, 1981;
Le Dain et al., 1984; Hla Maung, 1987; Myint Thein et
al., 1991). The major lineament of the Sagaing fault lies
about 5 km east of the Kyaukpahto mine and continues
northwards along the Meza river valley. The fault is pre-
sumably interpreted as a westward en echelon offsetting
wrench system associated with transtensional and trans-
pressional zones (Khin Maung Latt, 1991).
Gold mineralization is mainly confined to NNE-SSW
trending extensional faults probably related directly to the
dextral movement of the Sagaing Fault system (Wilson,
1987). This fracture zone has developed antithetic to the
major lineament (master fault) and it seems to have been
responsible for the gold mineralization.
4. Geology of the Kyaukpahto Mine
At Kyaukpahto area, the Male Formation consists
mainly of sandstones, siltstones, mudstones and shales.
The sandstones are medium to coarse grained, massive to
interbedded with minor shales with a consistent and
repeated nature. Carbonized plant remains including leaf
N
40 km
Alluvium (Quaternary)
Irrawaddy Fm (Plio-Pleistocene)
Male Fm (Eocene)
Peridotite (Upper Cretaceous-Eocene?)
Granodiorite (Upper Cretaceous)
Namakauk Limestone (Lower Cretaceous)
Mawgyi Andesite (Lower Cretaceous)
Ngapyawdaw Chaung Fm (Middle Triassic)
Katha Metamorphics (Triassic?)
Mogok Metamorphics (Pre-Mesozoic)
Fault with sense of movement indicated
EXPLANATION
Fig. 1 Regional geological map of the Kyaukpahto area,
Myanmar.

impressions are present in some parts of the altered Male
Formation. A few mollusca fossils (mainly gastropods) are
also observed within the mineralized zone at Kyaukpahto.
Original host rock textures and compositions are
almost completely obliterated by intense hydrothermal
alteration (mainly silicification) along the eastern flank
of the hill, which hosts the mineralization (Fig. 3).
Surface observations indicate that the post-mineraliza-
tion fracturing (NW-SE trending cross-fault) took place
within the mineralized zone. The southern part of the
ore body has slipped down with a displacement of
approximately 60 meters on a cross fault.
vol. 54, no. 2, 2004 Kyaukpahto Gold Deposit, Northern Myanmar 199
Alluvium (Holocene)
Male Formation (Eocene)
Tonkyauk Chaung Conglomerate
(Paleocene)
Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation
(Middle Triassic)
Kywethe Chaung Limestone
(Lower Triassic)
Upper Paleozoic Limstone
Mogok Metamorphics
(Pre-Mesozoic)
Serpentinite 0 1 km
Fig. 2 Local geological setting of the Kyaukpahto mine area (modified from Ye Myint Swe, 1991).
Oxidized zone
Silicified outcrops
Silicified zone
Advanced argillic zone
Mineralized stockwork zone
Male Formation
Alteration Boundary
Dip and Strike
Faults
Underground Mine (plan view)
0 200 400 meters
0 300 900 1500 feet
900
300
900
300
Oxidized zone
A B
Fig. 3 Detailed geological map of the mine area (modified from Ye Myint Swe, 1991).

5. Alteration and Mineralization
The area of silicification is more extensive than any
other alteration halos and appears to be significantly
essential for the gold mineralization at Kyaukpahto.
However gold values do not correlate directly with the
degree of silicification. Silica occurs as a cryptocrys-
ccccppppyyyy
A B
DC
E F
Au
Au
py
Apy
Fig. 4 (A) BEI showing pyrite (py) replaced by gold (Au) and chalcopyrite (cpy). Apy: arsenopyrite; (B) X-ray scanning map
for Au. (C) X-ray scanning map for Ag. (D) X-ray scanning map for Cu. (E) X-ray scanning map for As (All plates from A
to E are in the same view). (F) Minute inclusions of gold particles in pyrite grain (refractory gold). Bar scale = 100 µm.

talline cement in the sandstone, as well as open-
space fillings in vugs and veinlets. Vuggy quartz
veinlets showing crustiform texture are not uncom-
mon in this mining area.
Generally, there are two phases of silicification.
The younger phase is marked by gray quartz vein-
lets, cutting across the older phase of white quartz.
From the chemical analysis, it is found that white
quartz contains very low relative values of gold,
whereas the gray quartz carries visible gold. There-
fore the second phase silicification is directly related
to the gold mineralization. Sericite alteration is also
associated with high-grade gold mineralization. It general-
ly occurs as quartz-sericite veinlets in the silicified sand-
stones. Later stage hypogene argillic alteration took place
within the mineralized zone of Kyaukpahto mine with
kaolinization also occurring as small accumulations in
cavities.
Nearly all of the original calcite cement has been
removed and silica occurs as common cement within
the sandstone. Late carbonate veinlets are also observed
as veinlets and vug filling.
Gold mineralization is mainly confined to the silicified
sandstone, although auriferous quartz veinlets are rarely
present in the highly indurated siltstone and mudstone
members of the Male Formation. Gold-bearing quartz
veinlets form a stockwork nature, whereas disseminated
mineralization is found throughout the silicified sand-
stone. Gold is more commonly found in localized breccia
zones, as a sporadically high-grade ore (occasionally
>1000 g/t), located generally in the silicified massive
sandstone units. Gold also occurs as free grains together
with some siderite in the weathered, reddish brown, oxi-
dized zone in the surface exposures of the ore body.
6. Mineralogy of the Ores
The important ore minerals in the Kyaukpahto gold
deposit mainly consist of pyrite, arsenopyrite and chal-
copyrite with minor amounts of other sulfides and gold.
Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide mineral in the ore
body. It occurs as fine-grained, massive aggregates, and
anhedral to subhedral crystals along the outer margin of
the quartz veinlets. A few grains of pyrite are replaced
by chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite and gold along their grain
boundaries and cracks (Fig. 4). In some silicified speci-
mens pyrite was observed as framboids, occurring as
clusters in the host rock and not found in the corre-
sponding quartz veinlets.
Arsenopyrite commonly occurs as euhedral to subhe-
dral grains. Chalcopyrite is by far the most abundant
copper sulfide, with minor tetrahedrite and chalcocite in
association. It forms euhedral to irregular masses, and
often replaces pyrite and arsenopyrite. Other sulfide
minerals are present in very minor amounts, such as
marcasite, sphalerite and cinnabar.
Mineralogically, gold occurs as free grains or locked
within pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite.
The grain shape is mostly irregular and more or less serrat-
ed. Some minute gold grains are encapsulated in pyrite and
arsenopyrite, which renders the gold ore refractory. The
individual gold grains range from <5 µm to 75 µm across.
Electron microprobe analyses of fourteen separated
native gold grains indicate that the gold content ranges
from 72.9 to 87.8 wt% (Table 1) and fineness (1000×Au /
[Au+Ag] wt%) values range from 844 to 866 (Fig. 5).
Element grain grain grain grain grain grain grain grain
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Se 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Fe 1.62 0.03 0.06 0.10 0.81 0.00 0.29 0.14
Cu 0.04 0.03 0.12 0.06 0.12 0.50 0.01 0.00
Pt 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.01
Hg 0.16 0.00 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.17 0.00
Ag 14.93 15.20 14.83 15.20 15.43 14.17 14.99 14.05
Sb 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.08 0.02 0.03
Te 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.00
Au 83.93 82.70 85.19 84.46 86.88 82.66 85.22 83.99
Bi 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Pd 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 100.68 97.98 100.28 99.95 103.26 97.49 100.72 98.21
grain grain grain grain grain grain grain
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.31 0.22 0.86 0.06 0.61 0.08 0.45
0.00 0.01 0.08 0.00 0.85 0.02 0.06
0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00
0.28 0.08 4.23 0.15 0.00 0.06 0.07
15.26 14.52 14.55 14.12 12.20 14.03 15.04
0.10 0.03 0.00 0.05 0.06 0.00 0.02
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01
87.77 84.6 72.91 79.86 79.12 81.3 84.07
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
103.73 99.47 92.64 94.26 95.85 95.95 99.72
Table 1 Electron microprobe analysis of gold grains from the Kyaukpahto deposit (in wt%).
0
2
4
6
8
846
850
854
858
862
866
gold fineness
(A)
frequency
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1
10
25
75
175
250
size (µm)
(B)
frequency
Fig. 5 (A) Histogram showing gold fineness as determined from
electron microprobe analysis. (B) Grain size distribution of
gold from the Kyaukpahto deposit.

