naveen summer intership report2222

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SUMMER INTERNSHIP REPORT
ON
“SOLAR POWER PLANT & SOLAR ENERGY”
Submitted by:
Naveen Bhati
4th
Year (B.Tech 7th
Semester)
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
13EGBEE018
GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE BANSWARA (RAJASTHAN)
RTU Kota
Under the guidance of
Mr. Bhawani singh
GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE BANSWARA,
BEHIND MAYUR MILL ,DUNGERPUR ROAD
Banswara, Rajasthan – 327001

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work on this project was conducted as a part of my summer training
during 23th May 2016 to 23rdJuly 2016.
I would very thankful to all of us to support me in the internship duration in
PVAS.
“Utilization of Concentrated Solar Technology for Industrial and Commercial
Applications
Appreciation is expressed to the members who served as the Technical
Advisors for their input and assistance. The support provided by Executive
Director Mr. BHAVANI SIR is also acknowledged. Appreciation is also
acknowledged to PRIME VISION AUTOMATION PVT. LTD. for allocating their
resources and technical support.
(Naveen Bhati)
Place:
Date:

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CERTIFICATE
From the concerned training agency (CIDC)

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Abstract
The fast-growing demand for energy and the recognition of man-made global
climate change underscore the urgency of developing clean and renewable
energy resources to replace fossil fuels. Harvesting energy directly from
sunlight by using photovoltaic (PV), photo catalysis, artificial photosynthesis,
and other enabling technologies is a promising way to meet such
requirements. As an alternative to conventional PV cells based on crystalline
silicon wafer, vacuum-deposited CIGS and CZTS thin-film PV cells as well as
solution-processed inorganic and organic thin-film PV cells offer processing
advantages that will likely enable low-cost, high-throughput, and large-area PV
production. Furthermore, the development of efficient and smart energy
storage systems is imperative to effectively ensure reliable energy supply and
increase the penetration of solar energy utilization. To sustainably utilize solar
energy, intelligent power distribution grids need to be locally developed for
solar energy generation, storage, and utilization at affordable cost and with
enhanced security of supply through flexible transition between grid
interconnected and islanded operating modes.

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INDEX
SI.NO TOPIC PAGE NO.
1. INTRODUCTION
 COMPNY PROFILE
 TRAINING
 INDUSTRIAL PROJECT
 PRODUCTS
 SOLAR SYSTEM
7 - 12
2.  RENEWABLE ENERGY
 SOLAR ENERGY
 WORKING OF SOLAR ENERGY
 FUTURE OF SOLAR ENERGY
 SOLAR WATER PUMP
13 - 20
3.  SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANT
 BASIC PRINCIPLE
 TYPES OF TECHNOLOGY
 DESIGN PARAMETER
21 - 39
4.  HEAT & ITS MEASUREMENT
 HEAT CAPACITY
 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPECITY
 LATENT HEAT
 LATENT HEAT FOR VAPORIZATION
 SUPER HEAT STEAM
 APERTURE AREA
39 - 41

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5.  SOLAR PV SYSTEM AS OVERVIEW
 SOLAR PV SYSTEM AS BUILDING
 APPOINTING A SOLAR SYSTEM
 SOLAR PV SYSTEM INSTALLATION AND REQUIREMENT
 INVERTER AND CHARGE CONTROLLER
41 - 44
6.  BASIC SCADA AND PRINCIPLE
 WHAT ITS
 FEATURES OF SCADA
 EXPERIMENT BASED WORKS ON SCADA
 SCADA APPLICATION
 WHAT IS PLC
 BASIC PLC
44 - 47

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INTRODUCTION ABOUT THE COMPANY
COMPANY PROFILE:
Prime Vision Automation Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
Prime Vision Automation Solutions Pvt. Ltd. is an ISO Certified 9001: 2008
company, provides complete services & solutions on Industrial Automation,
Embedded & robotics system and solar PV system that customers have relied
upon for years easy to use and that gives the flexibility to choose your level of
investment.
TRAINING:
Now-a-days, are of Hi-tech technology of software, hardware & core is taking
the country in the 21st century. We provide practical knowledge on PLC,
SCADA, HMI, drives, electric motors, DCS, industrial networking, process
instrumentation, and panel designing, embedded system, robotics and solar PV
system to EE,ECE,EIC,EEE,and CSE& ME degree- diploma engineers,fresher and
working professionals at our fully equipped labs and also in college premises.
Candidates who are looking for the placement in core manufacturing and high
growth infrastructure sector, projects companies and high end electrical and
mechanical design companies, The Company provides a comprehensive
educational environment to individuals and enterprises, offering training i.e.,
customized to the various needs of the audiences with diversebackgrounds. To
develop skilled workforce with diversified Automation knowledge to meet
the ever-increasing demand of the Industries.
INDUSTRIAL PROJECTS:

