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ECOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY
by
Prof. A. Balasubramanian
Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth Science
University of Mysore
India

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Introduction
Your are all aware that Geography is an inter-
disciplinary subject. It is an essential academic
field, which is needed for all walks of human
life and a nation’s development.
By definition, Geography is the study of
locational and spatial variation in both physical
and human phenomena on earth.

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Over a period of time, geography have included
a lot of aspects into it domain.
Now, it has become a very vast subject,
involving the scientific information derived
from other subjects like geology, biology,
anthropology, economics, physics, sociology,
demography, ecology and environmental
sciences.

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Environmental Geography is a branch of
geography.
It deals with the spatial distribution of various
ecosystems, habitat, plants, animal and human
life.
In environmental Geography, emphasis is
given to analyze the relationship between
people and nature.

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The Study of Geography of the world has
grown along with the human evolutions. The
life becomes easy, when there is a basic
understanding of environmental conditions.
By definition, the term environment, refers to
the total set of circumstances that are
surrounding life. In short, it the space in which
all life survives.

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The term Ecology refers to the scientific study
of living organism `at home' which is the
'environment'.
In general, ecology is recognized as one of the
natural sciences. It is the science concerned
with the nature and the interrelations of living
world. The term ecology has been derived
from the Greek word "oikos" meaning
'habitation' or 'house' or 'living place'.

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There are several aspects in which the
components of geography and ecology are
similar in their concepts and applications.
In several areas, these two subjects also go
hand-in-hand.
Geography and ecology are related to each
other. An understanding of ecology and its
relation with geography is needed.

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Let us understand, the following aspects, in this
module:
1. Basics of Ecology
2. Basics of Geography
3. Branches of Ecology
4. Branches of Geography
5. Areas of commonalities.

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1. BASICS OF ECOLOGY
The subject Ecology was first described as a
separate discipline in the year 1886, by the
German Zoologist, Ernst Haeckel.
He defined it as a multidisciplinary science
aimed to deal with many biological aspects,
environmental concepts, processes, and
problems.

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The Science of Ecology involves, the study of
the relation of organisms or a group of
organisms to their environment and the totality
of man and his environment.
As a natural science, ecology involves the
application of knowledge from other disciplines
like Palaeoecology, Oceanography, Hydrology,
Limnology, Climatology, zoogeography,
Geomorphology, Physics and Chemistry.

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Ecology deals with organisms, populations,
communities, ecosystems and the biosphere.
The place of living for any life is its
environment. Hence, ecology is sometimes,
called as environmental biology.
The interrelation of organisms and the
environment may be between
a. an organism & its place of living,
b. an organism & its neighbour,
c. an organism & its own community,

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d. an organism & other communities,
e. a group of organisms & an organism and f. a
community to a community.
(Or) due to
a. the effect of environment over an organism,
b. the effect of environment over a group of
organisms,
c. the change of environment over life and
d. the change of environment due to a change in
the environment.

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The study of Ecology deals with
1. the spatial distribution of an abundance of
organisms,
2. the temporal changes in the occurrence,
abundance and activities of organisms,
3. the interrelations between organisms,
communities and populations,
4. the structural adaptation and functional
adjustments of organisms to the change in
environment,

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5. the behaviour of organisms under natural
environment,
6. the productivity of organisms and energy to
mankind and
7. the development of interactive models for
predictive purposes.

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2. BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY
The word Geography has been derived from the
Greek words ‘Geo’ means “earth” and
“graphein” means to “describe” or “write.”
Hence, it is considered to be a descriptive study
on earth.

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To describe the earth and its features,
geography involves a lot of surveys,
measurements, drawings, data processing and
analytical tools and techniques.
Geography is closely related to the global
environmental systems especially the
ecosystems.

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Every cubic centimeter of the planet earth is a
part of an ecosystem.
The interaction of physical, climatic and biotic
factors, generates a wide variety of ecological
conditions over the land.
Geography is the study of the location and
distribution of living things, earth’s features,
and natural resources.

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In essence, Geography is concerned with the
location, spatial and distribution of living and
non-living things, their patterns and relations.
The regional characteristics of these elements
on human life and settlement are also analysed
in geography.
The forces that change the earth’s features and
processes are systematically analyzed after the
preparation of thematic maps for planning and
development.