These gold grains also contain 12.2 to 15.4 Ag wt%.
Consistently observed textural relationships, during
both in field and microscopic investigations, such as over-
growth, replacement and cross cutting features, have been
used to compile the generalized paragenetic sequence for
gold mineralization in the Kyaukpahto area (Fig. 6).
7. Geochemistry
Rock samples from the mine site and the adjacent unal-
tered Male sandstones were analyzed in order to deter-
mine the geochemical characteristics of the gold mineral-
ization and concentration level of anomalous elements at
the Kyaukpahto mine site. The relationship between min-
eralized samples and fresh samples is illustrated in Figure
7. The results indicate that the mineralized zone at
Kyaukpahto is characterized by anomalous concentrations
of gold, silver, copper, antimony and arsenic, relative to
the unaltered rocks.
The relationship of the content of gold to those of other
elements such as silver, arsenic, copper, antimony and
mercury is shown in scattergrams (Fig. 8). The mercury
content in the deposit ranges from less than 0.1 to 9.7
ppm, and does not correlate positively with gold values. It
is probable that the original mercury content in the deposit
has been lost due to the later chemical weathering. The
relationship of gold to arsenic, antimony and lead is not
very distinct in their concentration, although gold vs.
arsenic plotting shows faint trend with positive slope (Fig.
8). The concentration of gold and copper shows very
close relationship in the ore. Gold and silver also show
some sympathetic relationship in their concentration.
Zinc, nickel, chromium, and molybdenum are also ana-
lyzed, but do not exceed the average normal contents
compared to their crustal abundance, or to their average
values in the unaltered Male sandstones.
8. Discussion
8.1. Genesis of ore deposit
Crustal weaknesses of the area may be directly related
to the dextral movement of the Sagaing fault system. In
the Kyaukpahto area, significant development of NNE-
SSW trending fracture zone is a major controlling factor
on the location of gold mineralization. The tensional frac-
tures are highly permeable and would provide conduits
for hydrothermal fluid transportation along the channel
way of weak zones (Wilson, 1987; Sibson, 1989). Ore and
gangue minerals were precipitated from these fluids.
During the early stage of mineralization host rocks were
pervasively silicified and pyritized. In the late stage the
hydrothermal solution activity increased dramatically,
causing the formation of quartz veinlet networks and
local brecciation by hydraulic fracturing in which the
gold and the last trace of sulfides were deposited.
The available energy in a shallow environment under a
small lithostatic load is more likely to create hydraulic
fracturing through to the surface (Nelson and Giles,
1985). It is probable that the fluid energy has been dissi-
pated within the stockwork fracturing, but a portion of
high-pressured fluid may flash and drive towards the sur-
Alteration/Mineral Sequence
Silicification
Sericitization
Argillization
Quartz
Pyrite
Arsenopyrite
Chalcopyrite
Marcasite
Electrum
Fig. 6 Generalized paragenetic sequence of ore and gangue
minerals at Kyaukpahto.
Au
1
100
10000
1000000
100000000
1 4 7 10
1
1 4 7 10
Specimen No. Specimen No.
Specimen No.
Specimen No.
Specimen No.
Specimen No.
ppbppm
Ag
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
1 7 10
ppb
Sb
0
0
5
10
10
15
20
20
25
30
30
ppmppm
Cu
0.1
1
10
100
1000
ppm
4
1 7 104
1 7 1041 7 104
10000
100
Pb
As
Fig. 7 Diagrams of the element concentrations, in order
to compare background (open square) and anomalous
(solid square) contents in unaltered host rocks and
mineralized zone, respectively. Six samples (Nos. 1–6)
from the unaltered Male sandstone and ten samples
(Nos. 1–10) from mineralized zone, were analyzed.

face along the cracks, resulting in local hydrothermal
brecciation by hydraulic fracturing. The permeability of
the Male sandstones may also favor the dissemination of
gold in their highly silicified portion.
8.2. Origin of ore fluid
The origin of mineralizing fluid for the Kyaukpahto
gold deposit is not very well understood. The source of
gold is also not known. There is no occurrence of
igneous rocks in the vicinity and in direct relationship to
the gold mineralization. Wilson (1987) proposed that
the Kyaukpahto gold deposit has been formed by a seis-
mic pumping mechanism, where individual earthquakes
are capable of moving huge volumes of aqueous fluid,
dissolving metals from source rocks and transporting
them towards the low-pressure areas along the dilated
zone in the active wrench fault system. Some previous
works (e.g., Ye Myint Swe, 1991) also suggest that the
gold syngenetically formed within the Male sediments
and Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation, could have been
remobilized and concentrated in structurally favorable
areas to form the ore deposit at Kyaukpahto. But if this
supposition is to be accepted, it is necessary to know the
background level of gold contents in the Male sediments
and Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation when compared
with other similar rock types. There are insufficient sys-
tematic geochemical studies for these stratigraphic units
available at present. If the remobilization origin is consid-
ered, a proto-ore basement (subvol-
canic intrusions or a deeper pluton), if
present, is the most probable source
that may provide the gold concentra-
tion rather than Male sediments and
Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation.
However, more geochemical and iso-
topic data are needed prior to develop-
ing any conclusive model in the study
area.
9. Conclusions
The following conclusions can be
drawn from this investigation:
(1) The gold mineralization at
Kyaukpahto appears to be controlled
by NNE–SSW trending tensional
zone, probably related directly to the
dextral movement of Sagaing Fault
system. Within this fracture zone,
gold mineralization is largely con-
fined to the silicified sandstones,
forming stockwork/disseminated
style and localized breccia zones
with drusy, vuggy and crustification
textures.
(2) Silicification is more extensive than any other
alteration. However, the amount of gold does not seem
to be directly correlated with the degree of silicification.
The permeability of Male sandstones may also have
favored the circulation of ore fluid.
(3) Silver, copper, arsenic and antimony particularly
appear to be good pathfinders and the best geochemical
indicators of gold mineralization at Kyaukpahto. The
suite of these elements is indicative of epithermal pre-
cious metal mineralization.
(4) Native gold occurs as free grains and locked with-
in pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite.
Some pyrite and arsenopyrite grains contain minute
inclusions of gold particles, which renders the gold ore
refractory (Refractory Gold). Low temperature minerals
such as cinnabar and marcasite are also noted.
Microprobe analyses indicate that the fineness of gold
in the deposit ranges from 844 to 866.
(5) The breccia ore could have been developed by
hydraulic fracturing indicative of a shallow environ-
ment in the waning stages of a hydrothermal system.
This zone along which gold-concentrated ore fluid
moved upward at Kyaukpahto is marked by a coinci-
dence of gold enrichment (sporadically very high-grade
gold values) at the upper part of the silicified zone.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Dr.
U Thein, Professors Emeritus U C. Thacpaw and U Soe
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Ag (ppb)
Au(ppb)
100
1000
10000
100000
100 1000 10000
As (ppm)
Au(ppb)
100
1000
10000
100000
Sb (ppm)
Au(ppb)
100
1000
10000
100000
Cu (ppm)
Au(ppb)
100
1000
10000
100000
Pb (ppm)
Au(ppb)
100
1000
10000
100000
100 1000 10000
Hg (ppb)
Au(ppb)
0 10 20 30
0 10 20 30
1 10 100 1000
Fig. 8 Scattergram of gold vs. silver, gold vs. arsenic, gold vs. copper, gold vs.
antimony, gold vs. lead and gold vs. mercury showing their relationship in

Win, and Professor Dr. Tin Thein, of the Department of
Geology at Yangon University for their encouragement
and valuable suggestions. The mineralogical, geochemical
and electron microprobe analyses were supervised by Dr.
Win Htein of Yangon University, Dr. Khin Zaw of
University of Tasmania and Dr. David H. French of
Division of Exploration Geoscience (CSIRO), Australia.
This study was partially supported through SEES by the
BK21 Program, Ministry of Education, Korea. Brian
Craik-Smith and Helen Kang are thanked for the advice
on English and valuable comments on the manuscript.
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(Editorial handling: Ken-ichiro HAYASHI)