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We are leading professionally managed company engaged in marketing of
Industrial maintenance products & automation service. We ensure operational
excellence, increased productivity and regulatory compliance, optimal asset
utilization, reduction in downtime and safety related incidents. Products we
deliver are Switchgears, Drives, VFD, Servo Drives, PLC, HMI, SCADA, Sensors
and transmitters, Automation Panels, Control system accessories, Solar
system. Services we are providing to our customers PLC, HMI, DRIVES based
services , Sensors and instrumentation based services, Solar PV Product
servicing,Various electric panels.
PRODUCTS:
AutomationPANELS:
Control Panel View

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Pdf of Automautoation Panels
 PLC Automation Panel
 Automatic Power Factor Control Panel (APFC)
 Automatic Mains Failure Panel (AMF)
 DG Synchronizing Panel
 Control Panel for Wind Turbine
 Motor Control Centre
 Power Control Centre
 Thyristor Control Panel
 Inverter Control Panel
 Automatic Stator ‐ Rotor Panel
 Motor Starters & Changeovers
CONTROL SYATEM ACCESSORIES:
All types of control system accessories such as led, push buttons, connectors,
wires & cables, din rail etc.
SOLAR SYSTEM:
SOLAR PV SYSTEM TYPES:
Basically Solar PV Systems can be classified into two types. The first and the
oldest is “Stand Alone” and the second which is rather new is “Grid
Interactive”. Common examples of Stand Alone Systems are Solar lantern,
Street Lighting System, Home Lighting System etc. Systems that interact

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with.the utility power grid and have no battery backup and systems that
interact and include battery backup as well are known as Grid Interactive
Systems.
GRID INTERACTIVE SOLAR POWER PLANT WITHOUT BATTERY
BACKUP
This type of system only operates when the grid power is available. Since grid
power outages are rare, this system will normally provide the greatest amount
of bill savings to the customer against investment. However, in the event of an
outage, the systemis designed to shut down until utility power is restored. The
inverter switches to “sleep mode” and awaits restoration of grid power. Once
grid power restores the inverter synchronizes itself to grid and starts feeding
power into the grid.
GRID INTERACTIVE SOLAR POWER PLANT WITH BATTERY BACKUP
This type of system operates in grid connected mode when the power grid is
available. However, in the event of an outage, the system is designed to
operate in standalone mode and starts powering dedicated loads, until utility
power is restored. The inverter switches to “standalone mode” and awaits
restoration of grid power. Once grid power restores the inverter synchronizes
itself to grid and starts feeding power into the grid.
TYPICAL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
PV Array
A PV Array is made up of PV panel which in turn has several PV modules. These
PV modules have environmentally-sealed collections of PV Cells which converts
sunlight to electricity. The technical details of the solar modules proposed are
attached in the form of catalogues.
Balance of System Equipment (BOS)
BOS includes module mounting structures and electrical harness systems used
to integrate the solar modules into the structural and electrical systems. The

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electrical wiring systems include Junction Boxes for paralleling, fuses/switches,
surge suppressors for the dc side.
The major components of the BOS are the Inverter and the Controllers. These
form the brain of the system which does multi operation.
View Of PV Panel

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Module mounting system:
The module mounting structure is designed for holding suitable number of
modules in series. The frames and leg assembles of the array structures is made
of Mild Steel hot dip galvanized of suitable sections of Angle, Channel, Tubes or
any other sections conforming to IS:2062 for steel structure to meet the design
criteria. All nuts & bolts considered for fastening modules with this structure are
of very good quality of Stainless Steel. The array structure is designed in such a
way that it will occupy minimum space without sacrificing the output from SPV
panels at the same time.
Schematic Figure of PV

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Pdf of Solar system
A solar electric array generates electricity from the sun's light with no moving
or wearing parts. Our solar products are designed to utilize the direct current
fromthe array efficiently, even as the energy production varies throughout the
day.
 Solar Lantern
 Solar Street Lights
 Home Lighting System
 Solar Water Heaters
 Solar Water Pump
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources—such as
sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat—which are renewable (naturally
replenished). Renewable energy technologies range from solar power, wind
power, hydroelectricity/micro hydro, biomass and biofuels for transportation.
Renewable energy is energy that is generated from natural processes that are
continuously replenished. This includes sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, tides,
water, and various forms of biomass. This energy cannot be exhausted and is
constantly renewed.
Alternative energy is a term used for an energy source that is an alternative to
using fossil fuels. Generally, it indicates energies that are non-traditional and
have low environmental impact. The term alternative is used to contrast with
fossil fuels according to some sources. By most definitions alternative energy
doesn't harm the environment, a distinction which separates it from

