Historical Development of Hydrological Sciences
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This module gives an overview of general applications of current hydrogeological aspects. It is for the basic understanding of students and research scholars.
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Historical Development of Hydrological Sciences
- 1. Prof. A. Balasubramanian Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth Science University of Mysore, Mysore
- 2. Historical Development: Contributors in Hydrological Sciences • 1802 Lamarck -Hydrogeology • 1856 Henry Darcy • 1885 T.C.Chamberlin • 1899 Slichter • 1916 Mead- Hydrology • 1923 Meinzer • 1935 Theis • 1937 Tolman • 1940 Hubbert • 1940 Jacob • 1944 Piper • 1959 Todd –GW Hydrology • 1965 De Wiest -Geohydrology • 1950 Foster • 1951 Stiff • 1955 Chebotarev • 1960 Back • 1960 Garrels • 1979 Freeze Cherry • 1985 Back& Freeze • And several others
- 3. Studies & Approaches • Surveys & Monitoring • Data collection and Analysis • Research and Development • Procedure and Product Development • Resources evaluation and Management • Impact analysis (Natural & Man-made) • Future trend analysis.
- 4. Hydrogeology (or geohydrology): • Branched out from Hydrology • Surface Hydrology & Groundwater Hydrology
- 6. Surface hydrology • Addresses issues pertaining to eroding soils and streams due to surface flow. • Flooding, nutrient runoff, and pollutants are a few of the effects addressed + civil constructions such as dams.
- 10. Hydrogeology • Deals with the Occurrence, distribution and quality of groundwater. • The flow of water in the subsurface environment(aquifers) is controlled by various factors
- 11. Branches of Hydrological Sciences: • Hydrology – Surface water & • GW hydrology • Physical Hydrogeology • Chemical Hydrogeology • Contaminant Hydrogeology • Coastal Hydrogeology • Hydrometeorology • Urban Hydrology • Forest Hydrology • Snow Hydrology • Ecohydrology • Isotope Hydrology • Hydraulics • Fluid dynamics • Hydrodynamics • Water Resources Engineering • Water management • Water Conservation • Natural hazard and Disaster Management • Storm Water Management
- 12. Hydrometeorology: • is the study of the transfer of water and energy between land and water body surfaces and the lower atmosphere. • Hydrometeorology incorporates meteorology to solve hydrological problems. • These problems include forecasting flood or drought, or determining water resources and the safety of dams.
- 13. Surface Hydrology • Measurement of Hydrometeorological data – Rainfall, Runoff, Infiltration, Evapotranspiration, snowfall/ snowmelt, • Catchment Zone characteristics – Topography, Drainage, Morphometric parameters – DEM, DTM. – Rainfall-runoff relationships – Flood forecast- peak flow analysis. – Storage reservoirs, dams, weirs, etc. – Drainage controls. – Climatic Water Balance. – River Basin Hydrological models.
- 17. Groundwater Hydrology • Aquifer systems- boundaries, hydrological properties • Water level Hydrographs • Water Table contour maps • Flow directions, velocity, volumes • Rainfall-water level relationships • Rainfall-infiltration relationships • Groundwater balance • Groundwater Modeling.
- 18. Aquifer types
- 19. HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES • There are ten main hydraulic properties of the aquifer which should be understood. These are: • 1. Hydraulic Conductivity. • 2. Transmissivity. • 3. Storage Coefficient. • 4. Specific Mass Storativity. • 5. Specific Yield. • 6. Specific Retention. • 7. Hydraulic Resistance. • 8. Leakage Coefficient. • 9. Leakage Factor. • 10. Drainage Factor.
- 20. Aquifer Types • Confined aquifer – Under pressure – Bounded by impervious layers • Unconfined aquifer – Phreatic or water table – Bounded by a water table • Aquifer – Store & transmit water – Unconsolidated deposits sand and gravel, sandstones etc. • Aquitard – Transmit don’t store water – Shales and clay
- 21. Aquifer System Analysis • Pumping Tests • Well-Hydraulics • Flow types, flow tests • Aquifer parameter evaluation • Specific capacity of wells • Optimum Yield analysis of wells • Well-fields • Set back distances among wells(?)
- 25. Development of Groundwater Resources • Response of aquifers for pumping • Long-term and short-term changes • Natural recharge detection • Artificial recharge of Groundwater • Aquifer modelling & Simulation • Recharge-Discharge Simulation
- 26. Coastal Hydrogeology • Saltwater-Freshwater Relations/interface • Density variations • Shape and slope of interface- Movement • Island aquifer systems • Saltwater intrusion (encroachment) • Saltwater upconing • Modelling saltwater-freshwater flow in coasts.