REVIEW
The metallogenic provinces of Myanmar
N. J. Gardiner*, L. J. Robb and M. P. Searle
Myanmar contains important deposits of tin, tungsten, copper, gold, gemstones, zinc, lead, nickel
and silver. It has one of the most diverse and richly endowed collections of natural resources in
Southeast Asia, largely reflecting a geological history stretching from the Late Triassic to the
Miocene. At least three world class deposits include Bawdwin (lead–zinc–silver), Monywa
(copper) and Mawchi (tin–tungsten). Myanmar can be divided into three principal metallotects:
the Wuntho-Popa Arc, comprising subduction-related granites with associated porphyry-type
copper-gold and epithermal gold mineralisation; the Mogok-Mandalay-Mergui Belt hosting both
significant tin–tungsten mineralisation associated with crustal melt granites, and key orogenic
gold resources; and the Shan Plateau with massive sulphide-type lead–zinc deposits. Myanmar
as a jurisdiction remains poorly understood and underdeveloped with regards its natural
resources. We have built a Geographic Information System database of known Myanmar
deposits, outcrops and mineral occurrences as a tool for exploration targeting.
Keywords: Myanmar, Burma, Metallogeny, Granite, Tin–tungsten, Gold, Neo-Tethys, Review
Introduction
Myanmar (Burma) is one of the largest countries within
Southeast Asia, and as a jurisdiction has long been
known to be richly endowed in deposits of tin, tungsten,
copper, gold, silver, zinc, lead, gemstones, jade and
hydrocarbons (Chhibber, 1934; Brown, 1936; Grifﬁth,
1956; Soe Win and Marlar Myo Myint, 1998). Until the
late 1930s it was a major producer of lead, silver, tin and
tungsten; however, much of this industry was destroyed
during, and in the two decades after, World War II.
While there is some recent history of exploration and
exploitation of mineral deposits within Myanmar
(largely in the shape of UN-sponsored programmes in
the 1970s and 1980s, and, with one or two exceptions,
subsequent work by smaller Western juniors), as a
jurisdiction it remains poorly understood, unexplored
and hugely underdeveloped with regards its natural
resources (e.g. Cox et al., 1981; Moores and Fairbridge,
1997). This lack of development is fundamentally due to
the political, economic and geographical remoteness of
the country. However, there remains considerable
potential for future exploration to identify a diverse
range of commodities, and in the light of recent domestic
political progress, and the positive international
response to this, the mineral investment community is
revisiting Myanmar as a potentially new and emerging
jurisdiction.
As part of the ongoing research at Oxford into the
metallogenic and tectonic evolution of Myanmar, we
have built a Geographic Information System (GIS)-
based metallogenic database of Myanmar as a tool to
aid exploration targeting. A relational database of
known outcrops, mineral occurrences, alluvial deposits
and historical workings has been geo-referenced along-
side with tonnages and grades, and overlain onto the
geological map of Myanmar.
Geological overview
The recent geological history of Myanmar is dominated
by the Mesozoic–Cenozoic subduction and accretion of
a series of plates and island-arc terranes that rifted from
Gondwana in the south, and sutured onto the South
China terrane during the staged closing of the Tethys
Ocean. The history is similar to other terranes along the
Tethyan margin (e.g. Tibet), with progressively younger
continental collisions and associated suture zones from
east to west. While the tectonic history is reasonably well
constrained both further north in Karakoram-
Himalaya-Tibet (Searle et al., 2011), and south in
peninsula Malaysia (Searle et al., 2012), it is poorly
understood within Myanmar.
Two principal collisional events dominate the
Mesozoic-Recent geological history of Myanmar. The
earlier Indosinian Orogeny, the Late Triassic closure of
Palaeo-Tethys (Mitchell, 1977; Metcalfe, 2000, 2002;
Wakita and Metcalfe, 2005; Sone and Metcalfe, 2008)
describes the collision of the Sibumasu terrane with the
Indochina terrane. The resulting suture, referred to as
the Chiang-Rai or Bentong-Raub Suture, is thought to
run through western Thailand and central Malaysia
(Hutchison, 1973; Sone and Metcalfe, 2008). Sibumasu
(Siam-Burma-Malaysia-Sumatra; Metcalfe, 1984) is
deﬁned as comprising the area west of this suture in
northern and southwest Thailand, eastern Myanmar
and western Malaysia, and represents a contiguous
terrane that rifted from Gondwana in the Early Permian
(Metcalfe, 2006).
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road,
Oxford OX1 3AN, UK
*Corresponding author, email nickg@earth.ox.ac.uk
ß 2014 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining and The AusIMM
Published by Maney on behalf of the Institute and The AusIMM
Received 9 June 2014; accepted 20 July 2014
DOI 10.1179/1743275814Y.0000000049 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2014 VOL 123 NO 1 25

The later closure of Neo-Tethys, and the initiation of
the Himalayan Orogeny, has been dated along the
Indus-Yarlung Tsangpo suture at ca 50 Ma (Garzanti
et al., 1987; Searle et al., 1988, 2011; Green et al., 2008).
The Neo-Tethys suture extends from the Himalayas
south through Myanmar to link up with the Andaman
Islands and the Wolya suture zone in Sumatra (Barber,
2000; Barber et al., 2005). The Himalayan suture is
thought to outcrop in western Myanmar in the Mount
Victoria Belt (Mitchell, 1989). This suture has, however,
been cut by recent Neogene strike slip faults, most
notably the 1200 km long dextral Sagaing Fault (Win
Swe, 1972). This active north-south fault divides eastern
and western Myanmar, and continues to accommodate
a majority of the northwards motion of the Indian plate.
Estimates of total movement on the Sagaing Fault range
from 100 to 450 km (Mitchell, 1993; Bertrand and
Rangin, 2003; Curray, 2005).
The principal tectonic divisions relevant to Myanmar
are shown in Fig. 1. The current Indian plate boundary,
1 Regional geological map of Myanmar showing the principal tectonic units. From Searle et al. (2007)
Gardiner et al. The metallogenic provinces of Myanmar
26 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2014 VOL 123 NO 1

defined by the easterly-dipping Andaman subduction
zone, continues onshore to the western margin of the
Indo-Burman Range accretionary prism. The Indo-
Burman Ranges are a series of Late Cretaceous–
Palaeogene marine sediments unconformably overlain
by Upper Triassic flysch sediments. The western part of
the Indo-Burman Ranges largely comprises Eocene-
Quaternary conglomerate and sandstone (Mitchell,
1993), whereas a series of Mid-Cretaceous to Miocene
sedimentary basins crop out to the east. This basin
sequence is underlain by the Burma Seismic Zone, an
eastern-dipping subduction zone with earthquakes
recorded down to at least 230 km (Stork et al., 2008;
Searle and Morley, 2011), and which gave rise to several
large calc-alkaline andesite-dacite stratovolcanoes of
Pliocene age (Mounts Popa, Taungthaulon and
Loimeye). The presence of intrusive I-type granodiorite
and dacite of Late Cretaceous age (Khin Zaw, 1990;
Mitchell et al., 2012) suggests that this subduction zone
has been long-lived. Taken together, these volcanics and
intrusions make up the Wuntho-Popa Arc of western
Myanmar (Fig. 2).
The Sibumasu terrane is correlated with the
Qiangtang and Lhasa blocks of Central Tibet in the
north, and the western part of the Malay Peninsula to
the south (Searle et al., 2007). Within Myanmar, the
Sibumasu terrane can be split into two distinct
geological and metallogenic provinces either side of the
Shan Scarp: the Shan Plateau directly east, and the
Mogok-Mandalay-Mergui (MMM) Belt to the west
(Fig. 2). The Shan Plateau largely comprises a series of
Ordovician-Triassic dominantly carbonate rocks over-
lying the Precambrian metasedimentary rocks of the
Chaung Magyi Group, the Cambrian Pangyun Forma-
tion, and associated Bawdwin Volcanics (Mitchell et al.,
1977). The MMM Belt can be subdivided into the Slate
Belt (Mitchell et al., 2004), running broadly north-south
from Mandalay towards Mergui and Phuket, and the
Mogok Metamorphic Belt. The Slate Belt represents a
predominantly late Palaeozoic succession of pebbly
mudstone and wacke, collectively defined as the Mergui
Group (Mitchell, 1992). The presence of cool water fossils
in these pebbly wackes or diamectites is thought to
represent deposition on the margin of Gondwana
(Mitchell et al., 2004). The Mogok Metamorphic Belt
was originally described by Searle and Haq (1964), but
more recently has been the subject of a number of
geochemical and geochronological studies (e.g. Barley
et al., 2003; Searle et al., 2007; Mitchell et al., 2012). It
comprises a high-temperature kyanite-sillimanite grade
metamorphic terrane dominated by ruby-hosting, phlo-
gopite- and diopside-bearing marbles, principally out-
cropping around Mogok, but with occasional pelite and
psammite outcrops farther south.
The MMM hosts numerous I-type biotite and S-type
two-mica granites of Cretaceous–Palaeogene age
(Barley et al., 2003; Mitchell et al., 2012; Gardiner
et al., 2014b), and with a continuation into peninsular
Thailand these granites form a distinct unit of the
Southeast Asian Tin Belts (e.g. Hutchison and Taylor,
1978; Fig. 3); what was once considered the ‘Western
Province’ of Cobbing et al. (1986, 1992). Similarly,
S-type granites towards the east of the Shan Plateau
likely represent a northwards extension of the Central
Belt (Khin Zaw, 1990).
Myanmar has been variously divided into a number of
metallogenic provinces (e.g. Goossens, 1978; United
Nations, 1996). Here, we consider the three principal
metallotects that collectively contain the majority of
base and precious metal deposits of commercial interest,
and separately exhibit distinct mineralisation styles,
history, and associated commodities: the Wuntho-Popa
Arc, the MMM Belt and the Shan Plateau (Fig. 2).
The Mogok-Mandalay-Mergui Belt: tin,
tungsten and gold
The MMM Belt comprises the Slate Belt and the Mogok
Metamorphic Belt. The Slate Belt, running broadly
north-south from Mandalay towards Myeik (Mergui)
and Phuket, is dominated by Carboniferous to early
Permian interbedded slaty mudstone and pebbly wacke,
with rare quartzite and calcareous beds (Mitchell et al.,
2012) all of a few kilometres in thickness. Low-grade
metamorphism is locally recognised in biotite schist at
Yesin Dam near Tatkon, and also north of Mandalay.
Both hornblende and biotite I-type and two-mica,
occasional tourmaline-hosting S-type crustal melt gran-
ite punctuate the MMM. The S-type granites, where
hosted by the Slate Belt, are associated with significant
tin-tungsten mineralisation (Coggin Brown and Heron,
1923; Khin Zaw, 1990; Gardiner et al., 2014b).
Extensive, unrelated, orogenic-type gold deposits also
occur within the Slate Belt (Mitchell et al., 1999),
making this a highly prospective unit.
Tin and tungsten
Tin (Sn) and tungsten (W) are often co-genetic and
related to the emplacement of peraluminous granitic
rocks that are thought to be derived from the melting of
crustal protoliths (the S-type granites of Chappell and
White, 1974). A significant proportion of the world’s Sn
and W resources come from only two areas, of which the
Southeast Asian tin granite belts have collectively been
the dominant producer, with some 54% of historical Sn
production (Schwartz et al., 1995; Robb and Arce,
2014). In Malaysia and Thailand this production was
largely derived from industrial-scale river and coastal
dredging. In Myanmar there has, however, historically
been considerable exploitation of primary resources in
addition to alluvial deposits.
Tungsten is now considered a critical metal (e.g.
Gunn, 2014), and the supply of such critical metals (also
including tantalum, niobium, lithium, and the rare earth
elements, [REE]) is an important global concern. These
elements are all granitophile in character, and are often
spatially and genetically concentrated by processes that
also give rise to the major Sn deposits. Historically, these
critical metals have not been exploited alongside Sn for a
variety of economic reasons, however this pattern may
well be changing as exemplified by the recent develop-
ment of a major W resource (Hemerdon) in the
traditional tin-producing region of Cornwall, UK. In
Myanmar, critical metal-bearing minerals such as
monazite have been recognised within the Sn–W
mineralisation (e.g. Garson et al., 1975).
Tin–tungsten mineralisation in the Slate Belt is
associated with the intrusion of Cretaceous-Eocene S-
type granite (Khin Zaw, 1990; Gardiner et al., 2014b),
and within Myanmar well over 100 primary mineral
occurrences have been recognised (United Nations,
Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2014 VOL 123 NO 1 27