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renewable energy which may or may not have significant environmental
impact.
SOLAR ENERGY
Traditionally, the sun has provided energy for practically all living creatures on
earth, through the process of photosynthesis, in which plants absorb solar
radiation and convert it into stored energy for growth and development.
Scientists and engineers today seek to utilize solar radiation directly by
converting it into useful heat or electricity.
Two main types of solar energy systems are in use today: photovoltaics, and
thermal systems. There is a great deal of opportunity for using these systems
in the state of Pennsylvania, and ongoing work at Penn State is seeking to
improve the available technology and increase the utilization of solar energy
systems in the keystone state.
Solar photovoltaics
Photovoltaic systems convert solar radiation to electricity via a variety of
methods. The most common approach is to use silicon panels, which generate
an electrical current when light shines upon it. Penn State University is
involved in several projects to demonstrate and encourage the use of solar
energy at appropriate locations within Pennsylvania. Solar photovoltaics are
especially valuable for remote rural applications where it would be
prohibitively expensive to supply electricity from a utility line.
WORKING OF SOLAR PANEL
Solar Panels:
Convert sunlight into electrical power via the photovoltaic effect. The electrical
power produced is direct current (DC) like a battery, which cannot be used with
normal electrical equipment in a household straight away.
Mounting Frames:
Supportthe solar panels to the sub structureof the roof to ensure a secure
fixture to the roof and spaceunderneath the panel.

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Marshaling Enclosure:
Connect all strings to the DC cable running the electrical power from the roof
to the inverter. In case of a bigger PV system (> 5 kWp) the Marshaling box
may contain special string fuses.
AC & DC IsolationEnclosure:
Holds a 2-pole DC Isolator Switch which protects the input side of the
inverter.There is alternating current (AC) switch on the output side to allow
safe disconnection of the inverter.
INVERTER
Converts the DC power from the PV panels into AC in order to match the
parameters of the utility grid (according to AS 4777). The inverter deactivates at
night and automatically starts operating in the morning when sunlight is sufficient.
The inverter is the operations center of your system and as such, useful
information can be obtained from the inverter’s display.

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Inverter Figure
Main Switch Box:
An additional AC Isolator Switch connects the PV system to the existing
infrastructure. It also protects equipment from being harmed by eventual over
currents from the inverter if it is in a fault condition.
Energy Meter:
In most cases older electricity meters will be changed to aBi-directional Digital
Meter when the Solar Photovoltaic Power System is installed at a house. This is
done through your electricity retailer.
FUTURE OF SOLAR ENERGY
In the solar energy sphere, scientists and economists alike will note that
coming up with cheaper, most efficient solar cells is key to the industry’s
growth. And now, many experts are arguing that an emerging type of
technology, known as the “perovskite” solar cell, is the face of the future.

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Solar cells, the devices that convert solar energy into electricity, only come in
so many forms at the moment. Most of the ones in commercial use are made
of silicon. But while these silicon cells dominate the market, they’re far from
perfect — on average, they’re only able to achieve 16 to 20 percent efficiency
when it comes to converting solar energy, said MichaelMcGee, a professor of
materials science and engineering at Stanford University. And they can be
expensive both to produce and to install.
As a result, researchers around the world have dedicated themselves to
coming up with cheaper and more efficient solar cells. A great deal of this
research is conducted by private companies and is involved with improving the
existing silicon cell technology. But some researchers are focused on
developing other up-and-coming types of solar cells using different materials
and production techniques.
One of these emerging products is the perovskite solar cell, a cheaper product
with the potential to be just as efficient — if not more-so — than traditional
silicon cells, according to recent research. The word “perovskite” refers to the
type of material the cell is made out of. A perovskite material has a special
type of crystal structure — calcium titanium oxide is one example, but other
materials can have similar structures and be referred to as perovskites.
Solar Pumping
In rural and/or undeveloped areas where there is no power grid and more
wateris needed than what hand or foot pumps can deliver, the choices for
powering pumps are usually solar or a fuel driven engine, usually diesel.There
are very distinct differences between the two power sources in terms ofcost
and reliability. Diesel pumps aretypically characterized by a lower first cost but
a very high operation and maintenance cost. Solar is the opposite, with a
Higher first cost but very low ongoing operation and maintenance costs. In
terms of reliability, it is much easier (and cheaper) to keep a solar-powered

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system going than it is a diesel engine. This is evident in field where diesel
engines lie rusting and unused by the thousands and solar pumps sometimes
run for years without anyone touching them.
The solar water pumping system is a stand-alone system operating on power
generated using solar PV (photovoltaic) system. The power generated by solar
cells is used for operating DC surface centrifugal mono-block pump set for
lifting water from bore open well or water reservoir for irrigation and drinking
water purpose.
INTRODUCTION
Unlike conventional diesel or electrical pumps, solar pumps are powered by an
array of solar panels. Solar pumps are designed to operate on DC power
produced by solar panels. These pumps are gaining popularity all over the
world wherever electricity is either unavailable or unreliable. Solar pumps are
becoming a preferred choice in remote locations to replace diesel pumps. In
such places, solar pumps are even viable economically in comparison to
extension of grid or running the pump on diesel.