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Geography also analyses the satellite images for
various purposes. The goods and services that
the ecosystems provide us are the foundations
of all our economies. Agriculture, forestry, and
fishing are responsible for about 50% of all jobs
obtained worldwide.
In about 25% of the world's nations, crops,
timber, and fish still contribute more to the
economy of the regions than provided by the
industrial goods.

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Ecosystems also purify our air and water, help
to control our climate.
Geography is a major subject developed as a
consequence of human beings immediate need
for functioning in the physical world around
them.
There was a need to familiarize with the
surrounding environment of people with seas,
lakes, rivers, forests, soil, mineral resources,
climatic conditions and many more aspects.

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It is our very reliance on ecosystems that is
threatening them. As our populations grow and
consumption of food, water, and other materials
increases, the ecosystems that provide for these
needs are being stressed and in some cases
destroyed.
Geographers discuss all these aspects in tune
with the systematic study of ecological
perspectives and geographic perspectives.

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3. BRANCHES OF ECOLOGY
In general, ecology is classified into two major
subdivisions as animal ecology and plant
ecology.
Animal ecology is a branch dealing with the
animal population, changes in population, their
behaviour, and their relationships with the
environment.

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Plant ecology is another branch dealing with the
relationships of plants with the other plants and
their environment.
However, animals mostly depend on plants for
both food and shelter. Hence, animal ecology
deals with both animal and plant communities.
The science of ecology is divided into
a) synecology and b) autecology, based on the
organism and habitats.

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SYNECOLOGY is a branch of ecology
dealing with the study of groups of organisms
or the community. This is a habitat-based study.
A habitat is a place where an organism or
species population or a community thrives.
There are two major habitats as 1. terrestrial
habitats and 2. Aquatic habitats.

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Aquatic habitats include Marine, Fresh water,
Estuarine ecosystems. The branches related to
these are: Marine ecology, Estuarine ecology,
Limnology, etc
Terrestrial habitats include Forests, Grasslands,
Mountains, Deserts, etc. The branches related
to these are: Forest ecology, Grassland ecology,
etc.

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Synecology is divisible into population ecology
and community ecology.
A population emerges when individuals of the
same species aggregate themselves to function
as a single unit. Much interactions occur when
such populations inhabit an area.
A community inturn represents a group of
populations. It denotes the Co-habitation of
different species in a geographical region.

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Synecology refers to ecological studies
revealing the interrelationships between the
species constituting a community.
The study includes
1) Population characteristics,
2) Position of an individual in a population and
its relationship (intraspecific),
3) Regulation of population,
4) Impact of population on the environment,

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5) Community characteristics and their
interrelationships (Interspecific),
6) Succession changes and
7) the impact of communities over an
environment.
AUTECOLOGY is a branch of ecology
dealing with the study of species or the
relationship of an organism to one or more
environmental conditions.

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This is also called as species ecology.
It also deals with the nutrition, growth,
reproduction, development and life history of
individual species in an environment.
The following are the approaches adopted in
autecology;
1. Describing the type of habitat where in the
organisms of a species live in.

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2. Physical factors of the environment (air,
temperature, light, water, oxygen, chemicals)
and their interaction with that particular
environment and the organism.
3. The influence of various biotic factors
(predation, parasitism, competition, exploitation
etc) which have a bearing on the life and
environment.
4. The interaction of organisms with other
organisms of different species.

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5. Life and seasonal changes of the
environment.
6. Pattern of reproduction and dispersal of
organisms.
Based on the specific area of application and
orientation, ecology includes the following
branches:

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1. Population Ecology- it is the study of a
population, its growth, competition, means of
dispersal etc.
2. Community Ecology- which is the study of
distribution of animals in various environments.
3. Ecosystem Ecology which deals with the
relation and interaction of plant and animal
communities with their total environment.

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It deals with the formation of soil, chemical
cycles, food and feeding relationship, exchange
of energy and productivity.
4. Evolution Ecology which is concerned with
the manner in which all ecological structure and
functions have evolved.
5. Geographical Ecology which concentrates on
the distribution of organisms over the world and
the factors and forces brought out this
distribution.

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6. Palaeoecology is the study of organisms and
their environment existed in the distant
geological past.
7. Applied Ecology is a branch which deals
with wild life management, forest conservation,
biological control, animal husbandary and
pollution control.