- 27. Scale of Hydrogeological Studies • River basin • Watershed( Macro-,Micro) • District, Taluk, Block, Zonal • State-wide • Country-wide • Formation level • Single well, Well-fields
- 28. Surface-water & Groundwater Relationships • Stream-aquifer interactions • Groundwater & Lake interactions • Groundwater & Tidal inlet/estuary interactions • Drains & collector wells- Water supply wells
- 29. Seepage & Groundwater Flow • Seepage analysis downstream of reservoirs • Seepage analysis from canals • Seepage in surface mines • Seepage in underground mines • Seepage in tunnels • Seepage in road cuts/sections • Seepage in underground parking slots.
- 30. Geotechnical Problems of Groundwater • Land subsidence • Waterlogging • Landslides • Soil Erosion • Sedimentation & Siltation in ponds and reservoirs
- 33. Krishna basin
- 34. Krishna basin
- 43. Surface water bodies –Krishna basin • Surface water bodies have traditionally played an important role in the lives of common people in India. • According to the assessment, the total utilizable Surface Water Resource in Krishna Basin is 58.0 BCM. Reported Live Storage capability of Krishna Basin is 49.55 BCM. Maximum number of surface water bodies in Krishna basin falls in size range 0- 25 Ha. • There are reportedly 536 major reservoirs in the basin.
- 44. Krishna basin
- 57. Factors Controlling GW composition
- 58. Chemical Hydrogeology • Solute & Particle Transport • Aqueous Geochemistry • Chemical reactions • Equilibrium Thermodynamics • Mass Transport (MT)Analysis – MT in GW flow(Geologic/ Aqueous systems) • Studies on Water Quality Parameters • Water Pollution –sources & Impact Analysis.
- 60. Piper’s Trilinear Diagram (Post-monsoon)
- 61. Piper’s Trilinear Diagram (Pre-monsoon)
- 62. USSL Diagram for Classification of Irrigation Waters (Post-monsoon)
- 63. USSL Diagram for Classification of Irrigation Waters (Pre-monsoon)
- 64. Mechanism Controlling the Chemistry of Groundwater (Post- Monsoon)
- 65. Contaminant Hydrogeology • Advection, Diffusion & Mechanical dispersion • Pollutant movement under varying conditions • Leachate movement(Plume) • Trace metals, nutrients • Industrial effluents • Municipal sewage / septic tank effluents • Irrigation Return flows • Inorganic/organic/biological/solid wastes • Radio-nucleides, Radiation effects of Nuclear wastes • Thermal pollution from Thermal Power stations • Acid Mine Drainage
- 66. Non-point Sources of Surface Pollution
- 67. Aqueous Geochemistry • Aqueous solution phase • Gas-solid phase • Occurrence of mass in water (ions/metals/etc) • Reactions • Groundwater Composition dynamics
- 68. Chemical Reactions • CO2-water systems • Alkalinity • Organic solutes in water • Volatilization • Dissolution-Precipitation • Solubility of mineral species • Complexation Reactions • Oxidation-reduction reactions • Hydrolysis • Isotopic reactions • Equations of mass-transport, reactions, etc.= Reaction Path Models.
- 69. Saturated-Unsaturated Zone • Isotopic studies • Dating of water • Determination of velocity of flow of water • Residence time • Heat transport • Conduction/ Convection • Geothermal energy/hotsprings/geysers • Aquifer Thermal Energy storage.
- 70. Mass Transport in Geologic systems • Carbonate rocks- Karst Hydrogeology • Dolomitization • Evaporites • Salt deposition-Salt pans • Petroleum reservoirs. • Geochemical Modeling • Mass Transport simulation in 2D and 3D.
- 71. Hydrogeophysics • Geophysical prospsecting of GW – Electrical, seismic, electromagnetic methods • ERM( profiling, 2D or 3D sounding )-Imaging • EM sounding- depth • Seismic profiles • Weathered zone, GW potential zones • Fracture trace analysis • Saltwater-freshwater interface detection • Contaminant plume detection.
- 78. VLF-EM
- 79. EM surveys
- 80. Seismic surveys
- 83. Other Approaches • Borehole Geophysical Logging • Use of Satellite Images for – Landuse/landcover analysis – Hydrogeomorphic units demarkation – Geology – Structures – Lineaments • Use of GIS as a tool in all approaches.