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Solar Pumping Model for the Project
This model offers solar powered pumping solution that is sustainable and
pollution free, and has less than five years of payback period against diesel
power.
The model has engineered an optimal solution that is offered to farmers.
System integration expertise between solar modules and centrifugal pumps
that is enabled via a power electronics middleware has been developed.A
proprietary intelligent controller and variable frequency drive solution have
been developed that facilitates optimized system configuration, which is more
reliable and low in cost. The solutions are customized according to the need of
a particular farmer. Both AC and DC solar pumping solutions are provided that
covers all types of irrigation need in various parts of rural India.
In addition, an Online Remote Monitoring and Control Systemhasbeen
developed that allows online monitoring of the performance of the solar

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pump. It allows user to monitor as well as control the system remotely,
including system ON and OFF, power control, and water discharge control.
Solar Powered Water Pump-Key Features
A solar pump assemble
Solar panels:
Solar panel is a device which is used to convert energy contained withinthe
sun’s rays into electricity.A photovoltaic module is an interconnected
collection of cells combined into one item. Solar modules allow for a wide
range of varying sizes of solar panel products to be Manufactured.

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When a number of solar or photovoltaic modules are installed together, this is
commonly referred to as a solar array, or photovoltaic array.Arrays are a great
way to increase the potential of a solar electricity system, to provide a greater
output of electricity.
The use of solar power panel lows us to generate electricity in remote corners
of the earth, or outer-space. This can be extremely useful when there is no
other source of electricity in the specific area.
Solar power plant
Technical details:
Segments
The 3 MW Plant is divided into three single Inverter, and each array consists of
24 Independent segments of one MW each. Modules connected in series. The
power Each segment is equipped with four generated from 3 MW PV Plant at
0.415 diagram of the Plant is shown in Figure 3. kV p Inverters of 250 kW each
and grouped is stepped up to 11 kV with the help of three Together to form
one LT panel. Depending on step-up transformers and connected to the mix of
225 & 240 PW modules, 45 to 46 existing 11 kV lines.

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Solar Plant Pv Figure:
Tables 4 and 5 give the general technical details and the module specifications of the Plant.

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Power Conditioning Units (PCUs) Transformers
All the twelve PCUs are identical and are The full load rating of the
Transformers is supplied by the single manufacturer 1.25 MVA.
All the three oil – cooledBONFIGLIOLI (VECTRON, RPS 450 type). Transformers
are supplied by theThe MPPT device is in-built in the control manufacturer Pan
Electro Technicsystem which allows operating at constant Enterprises Pvt. Ltd.
The efficiency isvoltage. The efficiency of the PCUs is 98.91% at rated voltage
and 99.3% ataround 96% at nominal load. The rated maximum flux
density.capacity of the PCU is 250 kW.
Timelines
Foundation was laid on 9th January 2009 30th September 2009, 2 MW on 12th
and the site handed over to TITAN on 28th November and 3 MW on 27th
December May 2009.

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Plant Maintenance & Operation
In addition to 3 MW , one more 10 kW PV regularly to meet the water
requirements of plant has been installed on the rooftop of the Plant. The other
two pump sets remain office building to take care of domestic idle most of the
time.
lighting and cooling loads of the Plant, Cleaning of PV Modules:
including the load of exhaust fans. At Generally, the modules are cleaned by
present, the plant is maintained by 13 spraying water with the help of
extendable workers which includes 2 technical persons hosepipes.
Occasionally, wipers are used to who look after data collection and remove the
accumulated dirt and bird monitoring. droppings, say once in a month. On an
Three bore - wells have been installed at average, each module is cleaned once
in a the site with pump-set capacities of 2 HP, week on rotational basis.
Performance analysis
The total Energy produced by 3 MW Plant generation during 2010. Since
Segment-3 during the year 2010 was 3,347,480 units. was not performing
satisfactorily for a few Out of this, 3,303,200 units were sold to the months,
which is evident fromthe figure, we grid. Figure 4 shows the contribution of all
will restrict our analysis to the first two the three Segments in the total power
Segments only.