2 The main metallogenic provinces of Myanmar as referred to in the text. Geological map based on the recently pub-
lished Myanmar Geosciences Society Geological map of Myanmar (MGS, 2013)

3 Schematic of the Southeast Asian granite belts – after Cobbing et al. (1986) and Gardiner et al. (2014b)

1996). In a typical deposit, Sn and W are found as
varying proportions of cassiterite and wolframite-rich
pegmatite bodies and greisen-bordered quartz veins,
both within the granite, and intruding the country rock.
There is marked regional zoning, with W becoming
progressively more dominant over Sn towards the north
(Chhibber, 1934).This belt might be referred to as a W
province with subsidiary Sn mineralisation (Khin Zaw,
1990). Many occurrences of Sn–W are located in the
Dawei (Tavoy) District (Fig. 4a; Coggin Brown and
Heron, 1923). At Hermyingyi W–Sn mine near Dawei,
more than 300 NS-trending wolframite- and cassiterite-
bearing quartz veins crop out for up to 1 km in the
cupola of a granite (Fig. 4b; Khin Zaw, 1990). In the
Phuket area to the south, Garson et al. (1975) described
stanniferous lepidotite pegmatite, and mica-tourmaline
pegmatite which also contained significant amounts of
wolframite, monazite, and REE- and Yttrium-bearing
minerals in association with the cassiterite. A GIS-based
pattern of primary outcrops of various commodities in
Myanmar shows an obvious clustering of tin-tungsten
deposits (in red) in the south of the country (Fig. 5).
The Mawchi mine
The Mawchi tin–tungsten mine is located within Karen
State, some 250 km northeast of Yangon (Rangoon;
Fig. 2). It was once one of the largest global producers
of W, accounting for some 60% of total Myanmar W
production from 1939 to 1940, the country itself being
responsible for some 17% of global W production at that
time (Khin Zaw and Khin Myo Thet, 1983).
In the Mawchi district, the Mawchi granite intrudes
the metasedimentary rocks of the Slate Belt Mergui
Group (Fig. 6). This granite is a relatively small
intrusion of porphyritic biotite granite, considered to
be a highly fractionated S-type (Khin Zaw, 1990). It was
emplaced into the meta-argillite of the Slate Belt, as well
as into a prominent limestone roof-pendant that
partially overlies the granite cupola. This limestone
pendant had acted as a cap to mineralising fluids
circulating in fractures within the granite where they
formed well-defined veins up to 2?5 m wide. The veins
are present to a lesser extent as stockwork in the
surrounding Slate Belt metasedimentary rocks (Hobson,
1940; Khin Zaw and Khin Myo Thet, 1983).
At the Mawchi mine economic Sn–W grades, which
decrease with depth, are localised within a granite
cupola immediately below a limestone cap, although
no skarn or Cornish-style metal zonation are recognised
(Hobson, 1940; Robb and Arce, 2014). Although the
mineralisation at Mawchi is not significantly zoned, W
contents are highest in the lower sections of the
mineralised zone, with Sn contents generally increasing
upwards at the expense of W. In many Myanmar
deposits, W content exceeded that of Sn within the
mineralised veins hosted in the Slate Belt country rock
4 a primary tin–tungsten mineralisation at Bawapin Mine, Dawei District; b in-situ tin–tungsten at Hermyingyi Mine,
Dawei District; c example of primary gold in quartz vein, Kyaukpon-Huku Gold District, Mon State; d samples of
Kachin State Jade on display at the Mandalay Jade Market. All photos by NJG

5 Image based on the Oxford GIS database, showing primary lead–zinc, tin–tungsten and gold deposits and workings in
Myanmar, and locations referred to in the text

(Hobson, 1940), and this would appear to be the case in
the Bulawber tungsten workings at Mawchi where veins
are contained entirely in the country rock. Mineralised
veins comprise an early generation of wolframite and
cassiterite, together with paragenetically later molybde-
nite, bismuthinite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite and mag-
netite. Fluorite is a common gangue mineral particularly
in the upper portions of the ore body, whereas topaz and
lepidolite, in contrast, are uncommon. Substantial late-
stage kaolinite occurs throughout. Some workers have
suggested that wolframite precipitated prior to cassiter-
ite for a short interval, and that the two minerals co-
precipitated thereafter (Dunn, 1938; Hobson, 1940).
Veins typically do not exhibit greissenised margins, but
tourmaline is pronounced along vein selvedges and
within altered granite. Quartz-tourmaline aggregates
within the main mass of granite and well away from
veins commonly contain signiﬁcant cassiterite and
wolframite concentrations.
Orogenic gold
Gold (Au) mineralisation has been recognised at
numerous localities throughout the Slate Belt (Mitchell
et al., 1999), occurring within quartz-pyrite stringers and
veinlets (Fig. 4c), and in general is inferred to be of
orogenic type (Mitchell et al., 2004). There is no
preferential association of Au mineralisation with the
Cretaceous-Eocene granite intrusions (Mitchell et al.,
1999), textural evidence implying that the Au miner-
alisation predates their emplacement (Mitchell et al.,
2004), although the exact age of mineralisation remains
unclear.
Modi Taung-Nankwe gold district
The Modi Taung-Nankwe gold district (Fig. 2) lies
within the Slate Belt in central Myanmar (Fig. 7), and
measures 25 km long by up to 5 km wide. Here within
the Mergui Group, two formations are recognised: the
Kogwe Mudstone and the Poklokkale Pebby Wacke,
Mineralised veins, hosted by the pebbly mudstone,
siltstone and sandstone of the Kogwe Mudstone
Group, outcrop at approximately 1300 m elevation
(Mitchell et al., 2004). Maximum vein width is some
1?5 m, and almost all veins lie oblique to bedding. The
mudstone-hosted veins form well-deﬁned tabular ore
bodies, whereas in the sandstone and siltstone they
6 Mawchi district geology: a geological map of the Slate Belt in the Mawchi region; b cross-section A–A’ through the
Mawchi granite. From Robb and Arce (2014)

become more dispersed, forming stock-works or sheeted
veinlets.
In the adits developed at Modi Taung-Nankwe during
the exploration phase, grade varies from 20 to ,2 ppm
Au. The high-grade veins were invariably hosted by
mudstone, with lower values where the vein enters a
sandstone host. In addition to Au, other metals included
As, Ag, Bi, Cr and Cd. Sulphides were also present,
7 Simpliﬁed geological map of the Modi Taung-Nankwe Gold District. From Mitchell et al. (2004)

including pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, and rarer sphaler-
ite and chalcopyrite; high Au values were associated
with pyrite. The poorly constrained age of the Modi
Taung-Nankwe mineralisation has been stratigraphi-
cally bracketed between late Permian and mid Jurassic
(Mitchell et al., 2004).
Gold mineralisation hosted within marble, and
associated with the intrusion of Cretaceous I-type
granite, is found at several localities within the Mogok
Metamorphic Belt. The Shante gold belt, some 50 km
south of Mogok, is a 500 km2
district comprising high-T
phlogopite-bearing marble which hosts occasional
quartz veins with gold and associated base metal (Zn
and Pb) sulphides.
The Shan Plateau: lead, zinc, silver
The Shan Plateau in eastern Myanmar (Fig. 2) largely
comprises Ordovician-Triassic carbonate rocks which
overlie the Precambrian metasedimentary rocks of the
Chaung Magyi Group, the Cambrian Pangyun
Formation and the associated Cambro-Ordovician
Bawdwin Volcanics (Mitchell et al., 1977). In addition,
S-type granite plutons, which outcrop towards the
centre and east of the Shan Plateau, are interpreted as
a northwards extension of the Central Province of
Cobbing et al. (1992), running through Thailand and
Malaysia. In places these granites host tin mineralisation
(U Kyi Htun, pers. comm.., 2013). A number of known
lead–zinc mines within the Shan Plateau lie in a broad
NE–SW orientated belt extending from the Shan Scarp
up to the Chinese border (Fig. 5). The Bawdwin mine
represents the most significant of these deposits.
The Bawdwin Mine
The Bawdwin Mine and Namtu smelter complex are
located in the Northern Shan States, 80 km from the
border of mainland China, and 60 km northwest of
Lashio (Fig. 2). Artisanal Chinese silver (Ag) mines date
from the 1400s. In the early twentieth century the British
noticed that the slag dumps resulting from the silver
workings were extremely lead-rich, and the Burma
Mines Corporation was formed to properly develop
the resource as a Pb–Zn producer. Prior to World War
II the Bawdwin Mine was the world’s largest producer
of Pb, and one of the largest producers of Ag. In
addition, Zn and Ni were also mined. By the late 1960s it
was estimated that there was still some 6 million tons of
available ore at 11% Pb, 5?6% Zn and 7?8 oz/t Ag
(United Nations, 1966).
Whereas many 1980s workers classified the Bawdwin
deposit as Kuroko style (Brinckmann and Hinze, 1981;
Hopwood, 1985), more recent genetic models include a
siliciclastic-felsic volcanogenic massive sulphide-type
classification (Gardiner et al., 2014a). Bawdwin consists
of three principal massive sulphide lodes dipping 70u W
to vertical with a vertical extent of at least 500 m, and a
horizontal strike length of 1500 m. Host rocks comprise
the Cambro-Ordovician metasedimentary rocks of the
Pangyun Formation, and tuffs and rhyolites of the
Bawdwin Volcanics (see Fig. 8). The tuffs and Pangyun
sedimentary rocks are intercalated, implying they were
co-depositional. The massive sulphide mineralisation at
Bawdwin is principally hosted by the tuffs and rhyolites,
and as textural evidence suggests this mineralisation is
related both spatially and temporally to the Bawdwin
Volcanics, it is therefore dated at Cambro-Ordovician
8 Schematic cross-section of the Northern Shan States and the Bawdwin Deposit. From Gardiner et al. (2014a), after
Mitchell et al. (1977)

by the association of the Bawdwin Volcanics with the
Pangyun sedimentary rocks.
The mineralisation zone at Bawdwin is cut by two
principal cross-faults (the Yunnan and the Hsenwi).
These are both now considered to be post-mineralisa-
tion, and interpreted to have separated a single ore body
into the three lodes recognised today (Gardiner et al.,
2014a). Later regional tilting is assumed to be respon-
sible for the steep inclination of the ore bodies.
Mineralisation at Bawdwin comprises dominantly
galena-sphalerite with elevated Ag, and low grade Cu-
bearing footwall stockwork.
Other lead–zinc deposits in the Shan Plateau
The isolated nature of the Bawdwin volcanogenic
massive sulphide-style mineralisation is anomalous in
Myanmar, although other Pb–Zn mines are recognised
in the Shan Plateau. The Yadana Theingi Mine, some
50 km south of Bawdwin, hosts galena-barite ores
within a NW-striking shear zone, interpreted as
Mississippi Valley type mineralisation. The Bawsaing
(or Theingon) mine, sited near HeHo in the southern
Shan States, is a Pb–Zn–Ag deposit, and is considered to
be a stratabound, carbonate-hosted Mississippi Valley
type deposit (Khin Zaw et al., 1993). The Moho Chaung
mine is sited 50 km northeast of Bawdwin, and is a
sandstone-hosted Pb–Zn–Ag deposit, i.e. likely to be a
SEDEX deposit.
The Wuntho-Popa arc: copper and gold
The west-facing Wuntho-Popa magmatic arc (Fig. 2) in
western Myanmar represents a discontinuous belt of
both intrusive and volcanic rocks extending 500 km
northwards from Mount Popa in central Myanmar, and
exposes a number of inliers surrounded by Miocene-
Recent sedimentary cover. The two principal inliers are
the northerly 160 km-long Wuntho-Banmauk segment,
and the Monywa-Salingyi segment in central-south
Myanmar. Both inliers show similar geology: a marine
sequence of limestones, mudstones and pillow basalts
intruded by Mesozoic–Cenozoic granodiorite plutons,
smaller calc-alkaline intrusions and with later Pliocene
volcanic rocks. The metaluminous chemistry of the
granite, the presence of magnetite, and the existence of
porphyry-type Cu–Au and epithermal Au deposits, all
imply dominantly I-type subduction-related granites
(Khin Zaw, 1990; Mitchell et al., 2012). The Wuntho-
Popa Arc is underlain by the Burma Seismic Zone, and
the observed calc-alkaline magmatism is suggestive of an
Andean-type setting.
Chhibber (1934) documented metallogenic deposits in
the vicinity of the Wuntho-Popa Arc, describing a
number of base metal and gold occurrences. In the early
1970s, the Wuntho-Popa Arc was recognised as a
volcanic setting (United Nations, 1978), leading to a
re-evaluation of the possibility of epithermal and
porphyry-type mineralisation. In the late 1990s it was
considered that two types of mineralisation prevailed
within the Wuntho-Popa Arc: porphyry Cu–Mo, and
epithermal-polymetallic Au–Cu–Ag (United Nations,
1996); however since then several other settings have
been recognised.
Mineralisation in the Wuntho-Popa Arc is confined to
two principal districts: Monywa towards the south, and
the Wuntho-Banmauk inlier farther north (Fig. 2).
Historically, most Au production in the region has been
from Late Cretaceous high-grade auriferous veins found
both in granodiorite and surrounding host rocks, and
from derived placers in the Wuntho region (Chhibber,
1934). Au mineralisation is also recognised within the
Tagaung-Myitkyina Belt lying farther north in Kachin
State, and interpreted as a possible extension to the
Wuntho-Popa Arc (Mitchell et al., 1999). Porphyry Cu–
Au prospects have been recognised at Shangalon near
Wuntho (United Nations, 1996; Mitchell et al., 2011).
Mesothermal sediment-hosted Au workings at
Kyaukpahto are likely to be genetically related to
movement on the Sagaing Fault.
Wuntho district gold mineralisation
Gold mineralisation in the Wuntho district is largely
confined to the Banmauk-Wuntho inlier. Here, it is
found principally as Au-bearing quartz or quartz-
carbonate veins, which are exploited in small scale
mines at Au grades of 20–100 g/t Au (Mitchell et al.,
1999), and lie within the Late Cretaceous granodiorite
locally extending into the schist and volcanic country
rocks (United Nations, 1978; Khin Zaw, 1990; Mitchell
et al., 2012).
Similar Au veins are also found farther north in the
Mabein District, within the Tagaung-Myitkyina Belt,
and here Mitchell et al. (1999) make reference to
epithermal Au-bearing veins found within strongly
silicified host rocks of Upper Oligocene-Lower
Miocene mudstone and sandstone. Low sulphidation
epithermal Au quartz veins are also reported from south
of Shangalon (United Nations, 1996).
Kyaukpahto gold mine
The Kyaukpahto gold mine is possibly the largest
producing Au mine in Myanmar, and is sited in
Kawlin Township, northern Myanmar (Fig. 2). The
mineralisation is not strictly related to magmatism in the
Wuntho-Popa Arc, but instead is strongly associated
with a system of extensional faulting. NNE-trending
extensional faults formed by a component of dextral
strike-slip movement on the Sagaing Fault (Ye Myint
Swe et al., 2004) host stockwork epithermal Au
mineralisation developed within the Wuntho-Popa
Arc. Veins with pyrite, chalcopyrite and arsenopyrite
are best developed in competent silicified sandstone
locally extending into the adjacent mudstone of the
Lower-Mid Eocene Male Formation (Mitchell et al.,
1999). These host rocks have undergone intense hydro-
thermal alteration including silicification which appears
to be critical for the genesis of the veining. Veins are
generally confined to silicified sandstone, although they
are rarely present in the mudstone.
Monywa copper mine
At the Monywa copper mine, near Monywa within the
Wuntho-Popa Arc in central-western Myanmar (Fig. 2),
high sulphidation epithermal mineralisation is inferred
to be underlain by a mid-Miocene pluton (Mitchell
et al., 2011). Two of the recognised four major deposits
which provided a resource of 2 billion tonnes of 0?26%
Cu are in active production at the time of writing
(Sabetaung and Sabetaung South), thereby providing
Monywa world-class status, eclipsed as a Cu deposit in
Southeast Asia only by the Grasberg mine in Indonesia,

