Week 11:
Second Language Acquisition
Language Classroom

Rod Ellis: Principles of instructed
language learning
• SLA research and theories contribute
to how the language should be
instructed, or taught.
• Some controversies
– What approaches?
– The efficacy of teaching explicit
knowledge
– Types of corrective feedback
– Etc.

Principle 1: Instruction needs to ensure that learners
develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions
and a rule-based competence.
• Formulaic expressions  fluency
• A rule-based competence (knowledge of
specific grammatical rules)  complexity
and accuracy
• Problem of traditional classroom
instruction: Focus on forms
– Teaching of specific grammatical rules through
the systematic teaching of pre-selected
structures
– Criticism: rote learning, suitable for young
beginner learners

Principle 1: Instruction needs to ensure that learners
develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions
and a rule-based competence.
• Teaching implications
– Teach formulaic expressions first
– Teach grammar later
– Notional-functional syllabus
• Focus on functions and pragmatic purposes of the
language
– Introductions, greetings, good-byes;
– Invitations, Apologies, Condolences;
– Gratitude, Compliments, Congratulations;
– Requests, Commands, Warnings, Directions;
– Offers, Seeking Permission;
– Advice, Intention;
– Pleasure, Displeasure;
– Expressing your opinion

Principle 2: Instruction needs to ensure that learners
focus predominantly on meaning
• Two kinds of meaning
– Semantic meaning
• the meanings of lexical items or of specific
grammatical structures
– Pragmatic meaning
• the highly contextualized meanings that arise
in acts of communication

Principle 2: Instruction needs to ensure that learners
focus predominantly on meaning
• Main focus on pragmatic meaning
– Optimal learning condition is created
when learners are engaged in decoding
and encoding messages in the context of
actual acts of communication;
– Pragmatic meaning leads to true fluency
in an L2 learners;
– Tasks aimed at creating pragmatic
meaning is intrinsically motivating.

Principle 3: Instruction needs to ensure that learners
also focus on form.
• Conscious attention to form helps
acquisition  more attention results
in more learning
• Teaching implications
1. Grammar lessons
• Inductive approach (to encourage students
to notice pre-selected forms)
• Deductive approach (to establish an
awareness of the grammatical rule)

Principle 3: Instruction needs to ensure that learners
also focus on form.
2. Focused tasks
• Comprehension + processing of particular
grammatical structures in the input;
• Production of the structures when
performing the task

Principle 4: Instruction needs to be predominantly
directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2
while not neglecting explicit knowledge.
• Implicit knowledge
– Procedural i.e. unconscious;
verbalizable when made explicit;
accessed rapidly and easily; available for
use in rapid, fluent communication =
competence

• Explicit knowledge
– Conscious, learnable, verbalizable, typically
accessed through control processing (to
overcome difficulty in using L2)
Principle 4: Instruction needs to be predominantly
directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2
while not neglecting explicit knowledge.

Principle 4: Instruction needs to be predominantly
directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2
while not neglecting explicit knowledge.
• Teaching implications
– Communicative tasks (a lot of practice, focus
more on meaning, then on form) to encourage
the development of implicit knowledge
• Controversies on the teaching of explicit
knowledge
– Is explicit knowledge of any value in and of
itself?
– Is explicit knowledge of value in facilitating
the development of implicit knowledge?

Principle 4: Instruction needs to be predominantly
directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2
while not neglecting explicit knowledge.
• Krashen and explicit knowledge
– The monitor hypothesis
• Learners use explicit knowledge only when
they monitor, they focus on form and have
sufficient time to access the knowledge
– Limited use of explicit knowledge

Principle 5: Instruction needs to take into account the
learner’s built-in syllabus.
• Natural order and sequence of
acquisition  learner’s built-in
syllabus
• Learners would automatically proceed
along their built-in syllabus as long as they
had access to comprehensible input and
were sufficiently motivated.
• Grammar instruction played no role in the
development of implicit knowledge
(acquisition).
• Grammar instruction could contribute only
to explicit knowledge (learning).