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Grid-off times: Figure 9 shows the was observed that the grid-offs occurred
cumulative monthly grid-off times during the mainly during the peak hours
(11.30 am – year 2010. Out of the 357 days of the Plant's 2 pm), that is, when
the availability of solar operation, there were 75 days on which the insolation
is maximal. grid was off for less than an hour and 57 days The Plant was shut
down for 8 days during with grid-offs more than one hour. Totally the
November for repairing the faulty cables and grid was off for about 201.4
hours. Also, it Inverters.
Efficiency
The 2-MW plant efficiency is the combined insolation of 2561 Wh/sqm and an
average efficiencies of segments 1 and 2 after the module temperature of
28.630C. The daily dc-ac conversion by inverters to 415 Volts efficiency of the
2MW plant ranged from 5% and just before stepping up to 11 kV ac. So, to
13.41% depending on the performance of this should not to be confused with
the arrays, inverters, average module overall plant efficiency. temperature and
the solar insolation. The Figure 11 shows the efficiency of the 2 MW yearly
average daily efficiency of the plant plant, that is combined efficiency of was
about 10.14%, considering thedays segments 1 & 2, over the study period. The
which have grid-offs for less than half an highest efficiency achieved was
13.41% on hour or no grid-offs. The abnormal drop in 24th July 2010. The total
energy generated the efficiency during the last few months was on that day
was 4975.8 kWh with solar mainly due to inverter related problems.

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Scope of Solar Thermal Energy
 Water Heating
 Drying
 Cooking
 Space Heating
 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning,
 Distillation
Solar Water Heating
Solar water heating is the simplest way of harnessing solar energy. It is the
most competitive to alternate method of water heating such as electric geysers
and fuel-fed boilers. It makes an attractive and sustainable option, with its
global distribution, pollution free nature, virtually inexhaustible supply
and near-zero operational cost. Solar water heaters run on a free fuel (i.e.
sunshine), thus saving on energy costs that help recover its initial cost in just 2-
4 years.
A solar water heater consists of a collector to collect solar energy and an
insulated storagetank to store hot water. A black absorbing surface (absorber)
inside the collectors absorbs solar radiation and transfers the heat energy to
water flowing through it. Heated water is collected in a tank which is insulated
to prevent heat loss. After this hot water from storage tank is distributed
through pipe for various applications. The total system with solar collector,
storage tank and pipelines is called solar hot water system.
Broadly, solar water heating systems are of two categories: closed loop system
and open loop system. In the first one, heat exchangers are installed to protect
the system from hard water obtained from bore wells or from freezing

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temperatures in cold regions. In the other type, either thermos siphon or
forced circulation system, the water in the system is open to the atmosphere
at one point or another. The thermos siphon systems are simple and relatively
inexpensive. They are suitable for domestic and small institutional systems,
provided the water is treated and is potable in quality. The forced circulation
systems employ electrical pumps to circulate the water through collectors and
storage tanks. The choice of system depends on the heat requirement,
weather condition, heat transfer fluid quality, space availability, annual solar
radiation etc.
Water heating is one of the most cost-effective uses of solar energy, providing
hot water for showers, dishwashers and clothes washers. Every year, several
thousands of new solar water heaters are installed worldwide. Solar water
heaters can be used for homes, community centers, hospitals, nursing homes,
hotels, restaurants, dairy plants, swimming Pools, canteens, ashrams, hostels,
industry etc. Use of solar water heater can help to reduce electricity or fuel
bills considerably.
Examples of Solar Water Heat Applications
 The system has been installed on top of the terrace of a 20 storied high rise
building of Reserve Bank of India in Lower Parel, Mumbai with a capacity of
10000 liters/day of hot water supply.
 Magarpatta is one of the biggest housing complexes in India covering over 550
acres. And each house is equipped with solar water heating system.
 Solar water heating systems is being used efficiently for swimming pool heating
in the Golf-Club of Chandigarh which has a capacity of 6 lakhs liter.
Solar water heating is now a mature technology. Widespread utilization of
solar water heaters can reduce a significant portion of the conventional energy
being used for heating water in homes, factories and other commercial and
institutional establishments. Internationally, themarket for solar water heaters
has expanded significantly during the last decade

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Solar Drying
Solar drying is a method in which the solar energy is used to dry substances
and to preserve agriculture based food and non-food products. Drying under
sunlight is the oldest way to harness sun energy. This form of energy is free,
renewable and abundant in any part of the world especially in tropical
countries. However, to ma0ximizeits usage and to optimize efficiency of drying
using solar radiation, appropriate technology need to be applied in order to
keep this technique a sustainable one. Such technology is known as solar
drying and is becoming a popular option to replace mechanical thermal dryers
owing to the high cost of fossil fuels which is growing in demand but declining
in supply. For sustainability and climate change concerns it is important to use
renewable energy as much as possible.
Solar Cooking
Solar cooking is the simplest, safest, most convenient way to cook food
without consuming fuels or heating up the kitchen. But it is a blessing for
hundreds of millions of people around the world who cook over fires fuelled
by wood or dung, and who walk for miles to collect wood or spend much of
their meagre incomes on fuel. Solar cooking is more than a choice for them. It
also saves the rural households from indoor air pollution from solid fuel.
Moderate cooking temperatures in simple solar cookers help preserve
nutrients. Smoke from cooking fires is a major cause of global warming and
dimming. Cooking fires are dangerous, especially for children, and can readily
get out of control causing damage to buildings, gardens, etc. Solar cookers
are fire-free. Biomass and petroleum fueled cooking fires pollute the air and
contribute to global warming. Solar cookers are pollution-free, and when used
in large numbers, may help curb global warming.
There are four major types of solar cookers:

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 Solar box cookers
 Dish cooker
 Scheffler cooker
 Solar steam cooker
Solar Space Heating
 Active space heating
 Passive space heating
In active space heating a solar collector absorbs the sun’s thermal energy to
Solar energy can be used for various applications. Oneof these is space heating
in winter which can effectively reduce the cost of energy. It produces no
emissions and is replenished naturally. Itwill help to reduces greenhousegases
and saves the release of other emissions that result from the burning of fossil
fuels such as nitrogen oxides, Sulphur dioxide or mercury. It is ideal for space
heating / warming of offices, hotels, industrial buildings, residences etc.
Basically there are two types of solar space heating:
Passive solar technologies use sunlight without active mechanical systems (as
contrasted to. Such technologies convert sunlight into usable heat (water, air,
and thermal mass), causeair-movement for ventilating or future use, with little
use of other energy sources.
Solar cooling
Generally, the sun tends to be viewed as a sourceof heat. However, there exist
thermal processes to produce coldness, in which water is cooled. These
processes are generally suitable for using heat provided by solar thermal
collectors as the principle source of energy. The solar applications as on today

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are available for cooling as well as air conditioning. By cooling, we mean
reducing the temperature for e.g. the temperature of a machine in industrial
processes. By air conditioning, mean conditioning of the temperature
according to air humidity or on account of climatic conditions.
There are two main solar cooling processes:
Closedcycles,
wherethermally driven sorption chillers producechilled water for usein space
conditioning equipment
Open cycles,
also referred to as desiccantevaporative cooling systems (DEC), which typically
use water as the refrigerant and a desiccant as the sorbent for direct
treatment of air in a ventilation system.
Solar Distillation
About 70% of the planet is covered in water, yet of all of that, only around 2%
is fresh water, and of that 2%, about 1.6% is locked up in polar ice caps and
glaciers. So of all of the earth’s water, 98% is saltwater, 1.6% is polar ice caps
and glaciers, and 0.4% is drinkablewater from underground wells or rivers and
streams.
Solar distillation is a process that employs the use of solar radiation to purify
brackish, saline and polluted water. The Solar Distillation System combines
water desalination technology and solar power to make fresh water and
render it as potable water for irrigation or industrial use. Water purification
plants can be constructed On-shore and off-shore.
Concentrated Solar Technology
Solar thermal energy is an extremely convenient source of heating; and a
technology that does not rely on scarce, finite energy resources. Concentrated

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Solar Technology is a solar thermal concentrating technology that converts
solar energy to heat energy. CST a cost- effective way to produce heat energy
while reducing our dependence on foreign oil, improving domestic energy-
price stability, reducing carbon emissions, cleaning our air, promoting
economic growth, and creating jobs. CST at present is the need of the hour.
Solar Energy Resources
Solar radiation, often called the solar resource, is a general term for the
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. Solar radiation reaches the
Earth's upper Earth's atmosphere with the power of 1366 watts per square
meter (W/m2).
Basic principle
Earth receives sunlight at every location on at least part of the year. The
amount of solar radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface
depends upon:
 Geographic location
 Time of day
 Season
 Local landscape
 Local weather.
Because the Earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles,
ranging from 0° (just above the horizon) to 90° (directly overhead). When the
sun's rays are vertical, the Earth's surface gets all the energy possible. The
more slanted the sun's rays are, the longer they travel through the
atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse. Since the Earth is round,

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the surfacenearer its poles is angled away from the sun and receives much less
solar energy than the surface nearer the equator the polar regions never get a
high sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas receive no sun
at all during part of the year. Concentrated solar technology can use only the
direct solar radiation for converting the sunlight into some useful energy.
Concentrating solar technologies (CSTs) use mirrors to reflect and concentrate
sunlight onto receivers that collect solar energy and convert it to heat.
Concentrating solar technology offers a utility-scale, firm, dispatch able
renewable energy option that can help meet our nation's energy demand.
Types of Technology
There are four basic types of concentrated solar technology:-
Parabolic Trough
Out of the four CST technologies, the parabolic trough system (PTC) is the most
predominant and the most commercially mature CST system a concentration
ratio of around 100x. The parabolic trough uses parabolic or U-
shaped concentrators to focus sunlight along the focal lines of the collectors
where the receiver tube is positioned, and only fluid (heat-transfer fluid or
water/steam) flows through the receiver tube. Solar radiation heats up a heat-
transfer fluid which then carries the collected thermal energy to generate
steam for using the heat through a heat exchanger into various applications.
The troughs track the sun over the course of the day along the central axis as
the sun travels from East to West. A 50 MW power plant based on parabolic
trough technology is under construction at Jaisalmer in the state of Rajasthan.
Initial cost for trough technology is higher than those for power towers and
dish/engine systems due in large part to the lower solar concentration and
hence lower temperatures and efficiency.