and by the Tampakan high sulphidation Cu–Ag deposit
in the Philippines (e.g. Middleton et al., 2004).
Prominent topographic highs define the essentially
barren oxidised leached caps which are up to 200 m in
thickness. These overlie transition and hypogene copper
sulphide ore hosted by andesite dykes and sills, which
intrude the sandstone and pyroclastic rocks of the
Magyigon Formation (Fig. 9). Synchronous uplift and
erosion are interpreted to have promoted the develop-
ment of a supergene enriched zone to a depth of 200 m
which hosts 75% of the Cu resource. Cu grades decrease
with depth from just below the base of the oxidised zone,
and within the leached caps Cu values of 150 ppm and
below reflect a high pyrite to Cu ratio. Monywa
therefore exhibits a highly efficient supergene leaching
process, which has been explained by the unusually high
pyrite content, uninterrupted uplift, and the consistent
equilibrium with the water table (Mitchell et al., 2011).
Whereas the main hypogene ore minerals found at
Monywa are digenite-chalcocite, covellite and minor
enargite, typical of high-suphidation epithermal depos-
its, Monywa differs from many other high sulphidation
deposits in the absence of associated economic Au
grades, and in the scarcity of large bodies of replacement
quartz. This lack of Au is thought to be the result of
exposure of a deep epithermal system in which hypogene
Cu minerals were not necessarily overlain by Au
mineralisation (Kyaw Win and Kirwin, 1998).
Other metallogenic provinces
Gemstones and Jade
Myanmar is an important producer of quality rubies,
sapphires and jade. Rubies are largely found within the
Mogok Stone Tract (Chhibber, 1934), close to Mogok
itself (Fig. 2). Rubies are hosted within high temperature
(ruby) corundum-phlogopite-bearing marbles of the
Mogok Metamorphic Belt, formed by collision-related
metamorphism (Searle et al., 2007), and are extracted
from concentrations within byons, or thick lateritic soil
horizons (Waltham, 1999), which at Mogok are usually
5–6 m below the valley surface, and between 1–2 m
thick (Keller, 1983). In addition to the ruby marbles,
alkaline intrusive rocks, principally nepheline syenites,
are common throughout the Mogok region (Iyer, 1953),
and they contain gem-quality sapphires. These sapphires
are thought to be the result of crustal contamination and
partial melting of lower crust during high-temperature
intra-continental alkaline magmatism.
In the north, three metamorphic belts splay off of the
Sagaing Fault; the western-most one is the Jade Mines
Belt in Kachin state (Fig. 2). This is a high-pressure
metamorphic belt of ultramafic material, thought to be a
relic ophiolite. Here, mantle-derived harzburgite and
lherzolite have high-pressure jadeitite mineralogy asso-
ciated with peridotite and with rare eclogite. This belt
was mapped in detail by both Chhibber (1934) and Iyer
(1953), but since then has been largely off-limits to
western geologists and not studied further. Due to
accessibility issues, much of the mined Myanmar Jade is
sourced as boulders in young river gravels along the
banks of the Uru River near Hpakan (Fig. 4d).
Chromium and platinum group minerals are found
associated with ophiolite complexes in Kachin State (Soe
Win and Marlar Myo Myint, 1998). There are two principal
nickel laterite deposits in Myanmar; Mwetaung in the Chin
Hills to the west, and Tagaung Taung near Mandalay
(Chhibber, 1934; Soe Win and Marlar Myo Myint, 1998).
9 Schematic northwest-southeast section through the Monywa copper mine district. This shows speculative geology at
depth, and possible intrusions. Taken from Mitchell et al. (2011)

The current minerals industry in
Myanmar
The current mining industry in Myanmar was worth
$62m (USD) in 2010 (ICMM, 2012), against a 2012
gross domestic product of $53Billion (CIA, 2013);
mining therefore currently contributes some 0?1% to
Myanmar’s domestic gross domestic product. Given the
country’s extraordinary wealth in natural resources, this
represents an industry that is currently hugely under-
developed. Recent production ﬁgures for major com-
modities are given in Table 1. At the time of writing, a
new mining law is under preparation.
Summary
Myanmar as a minerals jurisdiction comprises one of the
most diverse and richly endowed collections of natural
resources in Southeast Asia, and as a country retains
huge potential for the growth of its mining industry –
both through the rehabilitation of old workings, and by
the discovery of new ore deposits. The country is slowly
opening up both politically and economically, and,
despite expected and ongoing challenges with regards to
the operating environment, it is now timely for industry
and academics alike to start to revisit Myanmar as an
exciting emerging minerals jurisdiction.
Acknowledgements
Raphael Martin of Dark Capital is acknowledged for
financial support of the Myanmar project. The authors
thank Andrew Mitchell for numerous conversations. U
Htun Lynn Shein of Myanma Precious Resources
Group is thanked for assistance and access. Dave
Sansom is acknowledged for drafting. Greg Corbett
and an anonymous reviewer are thanked for their inputs
during the review process to help improve the manu-
script. Finally, I am indebted to a number of consulting
Myanmar geologists for their interest, assistance and
advice, including: U Myint Thein Htay, U Aung Tin, U
Kyi Htun, U Nyunt Htay and U Kyaing Sein.
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AnnllaLGeoLogicaL Conference '96
.~~~~_ June 8-9,1996, Kola KinabaLlI, Sabah
The settings and styles of gold mineralization in Southeast Asia
S.L. GARWIN
Newmont Southeast Asia Limited
Wisma Standard Chartered Bank
14th Floor, JI. Sudirman Kav. 33A
Jakarta 10220, Indonesia
Abstract: Gold mineralization in Southeast Asia is associated with a wide range of deposit styles. This
study incorporates 90 gold and copper-gold deposits, including porphyry, skarn, carbonate-base metal-
gold, volcanic-hosted high- and low-sulfidation epithermal, quartz lode, volcanogenic massive sulfide and
disseminated sediment-hosted. The combined past production and current resources of these deposits
exceeds 6,800 tonnes of gold and 50 million tonnes of copper. The majority of the gold is contained in
porphyry (64%), low-sulfidation epithermal (17%), carbonate-base metal-gold (7%) and skarn (4%)
deposits. Approximately 90% of these deposits (> 95% of the gold) are associated with middle to late
Cenozoic magmatic arcs.
Fourteen major magmatic arcs and several secondary arcs of Cenozoic age form a complex border to
the Sundaland craton and the northern margin of the Australian platform. This volcano-plutonic chain
extends more than 12,000 km from Taiwan in the northeast, through the Philippines and Indonesia, to
Myanmar in the northwest. The arcs are constructed on basement formed from oceanic and continental
crust. In northern Taiwan, gold deposits are hosted by Pleistocene intrusions. The Philippines and
Indonesia hold more than 90% of the known gold in the region. This mineralization is contained in
deposits which cluster along short sectors of middle Tertiary to Pleistocene arcs. In East Malaysia, gold
is related to Neogene intrusions and in northcentral Myanmar, mineralization is associated with a
middle to late Tertiary arc sector. Porphyry and epithermal mineralization styles predominate, while
skarn, carbonate-base metal-gold, sediment-hosted and volcanogenic massive sulfide/exhalative deposits
are less abundant.
Mainland Southeast Asia is a composite of four major crustal plates or terranes, each defined by a
series of tectonostratigraphic belts formed upon pre-Cenozoic continental basement. These include
cratonic platforms, fold belts, magmatic arcs, volcano-sedimentary rift basins, and metamorphic terrains.
Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic volcano-plutonic arcs parallel fold belts which have developed along continental
margins adjacent to intra-plate collision zones. Mineralization within these fold belts is commonly
localized within anticlines or in structurally complex regions. Other prospective geological settings are
suture zones, major strike-slip faults, structural domes and the margins ofrift basins. Gold mineralization
occurs in quartz lode (common), skarn and porphyry (subordinate), and disseminated sediment-hosted,
massive sulfide and volcanic-hosted epithermal (minor) systems.
Gold mineralization in Southeast Asia is spatially and temporally related to intrusions and volcanic
centers. Porphyry, skarn and high-sulfidation epithermal deposits are closely related to intrusions
emplaced at shallow depths. Low-sulfidation epithermal systems, including vein, stockwork and minor
disseminated styles, typically are located within or adjacent to volcanic centers. Carbonate-base metal-
gold deposits occupy diatreme settings in the deeper portions of low-sulfidation epithermal systems.
Disseminated sediment-hosted deposits occur in calcareous rock sequences in both proximal and distal
settings to intrusions. Volcanogenic massive sulfide and exhalative deposits are developed in sea floor
extensional settings. Quartz lodes are typically structurally-controlled and hosted by pre-Cenozoic
metasedimentary and sedimentary rocks.
INTRODUCTION
Southeast Asia extends approximately 4,000
km from latitude 15°S to 25°N and 5,500 km from
longitude 900
E to 145°E (Fig. 1). Mainland
Southeast Asia forms approximately 45% of the
landmass of the region with the remainder divided
between numerous islands that comprise the
extensive archipelagos of Indonesia and the
Geol. Soc. lJ!faLaYJia, BuLLetin 40, JuLy J997; pp. 77-111
Philippines. The size of these islands ranges from
that of Borneo, the third largest in the world, to
small masses of less than one square kilometer.
The physiography is varied and punctuated by
mountains which reach 5,030 m (Puncak Jaya) in
the highlands of Irian J aya, Indonesia. The
countries which comprise Southeast Asia are
Brunei, Indonesia, Kampuchea, Laos, Malaysia,
Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and