- 85. SHEARS ARE MANY IN SOUTH INDIA
- 86. MOYYAR - BHAVANI SHEAR
- 88. MOYYAR
- 90. Palakkad shear from east
- 91. THE SOUTH
- 92. CAPE
- 95. Achankoil shear zone from east
- 99. Mathematical models help in order to • evaluate the existing system , • generate new ideas, • test new applications / approaches • identify the problem areas and • to reduce the cost of adhoc experimentation.
- 101. FLOW MODELS PREDICTION SINGLE PURPOSE MULTI PURPOSE DEFORMATION MODELS MASS TRANSPORT MODELS HEAT TRANSPORT MODELS
- 102. FLOW MODELS MULTI PHASE – (IMMISIBLE)) SINGLE PHASE (MISSIBLE) LUMPED DISTRIBUTED COMBINED SUBSURFACE —SURFACE FLOW UNSATURATED FLOW COMBINED UNSATURATED - SATURATED FLOW SATURATED- FLOW 1-DIM VERTICAL 2-DIM HORIZ / VERTICAL FULLY 3-DIM
- 103. SATURATED FLOW HYDRAULIC (DUPUIT’S APPROXIMATION) HYDRODYNAMIC SINGLE AQUIFER SINGLE AQUIFER 2 DIM VERTICA L FULLY 3 DIM AXI SYMMETRI C
- 104. Groundwater modelling requires • the following domain specific information: • physical units, • hydrologic conditions, • aquifer parameters , • time varying inputs and • boundary conditions.
- 105. Fundamental equations: • Two-dimensional case: • d (Tx - dh) + d (Ty dh) = S dh + w(x,y,t) • dx dx dy dy dy • • Three-dimensional case: • d (Tx - dh) + d (Ty dh) + d (Tz dh) = S dh + w(x,y,z, t) • dx dx dy dy dz dz dy
- 106. APPROXIMATION: • Finite Difference method • Finite element method • Integrated finite difference method • Boundary integral method • Random walk method • Method of characteristics using FD/FE
- 115. MASS TRANSPORT MODELS LUMPED PARAMETER DISTRIBUTED PARAMETER UNCOUPLED COUPLED CONSERVATIVE TRANSPORT NON-CONSERVATIVE TRANSPORT RANDOM WALK MODELS
- 117. HEAT TRANSPORT MODELS UNCOUPLED COUPLED SINGLE PHASE MULTI PHASE AQUIFER THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE MODELS RADIACTIVE WASTE ENERGY DISSIPATION
- 119. Hydrology
- 120. LANDUSE
- 125. DEMs
- 126. Gentle slopes surrounding streams are visually apparent on a 3D plot of elevation
- 128. Defining Basins
- 129. Computing Basin Data • Area • Slope • Flow Distances – Slopes • Aspect • Stream Lengths – Slopes • Others A=3.18 acr BS=0.0124 ft/ft AOFD=140.06 ft A=5.39 acr BS=0.0243 ft/ft AOFD=158.33 ft A=7.21 acr BS=0.0200 ft/ft AOFD=93.47 ft
- 130. From Coarse to Fine From Fine to Coarse Unequal Distribution Redistribute Vertices
- 131. Define Basins
- 132. Compute Basin Data • Basins – Area – Slope – Avg. Elevation – Length • Streams – Length – Slope A=0.29 mi^2 BS=0.2450 ft/ft AOFD=279.69 ft A=0.40 mi^2 BS=0.3065 ft/ft AOFD=674.92 ft A=0.63 mi^2 BS=0.3552 ft/ft AOFD=1222.43 ft A=0.17 mi^2 BS=0.3730 ft/ft AOFD=589.46 ft
- 133. Drainage Networks
- 139. Runoff estimates
- 142. Forest fire
- 143. Engineering projects
- 144. Flood risk areas
- 148. Aquifer Mapping
- 151. Tumkur
- 154. Tumkur
- 156. Example of a tentative hydrogeological map, Tumkur district
- 162. Aquifer geometry
- 163. Thematic layer of an aquifer map
- 165. Rock fragments with clay: light pale to pinkish brown fragments of quartzite, quartz and some ferro-magnesium minerals with little clay. clayey sand Silty clay Quartzite Bed Rock: light pale to dark brown colour chips of micaceous quartzite.