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Trough Solar Parabolic Dish

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The solar concentrator, or dish, gathers the solar energy coming directly from
the sun. The resulting beam of concentrated sunlight is reflected onto a
thermal receiver that collects the solar heat. The dish is mounted on a
structure that tracks the sun continuously throughout the day to reflect the
highest percentage of sunlight possible onto the thermal receiver.
Solar Tower Figure
Solar Tower
Solar towers generate steam from sunlight by focusing concentrated solar
radiation on atower-mounted heat exchanger (receiver). The system uses
hundreds to thousands of sun- tracking mirrors called heliostats to reflect the
incident sunlight onto the receiver. As with the other concentrating devices,
the reflectors track the angle of the sun and positions themselves
automatically (dual axis tracking required). Temperatures can reach up to
1,300°C, which is much higher than in the other configurations. Thus due to
having temperature range more than 1000°C it is mostly used in power
generation rather than heat applications. The PS10 Solar power plant is the
world's first commercial concentrating solar power tower operating
near Seville, in Andalusia, Spain.

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Solar tower
Linear Fresnel Reflector
A second linear concentrator technology is the linear Fresnel reflector system.
Flat or slightly curved mirrors mounted on trackers on the ground are
configured to reflect sunlight onto a receiver tube fixed in space above the
mirrors. A small parabolic mirror is sometimes added atop the receiver to
further focus the sunlight.
Lighting Reflector figure
Heat and Its Measurement
Basically the heat is a form of energy and can change the matter it touches. It
can heat it up- which starts molecules moving or it can cause chemical
reactions like burning to occur. The transfer of heat can occur three ways:
conduction, convection and radiation. Heat describes the process of transfer of
energy. The SI unit of heat is the joule. When gained or lost by an object, there
will be corresponding energy changes within that object. A change in
temperature is associated with transfer of heat. And with change in
temperature of object its physical state also changes. So when heat is
transferred to water continuously then after a particular temperature at

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corresponding pressure it will convert water into steam. For example at 1 bar
pressure water will be converted into steam at 100°C.
Basic terms
1.Heat Capacity –
Heat capacity is the measurable physical quantity that specifies the amount
of heat required to change the temperature of an object or body by a given
amount. The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per Kelvin, J/K.
2.Specific Heat Capacity –
The specific heat capacity refers to the amount of heat required to cause a unit
of mass to change its temperature by 1°C. Different materials would warm up
at different rates because each material has its own specific heat capacity.
3.Latent heat –
It can be defined as the quantity of heat absorbed or released by a substance
undergoing a change of state, such as ice changing to liquid water or liquid
water changing to ice, at constant temperature and pressure. It is generally
measured in kJ/kg or J/g.
4.Latent heat of Vaporization –
It is the energy required to transform a given quantity of a substance from a
liquid into gas. The specific latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat
required to convert unit mass of a liquid into the vapor without a change in
temperature. The latent heat of vaporization of water is 2257 KJ/Kg or 540
Kcal/Kg at 1 bar.

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Solar Photovoltaic (“PV”) Systems – An Overvie
Types of Solar PV System
Solar PV systems can be classified based on the end-use application of the
technology. There are two main types of solar PV systems: grid-
connected (or grid-tied) and off-grid(or stand alone) solar PV systems.
Grid-connected solar PV systems
The main application of solar PV in Singapore is grid-connected, as Singapore’s
main island is well covered by the national power grid. Most solar PV systems
are installed on buildings or mounted on the ground if land is not a constraint.
For buildings, they are either mounted on the roof or integrated into the
building. The latter is also known as Building Integrated Photovoltaics (“BIPV”).
With BIPV, the PV module usually displaces another building component, e.g.
window glass or roof/wall cladding, thereby serving a dual purpose and
offsetting some costs.

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Solar Photovoltaic (“PV”) Systems –building
Vertical façades and steeply sloped roofs tend to suffer a big loss in the ability
to generate electricity in exchange for higher public visibility.
With the PV modules facing the sky, it is possible to improve the yield by
installing PV modules on trackers to follow the sun from east to west during
the day (single-axis trackers), and from north to south during seasonal
changes (dual-axis trackers).
However, trackers can only improve system performance under direct
sunshine, and they give no advantage in diffused sunlight conditions, such as
on cloudy or hazy days.
The down side of having flat-mounted PV modules is that they tend to get dirty
from rain water and dust. See Figure 14. It is therefore better to mount the PV
modules at an incline (10-15o for framed modules, or as little as 3-5o for
unframed modules), to allow rain water to properly drain off.
Solar PV SystemInstallation Requirements
Application of Electrical Installation Licence
Your LEW will be able to advise you whether you need to apply to EMA for an
Electrical Installation License for the use or operation of the electrical
installation within the premises of your building.
The electrical license fee payable to EMA is $100 per year (exclusive of goods
and services tax).
Charge controller:
A MPPT, or maximum power point tracker is an electronic DC to DC converter
that optimizes the match between the solar array (PV panels), and the battery
bank or utility grid. To put it simply, they convert a higher voltage DC output
from solar panels (and a few wind generators) down to the lower voltage
needed to charge batteries.
(These are sometimes called "power point trackers" for short - not to be
confused with PANEL trackers, which are a solar panel mount that follows, or
tracks, the sun).