INDIA
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THE SETIINGS AND STYLES OF GOLD MINERALIZATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 79
Vietnam. Southern China, technically part of
Southeast Asia, is not included in this paper.
The primary aim of this paper is to briefly
describe the geologic settings and differing styles of
gold mineralization in Southeast Asia. Gold is
most abundant in the Cenozoic magmatic arcs of
the Philippine and Indonesian archipelagos.
Significant gold deposits which occur in pre-
Cenozoic metallogenic belts in mainland Southeast
Asia are placed in context of tectonostratigraphic
terranes and magmatic arcs. Descriptions ofdeposit
styles and grade-tonnage distributions comprise
the focus of the paper.
I have attempted to accurately compile the work
of other geoscientists into a uniform base in the
hope that these data will be of use to exploration
geologists working in Southeast Asia.
Interpretation of others' data and estimates of
deposit grade and size are included when necessary.
This paper is a condensed version of a more
comprehensive work currently in preparation.
Therefore, the text explains only the major aspects
illustrated in the figures.
Historic Mining Activities
Mining of placer and lode gold deposits began
in ancient times in the majority of the countries in
Southeast Asia. Significant historic mining sites
and regions are illustrated in Figure 2.
In northern Taiwan, the Chinkuashih copper-
gold district produced over 92 tonnes of gold from
1898 to 1987 (Tan, 1991). In the Philippines,
significant production was achieved prior to the
second world war from gold districts in Baguio,
Paracale, Masbate and Surigao. The Baguio district
has produced more than 800 tonnes of gold from
lode gold and porphyry copper deposits (Mitchell
and Balce, 1990). In Indonesia, nearly 80 tonnes of
gold was recovered from the Lebong Tandai and
Lebong Donok lodes in the Bengkulu district of
Sumatra during 1896 to 1941 (van Bemmelen,
1949). The Paleleh and Totok (Ratatotok) districts
of northern Sulawesi produced over 13 tonnes of
combined gold from lode and eluvial deposits (van
der Ploeg, 1945).
In Peninsular Malaysia, the Raub-Australian
lode produced approximately 30 tonnes ofgold from
1889 to 1961 (Lee et al., 1986). In the Bau district
ofSarawak, 31 tonnes of gold were recovered from
primary and eluvial deposits between 1899 and
1921, largely from the Tai Parit open pit (Wilford,
1955). The remaining countries of Southeast Asia
have sustained limited gold production from
alluvium in the Myitkyina district ofMyanmar and
lode deposits in southern Thailand (Toh Moh),
Kampuchea (Bo Sup Trup) and Vietnam (Bong
Mieu). No significant production is recorded for
July 1997
Laos. However, ancient to recent artisinal mining
has exploited alluvium in several localities.
Recent Developments
There has been a marked increase in the
exploration and development of mineral resources
in Southeast Asia during the past decade. These
activities were undertaken by national and foreign
companies and on a small-scale by local miners.
Significant technical work was accomplished by
Southeast Asian geological survey groups and
bureaus of mines, the United Nations, the Metal
Mining Agency of Japan and overseas geological
survey organizations.
Extensive exploration in Indonesia since the
middle 1980's has led to significant discoveries.
Several large gold mines have been developed,
including Grasberg (copper-gold), Kelian, Mesel,
Mt. Muro and Wetar. Recent discoveries include
the Batu Hijau copper-gold deposit and the Busang
gold deposit. Indonesia is currently the focus of a
major gold boom. Foreign and local companies
have lodged claims through out the archipelago.
The recent history of minerals exploration and
development in Indonesia is well documented by
van Leeuwen (1994).
Significant discoveries in the Philippines during
the past decade include the Dinkidi copper-gold
deposit, the Co-O lode, and the Diwalwal and
Compestela gold rush areas. The passing into law
of a new minerals code in 1995 has stimulated
investment and initiated a rush to stake claims
through out the country.
Exploration in mainland Southeast Asia,
including Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and
Vietnam is significant, but to a lesser extent than
exploration in Indonesia and the Philippines. This
likely reflects the lesser abundance of large gold
discoveries in the past and/or challenges presented
by mining legislation, or the lack thereof. The
mineral codes and laws in each of these countries
either have been modified during the past five years
or are currently in the process ofrevision. Mineral
agreements have been signed, exploration
undertaken and small to moderate sized gold
deposits discovered, the largest of which is Xepon
in southcentral Laos, the discovery of which was
announced in 1995.
Gold Endowment and Recent Production
Southeast Asia is moderately well endowed in
gold resources. Figure 3a shows the number of
deposits containing 10 tonnes of gold resource
(including past production) or more in each country.
The enhanced endowments of the Philippines and
Indonesia are clear, and rank far above the other
countries in the region. Figure 3b illustrates the

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140'E
• A Historic gold mining Site
'f(fJ and region
op
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Figure 2. Significant historic mining sites and regionR in Southeast Asia, compiled from several sourceR, including van Leeuwen (1994).
2O'N
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10'$
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THE SETTINGS AND STYLES OF GOLD MINERALIZATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 81
~~---------------------------------------------.
43
Laos Myanmar Taiwan ThaIland Vietnam
~c:
c:
g2000
C
...J
o
C!l
3567
Figure 3a. Number of Southeast Asian
depositswhichcontaingoldresources inexcess
of 10 tonnes (including past production), by
country. Papua New Guinea is included for
comparison.
Figure 3b. Gold endowment of Southeast
Asian deposits whichcontain gold resources in
excess oflOtonnes (includingpastproduction),
by country. Papua New Indonesia Philippines Malaysia Taiwan Vietnam Laos Thailand Myanmar
U)
Q)
c:
c:
g
C
...J
o
C!l
Indonesia
JuLy 1997
Papua New
Guinea
Guinea
PhlDppines Malaysia VIetnam
0,4
ThaIland
Figure 3c. Gold production from Southeast
Asiancountries in 1995, afterGoldfields (1996).