- 169. 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80 Elevation,m 0255075100125150175200225 DT1 Ohm-m 10 100 400 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 -140 Elevation,m 0255075100125150175200225 DT2 Ohm-m 1 10 100 400 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 Elevation,m 0255075100125150175200225 DT5 Ohm-m 1 10 100 400 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 Elevation,m 0255075100125150175200225 DT6 Ohm-m 1 10 100 400 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 Elevation,m 0255075100125150175200225 DT7 Ohm-m 1 10 100 400 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 Elevation,m 0255075100125150175200225 DT8 Ohm-m 1 10 100 400 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 Elevation,m 0255075100125150175200225 DT9 Ohm-m 0.1 1 10 100 400 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 -140 Elevation,m 0255075100125150175200225 DT4 Ohm-m 1 10 100 400 Figure 12: TEM sounding results at AQDRT area Marly Limestone with bentonite gypseous clay Saturated saline water alluvium underlain by limestone/s andstone Dray sand underlain by saline zone
- 170. • First Layer (Sandstone) First Layer ( Sea (Bay of Bengal) Aquifer - I (Sandston e) Aquifer – IV (Sandstone) Second Layer (Clay) Aquifer – II (sandstone) Sixth layer (Clay) Fourth Layer (Clay & Lignite) Aquifer - III (Sandstone) Perumal Eri Neyveli Lignite Mine 45,000 GPM pumping Aquifer Management Plan (aquifer unit wise) (lower Vellar water shed, TN) basement Aquifer Issues I - Aquifer o Pumping for irrigation, Industries & Domestic. o Sea water intrusion II- Aquifer o Pumping for irrigation, Industries & Domestic. o Sea water intrusion III- Aquifer o Heavy withdrawal for Lignite mining (45,000 GPM) o Sea water intrusion Aquifer Management I - Aquifer Desilting of Perumal Eri (will induce recharge) II - Aquifer Managed Aquifer Recharge III - Aquifer Planned Pumping schedule & Managed Aquifer Recharge, after completion of mining IV - Aquifer Future allocation for drinking purposes
- 171. Water Technology • Water Purification • Demineralisation • Desalinisation • Corrosion control • Controlling Scale formation • Hydrofracturing • Drilling Technology • Water supply-Drip Irrigation systems.
- 172. Drainage Map
- 173. Flow Direction Map
- 175. Landuse map
- 176. Slope map
- 177. HYDROGEOLOGICAL STUDY in RIVER BASINS - EXAMPLE
- 180. The basin occupies an arial extent of 2550.08 sq.km covering most of the areas in Villupuram, Vanur, Gingee, Tindivanam Taluks and partly the areas in Polur, Tiruvannamalai and Vandavasi Taluks, partly in UnionTerritory of Puducherry and less than 1% of the area covered in Cuddalore District.
- 185. Soils play an important role in groundwater quantity and also in quality.The major soil types of this basin is clay loam,clay, sandy,sandy clay and clay soils.
- 186. Mapping of lineaments is very useful especially in hard rock areas where the occurance and movement of gro und water is mostly confined to these features NE-SW,NW-SE and NNW-SSE trending lineaments are the major lineaments mapped in this basin. These lineaments are traversing on the barren land areas in between the Tindivanam-Mailam-Gingee areas.
- 187. Twelve raingauge stations in and around the basin having the long term records are considered for detailed analysis.
- 188. The average annual precipitation of the basin is 108 cm.The amount of rainfall increases towards the east coast than the western part of the basin.
- 189. The basin receives the rainfall in the range of 300 to 500 mm during the south west monsoon
- 190. Legend N EW S VARAHANADHI RIVER BASIN NORTH EAST RAINFALL CONTOUR 12°00' 12°00' 12°15' 12°15' 79° 15' 79° 15' 79°30' 79°30' 79° 45' 79° 45' Bay of Bengal $ $ $ Gingee Vidur Dam Pondicherry Rain fa ll in m m 350-400 400-450 450-500 500-550 550-600 600-650 650-700 700-750 $ Raingauge Station MAP : 3.4 4 0 4 8 Scale Km Nallavur Basin Ponnaiyar Basin Palar Basin Ongur Basin The basin receives the maximum rainfall during the retreating north east monsoon period amounting nearly 43 to 63 percent of the annual rainfall.
- 191. The rainfall of the hot weather station is as low as 2 to 3 percent of the annual rainfall.
- 193. The geomorphological landforms in sedimentary and hard rocks plays an important role in the water resources study. IRS-1D Satellite LISS III data (false colour composite) has been used to demarcate the different geomorphic units. In the eastern part of the basin it is covered by sedimentary with marine landforms whereas the western part is covered by hard rock terrain which exhibits denudational landforms.
- 194. In the Buried pediment shallow, moderate and in the deep landforms with lineament intersection points are found to be favourable for groundwater development.