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Charge controller

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SCADA
SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION
 Supervisory
 Operator/s, engineer/s, supervisor/s etc.
 Control
 Limited
 Remote/locate
 Telemetry
 Data acquisition
 Access and acquire information or data from the equipment
 send it to different sites
 analog / digital
Why SCADA:
 Previously without SCADA software, an industrial process was entirely
controlled by PLC, CNC, PID & micro controllers having programmed in certain
languages or codes.

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 These codes were either written in assembly language or relay logic without
any true animation that would explain the process running.
 It is always easy to understand the status of the process if it is shown with
some animations rather than written codes.
Some SCADA Software:
 Wonder ware : InTouch
 Allen Bradley : RS View
 Siemens : WinCC
FEATURES OF SCADA SOFTWARE:
 Dynamic process graphics
 Real time and historical trends
 Alarms
 Recipe management
 Security
 Device connectivity
 Script for logic development
 Database connectivity

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Dynamic Process Graphics:
Using this feature, one can develop graphics which can resemble the plant.
The graphics can include Reactors, valves, pumps, agitators, conveyors as well
as otherequipment and machinery used in the plant.
 The status of Real-time & Historical Trends:
 This facility is used for representing the data in graphical form.
 Typically the trends plot the value with reference to the time.
 Real-time data will plot the real-time value for fixed period of time while
historical data will have historical data stored value which can be viewed on
demand.
 Depending upon the storing capacity of the hard-disk one can specify the no
of days the data.
Scada Schematic Figure

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CONCLUSION
When experts compare solar cells, one thing they look at is how costly a cell is.
If it costs too much, nobody will buy it. One problem with the first solar cells
was that they usually cost more than other power sources. That is why the first
important use of solar cells was in space satellites. There were no cheaper
ways to make electricity in space in the 1950s. Another thing experts look at is
a cell’s “efficiency.” This tells how good a cell is at using sunlight. A high-
efficiency cell turns more of the sunlight’s energy into electric energy than a
low-efficiency cell.
Scientists continue to hunt for ways to make better cells. They are trying new
materials, such as plastics. They are also looking for ways solar cells and panels
can be more useful. For instance, they have come up with a “photo capacitor.”
This is a solar device that both makes electricity and stores it for later use.
Experimental models were not good for practical use. But if the device can be
improved, it might someday eliminate the need to have batteries to store solar
electricity, at least in some cases.
Many people think devices called hydrogen fuel cells might someday be very
good sources of power for many purposes. They use hydrogen to make
electricity. Hydrogen is very common. It is in water, for instance. Getting the
hydrogen out of water, however, takes energy. If solar panels get cheap
enough and efficient enough, they might become a practical way of providing
this energy. Ways of getting lots of sunlight to solar cells are being studied.
One proposed concentrator could be used on windows. It involves putting
special dyes into glass or plastic. Solar cells are put at the edges of the sheet of
glass or plastic. The dyes let some light through the window. They also capture
some light energy, which flows to the cells.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Solar Design Associates. Photovoltaics in the Built Environment. Springfield,
VA: DOE/GO-10097-436, National Technical Information Service, U.S.
Department of Commerce, 1997.
Richard J. Komp, Ph.D. Practical Photovoltaics; Electricity from Solar Cells, 3rd
Edition. Ann Arbor, MI: aatec publications, 1995.
Interstate Renewable Energy Council. Procurement Guide for Renewable
Energy Systems. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993.
U.S. Department of Energy. A Place in the Sun; Solar Buildings. Merrifield, VA:
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Clearinghouse.
William Marion and Stephen Wilcox. Solar Radiation Data Manual for Flat-Plate
and Concentrating Collectors. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy
Laboratory, 1995.
National Technical Information Service. Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems; A
Handbook of Recommended Design Practices. Springfield, VA: Sandia National
Laboratories, National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of
Commerce, 1995.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(Should be in IEEE format Example)
[1] G.K.Patnaik and M. M. Gore, “Design of Compiler for Mobile Environment
and it’s formalization using Evolving Algebra ”, proceedings of 3rd
IEEE
International Conference on Mobile Data Management, Singapore, January
2002, PP 159-160.
[2] “Author Guidelines”, http://.computer.org/cspress/instruct.htm

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