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8. Oceanography is the study of marine habitat
and organisms.
9. Limnology is the study of life in freshwater
bodies.
10. Terrestrial Ecology, which is a major field
of ecology, includes Forest Ecology, Cropland
Ecology and Grassland Ecology.
Almost all these aspects are also included in the
geographical analyses and studies.

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4. BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY
The subject geography is diversified into
several branches of study over the last century.
Let us see the branches of Geography and their
importance.
The major Branches of Geography are:
1. Physical Geography
2. Geomorphology
3. Human Geography

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4. Urban Geography
5. Economic Geography
6. Population Geography
7. Political Geography
8. Biogeography
9. Cultural Geography
10. Hazards Geography
11. Agricultural Geography
12. Transportation Geography
13. Tourism Geography

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14. Environmental Geography
15. Oceanography
16. Climatology
17. Cartography
18. Settlement Geography
19. Social Geography
20. Industrial Geography
21. Palaeogeography
22. Geographic Thought
23. Medical Geography

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24. Military Geography
25. Geographic information Systems
26. Geography of Mountains
27. Geography of Water Resources and
28. Geography of Deserts.
Knowledge of Geography is needed for
environmental planning and for all development
studies.

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It is one subject which deals with all spheres of
the planet Earth in space.
5. AREAS OF COMMONALITIES
The subjects of geography and ecology have
many commonalities.

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A few of them are discussed here.
1) Study of distribution of life on earth:
Ecology and Geography concentrates on the
study of distribution of life on earth. One
considers the place of living as a system and the
other as a geographic unit of living. Geography
concentrates on human, plant and animal life
and their distribution over locations, climatic
regions and continents. Geography deals with

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them on socio-economic and spatial distribution
point of view. Ecology deals with microbial life
to human and wildlife and their distribution.
The interactions of all these are done on a
scientific point of view. Both of these subjects
consider the space, pattern, time, inter-relations,
abundance, problems and their environmental
issues.

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2) Habitat: Ecology and geography deal with
habitats and ecosystems. An ecosystem is
considered to be self contained. On the other
hand, no system can function in an independent
manner. The functions of an ecosystem involves
a continuous movement of matter (input) and
energy (output). The various dynamics of an
ecosystem can be understood only by studying
the components of a particular habitat. Ecology

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and Geography deal with these not only in
spatial perspective but also with reference to
time, climatic zones and their issues.
An ecoregion is an ecologically and
geographically defined large area of land or
water, and contain characteristic, geographically
distinct assemblages of natural communities
and species. Omernik defined ecoregions as:
“areas within which there is spatial coincidence
in characteristics of geographical phenomena

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associated with differences in the quality,
health, and integrity of ecosystems”.
“Characteristics of geographical phenomena”
may include geology, physiography, vegetation,
climate, hydrology, terrestrial and aquatic
fauna, and soils, and may or may not include
the impacts of human activity (e.g. land use
patterns, vegetation changes).

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A biotope is an area of uniform environmental
(physical) conditions providing habitat(s) for a
specific assemblage of plants and animals.
Used in this sense, "biotope" is really
synonymous with the term "ecosystem".
In ecology, a biome is a major regional group
of distinctive plant and animal communities that
are well adapted to the region's physical
environment. The concept of a biome also

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highlights the interaction among both plant and
animal populations, with soil, water and air.
A biome is discernible at a global scale, and a
biotic area is the geographical area that is
occupied by a particular biome.
Biomes are defined by the global pattern of
species. This pattern is influenced by regional

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climate, soil characteristics, substrate condition
, and other physical environment factors.
In turn, climate and soil partly depend on
latitude, altitude and slope. Hence, global
biomes are studied by the geographers also.
Biomes are the various regions of our planet
which can best be distinguished by their
climate, fauna and flora. Both ecologist and

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geographers argue on the exact number, or
different types of biomes in existence.
As it is with everything in nature, similar
biomes of different regions often exhibit unique
qualities which set them apart, but are not
enough to distinguish them completely from the
others.