Principle 5: Instruction needs to take into account the
learner’s built-in syllabus.
• What are some teaching possibilities
given the learner’s built-in syllabus?
• Adopt zero grammar approach (with task-
based activities)
• Ensure that learners are developmentally
ready to acquire a specific target feature
(probably impractical, highly
individualized

Principle 6: Successful instructed language learning
requires extensive L2 input.
• FLA: the amount and quality of input
affect the speed of acquisition of children
• SLA: more exposure (extensive input) =
more and faster language learning
– The positive relationship between
length of residence in the country where
L2 is spoken and language proficiency
– Positive correlations between the
amount of reading and
proficiency/literacy

Principle 6: Successful instructed language learning
requires extensive L2 input.
• Teaching implications
– Maximise use of the L2 inside the
classroom (L2 used as the medium
and the object of instruction)
– Create opportunities for students to
receive input outside the classroom.
• Extensive reading programmes (e.g. graded
readers)
• Self-access centres for students to use
outside class time

Principle 6: Successful instructed language learning
requires extensive L2 input.
• If the only input students receive is
in the context of a limited number
of weekly lessons based on some
course book, they are unlikely to
achieve high levels of L2
proficiency.

Principle 7: Successful instructed language learning
also requires opportunities for output.
• Controlled practice exercises  output
limited in terms of length and
complexity
• Oral and written tasks allow students to
interact with each other in the classroom.
- ‘Pushing’ students to speak (when they are not
ready to speak but have to) can put a lot of stress
on them, causing anxiety and frustration (of not
being able to communicate effectively)
–Increasing output does not guarantee the
language acquisition
–Language acquisition can actually take place
without interaction (i.e. through reading and
listening)

Principle 8: The opportunity to interact in the L2 is
central to developing L2 proficiency.
• Interaction automatises existing
linguistic resources and create new
resources.
• Interaction hypothesis:
– Interaction fosters acquisition when a
communication problem arises and learners
are engaged in negotiating for meaning.
– Interaction makes input more
comprehensible, provides corrective
feedback and pushes learners to modify their
own output in uptake.

Principle 8: The opportunity to interact in the L2 is
central to developing L2 proficiency.
• 4 key requirements to create an
acquisition-rich classroom
– Create contexts of language use
– Provide opportunities for learners to
use the language to express their own
personal meanings
– Help students to participate in
language-related activities beyond
their current level of proficiency
– Offer a full range of contexts catering
for a full performance in the language

Principle 9: Instruction needs to take account of
individual differences in learners.
• Learning is more successful when
– the instruction is matched to students’
particular aptitude for learning.
– the students are motivated
• Teachers can do little to influence students’
extrinsic motivation but there is a lot they
can do to enhance their intrinsic motivation

Principle 9: Instruction needs to take account of
individual differences in learners.
• Learner strategies training can raise
students’ awareness of approaches to
learning (and learners can be flexible in
the use of approaches)
• Teachers should motivate students to
learn.
– Improve the quality of teaching, e.g. making
instruction clear through simple explanation
and teach at a pace that’s not too fast and
not too slow
– Bear in mind that it’s the teacher’s
responsibility to ensure that students are
motivated and stay motivated.

Principle 10: In assessing learners’ L2 proficiency it is
important to examine free as well as controlled
production.
• 4 types of measurement in
classroom:
– Metalinguistic judgement (e.g.
grammaticality judgement test)
– Selected responses (e.g. multiple
choice)
– Constrained constructed response
(e.g. gap filling exercise)
– Free constructed response (e.g.
communicative task)

Principle 10: In assessing learners’ L2 proficiency it is
important to examine free as well as controlled
production.
• Multiple choice (2) and gap filling
exercise (3) are more effective in
measuring form-focused instruction
• A communicative task (4) is the least
effective.
– 4 is best used to measure learners’ L2
proficiency.
– The ability to get a multiple choice question
right does not mean the student is able to
use the target feature in actual
communication.

Principle 10: In assessing learners’ L2 proficiency it is
important to examine free as well as controlled
production.
• Learner performance can be assessed in
3 ways
– A direct assessment of task outcomes
• Most promising, but best with a single
correct outcome
– Discourse analytic measures
• Not suitable for busy classroom teachers
– External ratings
• Practical but require considerable expertise to
ensure the validity and reliability of the
ratings of learner performance.