- 195. 1. By using IRS ID – LISS III Remote Sensing Satellite imagery of Pre monsoon 2005, the image mosaic map was generated MGE – Image Analyst of Intergraph digital image processing software and Arc view Geographical information system software were utilized for generation of this map. Visual and mechanical interpretation techniques were applied to derive the thematic maps on geology, geomorphology, drainage, land use, lineament, wastelands maps structural hills with dense forest area are seen south west of Gingee area where hilly regions in deep red colour are exhibited as pockets. In sedimentary area in the east, cashew plantation is in dark red colour. Command area is also seen in thick red colour . Salt pan areas are seen in white and ash colours in the coastal area. Beach sand dunes are exhibited in white colour.
- 196. In the sedimentary areas and along the river courses the groundwater potential is very good whereas in the hard rock areas especially in the pediment and in the shallow pediment areas the availability of groundwater is less.
- 197. Most of the wet crops such as paddy, sugarcane etc., are cultivated using the rivers, streams,lakes , reservoir and tanks. Dry crops are practiced using groundwater spatially in the study area.
- 198. Wasteland is described as degraded land which can be brought under vegetative cover with reasonable effort and which is currently under utilised and land which is deteriorating for lack of appropriate water and soil management or on account of natural causes.
- 199. The appraisal of the ground water occurance is based on geological evaluation and observation wells.An inventory of about 22 observation wells spread over the entire basin has been scrutinised and periodical water level fluctuations were examined.
- 200. From the map,it is found that the shallow water table occurs in the crystalline complex especially in the western portions of the basin and the deeper water table exists in sedimentaries near the coast line.The following steps have been adopted in preparing the grid deviation water table map of the basin.
- 201. In majority of the areas of varahanadhi basin the water level is in the range of 5 to 10 m below ground level. In the areas of vanur taluk particularly in sandstone areas the water level has gone below 10 m below ground level. In this basin most of the area the water level is in the range of 10 to15 m below ground level. In the northeastern part and in few parts of south western portion the water level is in the range of 5 to 10 m below ground level.
- 202. In the hard rock area the transmissivity of the formation ranges upto 200 m2 per day and in the sedimentary formations about 70% of the borewells the transmissivity value ranges between 300 to 1800 m2/day and in 30 % of the bore wells the transmissivity value was found to be in the range of 350 to 8000 m2/day especially in some areas in Union Territory of Puducherry and in sandstone areas of vanur taluk.
- 203. For evaluating the groundwater potential zones of the Varahanadhi river basin about 120 ves locations have been used. Due to high degree of heterogenity noticed in the hard rocks, the identification of deep water bearing horizons below 70 m requires intensive analsis.
- 204. legend 20m 10m
- 205. The shallow and moderate thick top soil zones exist in hard rock areas of this basin and the deep top soil zones existing mostly in the eastern part of the basin is made up of sedimentary formations and will be most suited for water conservation structures.
- 206. The weathered zone existing at a depth of 4 to 18 m spread wide over the central and western parts of the basin. The moderately deep weathered rock area is commonly occurred in surrounding the shallow weathered areas.The deep weathered rock occurs as small patches in the hard rock region.
- 207. The fractured rock at deeper depth exists in lesser area of hard rock terrain and the corresponding sandstone /limestone spread well over the sedimentary region
- 209. This study clearly state that the areas covered by cluster III and IV are not suitable for setting up of any new groundwater developmental activities. These two clusters mostly falls in the northeastern part over the study periods where the groundwater is polluted mainly by dry deposition of saline water as well as dumping of solid wastes. Hilly and Quarry areas: Catchment area treatment techniques should be implemented to check the surface run off and the possibilities of converting abandoned quarries into recharge structures could be explored. Drastic measures need to be taken to minimise groundwater extraction in the area. Further developments should be carefully planned without harming the groundwater regime.
- 210. Legend Ponnaiyar Basin Palar Basin Ongur Basin Nallavur Basin N EW S VARAHANADHI RIVER BASIN WATER QUALITY CONTOUR (TDS - POST MONSOON 2005) 12°00' 12°00' 12°15' 12°15' 79° 15' 79° 15' 79° 30' 79° 30' 79° 45' 79° 45' Bay of Bengal ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (( ( 2 0 2 4 Km Scale TDS in mg/l 1200 - 1500 300 - 600 600 - 900 900 - 1200 ( Observation Well Hill MAP : 7.8
- 212. Time and tide wait for none Slow and steady wins the race