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A rainforest may contain an area which would
not be that dissimilar from a wetland. Similarly
a desert may contain an unusual number of
plants and wildlife, but not enough to make it
into a grassland.
Latitude is a major factor defining the kinds of
global biomes. There is a good correlation
between the distribution of climates with
latitude, and homogenous vegetation bands on
the globe.

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Another major factor is the distribution of
humidity. This can be illustrated by the fact that
biodiversity increases away from the poles
towards the equator, and also increases with
humidity.
There are five main groups of biomes existing
on earth as aquatic, forest, desert, grassland
and tundra. All of them are studied in ecology
and geography.

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3) Water covers about three quarters of our
planet. The marine regions are very wide and
are divided into coral reefs, estuaries, seas and
oceans. Oceans represent the largest and the
most diverse type of the ecosystems. Hence,
Oceanography is kept as a separate branch of
geography. It is the study of oceans and their
role on earth’s cyclic phenomena and all life.
Marine ecosystems are also a part of the
ecological studies. Marine Ecology is a major

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branch of ecology. Coastal and Marine
Geography are also related to ecology.
4) Forest Biomes represent the largest and most
ecologically complex systems. They contain a
wide assortment of trees, plants, mammals,
reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, insects and
micro-organisms which vary depending on the
zone's climates. These are studied extensively
in ecology and geography.

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5) Hydrology is the study of water resources.
Ecology involves aquatic ecosystems as its
major group.
Surface and groundwater resources are the basic
resources for all life and for all the life support
systems in the world. Components of water
resources are included in both ecology and
geography.

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6) Limnology is the study of life in water as an
ecosystem. It may be freshwater or marine
water. Lakes are unique ecosystems. They are
part of rural and urban environments in many
places.
7) Climatology is a subject considered by both
ecology and geography. Climatic factors are
basic factors for all life to survive. Weather and
climate are part of all interactions on earth.

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Ecology and geography deal with climatologic
aspects as well.
8) Biogeography is a branch of geography.
Distribution of all species with reference to
various biomes and ecoregions are analysed in
this subject. Ecological aspects are fully
covered in this branch of geography.
9) Geomorphology is a basic branch of physical
geography.

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It deals with the study the landforms of the
planet, from their development to their
disappearance through erosion and other
processes.
10) Cryosphere geography explores the ice of
the earth, especially glaciers and ice sheets.
Geographers look at the past distribution of ice
on the planet and ice-cause features from
glaciers and ice sheets.

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11) Mountain geographers look at the
development of mountain systems and at the
humans who live in higher altitudes and their
adaptations to these environments. Ecology
deals with mountains as major ecosystems.
Geography of mountains are very typical
subjects of study.
12) Arid Regions are typical climatic zones on
the earth.

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Deserts cover about one fifth of our planet, and
are caused by extremely low rainfall over an
area. Deserts or dry plains have different
abiotic and biotic factors. Geographers
studying arid regions examine the deserts and
dry surfaces of the planet. The explore how
humans, animals, and plants make their home in
dry or arid regions and the use of resources in
these regions. Ecology of desert is a major area
of study in ecology.

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13) Soils are part of the ecosystems. Soil
geography is a major aspect of study in
geography. Soil geographers study the
distribution of soil types in upper layer of the
lithosphere and their utilization for various
purposes. Soil matrix is a part of ecological
studies.
Soil microbiology and the study of terrestrial
ecosystems all are included in ecology and
geography.

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14) Palaeoecology is the study of past ecological
conditions of an area. It analyses the fauna,
flora, physical conditions, distribution with
reference to space and time.
15) Ecology and geography deal with the
Global Change in climate, life and the
environment.

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16) Geographers researching on global change,
try to explore the long term changes occurring
in the plant earth based on human impacts on
the environment. Ecology also analyses all of
these as well.
17) The Hazards Geography is another
dimension related to both Ecology and
geography. Hazards combine their effects on
the physical units and on human and other life
on earth.

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Hazard geographers research on the extreme
events and their impacts known as disaster and
explore the human interaction and response to
these unusual natural or disastrous events.
Disaster management is a part of these subjects.
The areas which are very unique in geography
are
Human geography
Population geography

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Geography of religions
Medical geography
Military geography.
Cultural geography.
Political geography.
Rural geography
Urban geography
Transport geography and
Economic geography.

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Components of these subjects may not find any
place in ecology, but are thoroughly studied in
geography.