82 S.L. GARWIN
total gold content for each country, determined
from the deposits indicated in Figure 3a. Again,
the overwhelming significance of Indonesia and
the Philippines is apparent. However, it is
important to note that approximately 50% of
Indonesia's gold lies in the Grasberg copper-gold
deposit. Gold lodes in the Baguio district of the
Philippines constitute more than 18% of the total
gold endowment of the Philippines. Papua New
Guinea, considered to be richly endowed in gold
and copper resources, contains a slightly greater
gold abundance than those of Indonesia and the
Philippines. The deposit database from which the
Southeast Asian country figures are derived is
included in Appendices 1 through 4.
The official gold production in Southeast Asia
for 1986 to 1995 is predominately from the
Philippines (340 tonnes), Indonesia (313 tonnes),
Malaysia (32 tonnes) and Vietnam (9 tonnes), with
only minor production from the remaining countries
(Goldfields, 1996). As a comparison, Australia's
official gold production for the same period totals
2,026 tonnes and that of Papua New Guinea totals
483 tonnes. Southeast Asian gold production in
1995 totaled 107.8 tonnes. The majority of this
amount (Fig. 3c) was produced from Indonesia (74.1
tonnes, 69%), followed by the Philippines (28.4
tonnes, 26%), Malaysia (3.2 tonnes, 3%) and
Vietnam (1.7 tonnes, 2%). For the same year,
Australian gold production was 254 tonnes and
that of Papua New Guinea was 54.8 tonnes.
CENOZOIC MAGMATIC ARCS OF
SOUTHEAST ASIA
Fourteen major magmatic arcs and several
secondary arcs of Cenozoic age form a complex
border to the Sundaland craton and the northern
margin of the Australian platform (Fig. 4). This
volcano-plutonic chain extends more than 12,000
km from Taiwan in the northeast, through the
Philippines and Indonesia, to Myanmar in the
northwest. The arcs are constructed on geologic
basement formed from oceanic and continental
crust. The geometries of individual arc segments
are complex, and are the product of subduction,
locally involving polarity reversals, obduction, arc-
arc and arc-continent collisions, rifting and
transcurrent faulting. Hamilton (1979) and
Hutchison (1989) provide comprehensive reviews
of the tectonic elements and processes which
characterize the region. Hall (1995) presents plate
tectonic reconstructions for the Tertiary. Previous
descriptions ofvarious magmatic arcs in the context
ofgold mineralization include those ofMitchell and
Leach (1991) for the Philippines and Carlile and
Mitchell (1994) for Indonesia.
The ages of the magmatic arcs span from the
late Mesozoic through the Cenozoic time. However,
gold and related copper mineralization occur almost
exclusively in those arc sectors developed during
the middle to late Cenozoic (Figs. 5 to 9). In northern
Taiwan, gold deposits are hosted by Pleistocene
intrusions. In the Philippines and Indonesia, gold
deposits cluster along short sectors of middle
Tertiary to Pleistocene arcs. In eastern Malaysia,
gold mineralization is related to Neogene intrusions
and in northcentral Myanmar, gold is associated
with a middle to late Tertiary arc sector. The
primary reason for the great abundance of gold
deposits in the middle Tertiary to Pleistocene arcs
is related to erosion. In middle to late Quaternary
arcs, uplift and erosion have not exposed
mineralization. In contrast, in the Cretaceous and
early Paleogene arcs, erosion has largely removed
potentially economic deposits.
The major mineralized magmatic arcs of
Southeast Asia include the: (i) Ryukyu in northern
Taiwan, (ii) Luzon Central Cordillera, Western
Luzon, Cordon, Philippine, Masbate-Negros, Sulu-
Zamboanga and Cotobato in the Philippines, (iii)
North Sulawesi-Sangihe, Halmahera, Medial Irian
Jaya (Central Range-Papuan fold and thrust belt),
Sunda-Banda and Central Kalimantan in Indonesia,
and (iv) Burman in Myanmar. Secondary arcs in
the Philippines, Indonesia and Eastern Malaysia
also host gold mineralization, but to a lesser extent
than the primary arcs.
The Neogene Kinabalu pluton and satellite
intrusions in Sabah, Malaysia occur in a unique
setting, in that these bodies do not lie along a
defined magmatic arc and lack coeval volcanics.
Porphyry and epithermal mineralization styles
predominate, while skarn, carbonate-base metal-
gold, sediment-hosted and volcanogenic massive
sulfide/exhalative deposits are less abundant.
TECTONOSTRATIGRAPHIC TERRANES
OF MAINLAND SOUTHEAST ASIA
Mainland Southeast Asia consists of several
tectonostratigraphic belts, which represent four
major crustal blocks or terranes (Fig. 10). From
west to east, these are: (i) the Burma Plate, (ii) the
Shan-Thai Craton and marginal fold belts ofNam
Tha-Sukothai and the Western belt of Peninsular
Malaysia, (iii) the Indochina Plate and marginal
fold belts of Luang Prabang-Loei-Petchabun, Siem
Reap and the Central and Eastern belts of
Peninsular Malaysia, and (iv) the South China
Plate. The boundaries between these terranes are
delineated by major sutures, which are commonly
characterized by ophiolitic belts and structural
discontinuities.
Ceo!. Soc. MalaY.1ia, Bulletin 40

~
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~
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+
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0"
500 Mis
500 Kms
Oblique Mercator Projecflon
+
+
+
+
+++ + +++
+ + 11O'E + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + +
+ +
14O"E
~ Cenozoic magmatic arc
D Oceanic or young Island arc
crust, locally covered by Cenozoic
sedimentary rocks.
Pre-Mesozoic Continental Basement
D Sundaland Craton
c:::J Luconia Block
Q Australian Platform and
related fragments
D Rifted crust and continental fragments
~Trench - Teeth on overriding plate
,
...~spreading center
, Strike - slip fault 1O'N
%(arrows Indicate sense of displacement),
Structures - Solid lines where active,
dashed where inactive.
Mz Mesozoic basement of eastern Kalimantan
---------~----------------~-------
0"
(Xl
Figure 4. Tectonic framework ofSoutheast Asia, modified after Hamilton (1979), Hutchison (1989), Mitchell and Leach (1991) and Carlile and Mitchell (1994). The (iJ
distribution ofpre-Mesozoic continental basement, Cenozoic magmatic arcs and trench systems are indicated.

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(name indicated in capital letters)
• Major gold deposit
jJ
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140"E
20'N
lOON
0"
10'S
~ Figurp. 5. Location ofthp. major gold and copper-gold depmlitR ofSoutheast ARia, r.enozoic magmatic areR are modified from Mitchell and Leach (1991) and Carlile and
Mitchell (1994).
(X)
~
en
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>
~
z

THE SETIINGS AND STYLES OF GOLD MiNERALIZATiON IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
t>.l::::J Cenozoic magmatic arc
.A' Trench· Teeth on
, overiding plate
, Spreading center
~
% Strike· slip fault
, (arrows indicate sense
of displacement)
Structures :
• Solid lines where active,
• dashed where inactive.
15'N
South China
Sea
y~
I" ~A....~ e:J
~f CY
1O'N 'v
;l,A'
Sulu Sea
150 MIs
150 Kms
I~
0
Mindanao Sea
I
125°E
Philippine
Sea
125"1:
85
15'N
Figure 6. Cenozoic magmatic arcs ofthe Philippines, modified after BMG (1982) and Mitchell and Leach (1992).
Magmatic arcs in the Cebu-Bohol region are not well constrained.
JuLy 1997

86
DEPOSITS and PROSPECTS
Skarn ..
Carbonate-base metal-Au 0
Epithermal hi~h-sulfidation 0
Epithermal low-sulfidation 0
Massive sulfide +
Disseminated sediment hosted x
Small prospects and workings
• Gold district or region
..
0
15' N <II
Q)
'"
<J
<:,
"-
~
u
~
.....
.:.
'?
lOON
150 Mis
150 Kms
S.L. GARWIN
12O"E (J
0
= f?
cJ
[Y
SuluSea
SUI: '1'0/)." Archipelago ~
..' ..o~ ~ '.~~
~20'E
cPl)C>
,d0
125'£
"
'"
'0
'0
:>
ttl
<I>
'".. 15'N
+
1O'N
Mindanao Sea
125'E
Figure 7. Location of the major gold deposits, prospects and districts of the Philippines, compiled after several
sources, including BMG (1986), Mitchell and Leach (1991) and UNDP (1992).
GeoL. Soc. MaLaYJia, BuLLetin 40

THE SETIINGS AND STYLES OF GOLD MINERALIZATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
12O'E
f)
DEPOSITS PROSPECTS
Porphyry Copper-Gold •
15'N CII
..'
<II
CJ)
CII
~
....
~
CJ
~
"-
.:.
r.,
1O'N
150 Mis
150 Kms
a
~
S u u
a'
~20"E
a
Sea
~"I'O
.!l.d Sulu
Archipelago ~
~. ..CX:1'olJ~
cD I:) 0
,00
MIndanao Sea
87
125"E
15'N
1O'N
125"E
Figure 8. Location of the major porphyry copper-gold deposits and prospects of the Philippines, modified after
Sillitoe and Gappe (1984) and BMG (1986).
JuLy 1997

500Mls
PENINSULAR
MALAYSIA 0
BAU-SUBAN
xBau
District
SINGAPORE
~<;:)NW. KALiMArvTAN
INDIA N OCEAN
. nd ProspectsDeposits a _
Porphyry
Skarn metal-gold 0
bonate-base
Car . -sulfidation °Epithermal high . 0
allow-sulfidatlonEpitherm *
Quartz lode
VMS/ Exhalative
Sediment-hosted
+
x
I ria n Jay a i -Frei
~
' District
~~ 0:ena
lANA , -CARSTENZ YUL ; _ Ok Tedi_Grasbe g .
D.Ertsberg :PAPUA
(} :NEW
!GUIN
Gold district or region
gmatic arcCenozoic ma
Trench-Teeth on
overriding plate
r fault
Strike-s 1Pdicate sensearrows In
of displacement
Structure: where active,
10' 5
SO"",, "'0' ati, "'''' aft"
____~~_~=~:;~~:~;~;~ll~O~~;::~:;~:~~:~:I ~: _dE~~~~~~- fIndonesla and distncts 0
",,., ro,peo" an
er deposits, p. ld and gold-copp- fthe major goLocatIOn 0
- Solid lines inactive
dashed where
Figure 9. ""' . h, n (1994)I Carlile and MItc
ex>
ex>
en
r-

25"
15"
5"
THE SETTINGS AND STYLES OF GOLD MINERALIZATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
95"
ANDAMAN SEA
~ Burma Plate
[] Shan - Thai Craton
a------ Indochina Plate
0 South China Plate
m Quaternary alluvium
D Jurassic - Cretaceous
sedimentary rocks
Belt or terrane boundary
-+-+ Major suture
- Strike - slip fault,
-~
sense of movement indicated
--'- Thrust - teeth on
overriding plate
+ Major anticline
Sutures:
BR : Bentong - Raub
LPU : Luang Prabang - Uttaradit
MR : Ma River
SK : Sra Kaeo
95"
105"
OJ
::c
105"
SOUTH CHINA PLATE
SOUTH CHINA
SEA
450 Kms
25
15"
5"
Figure 10. Tectonic framework of mainland Southeast Asia, compiled from several sources, including
Fontaine and Workman (1978), UNDP (1978), Hutchison (1989), GSV (1991) and GSM (1993).
July 1997
89

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