indutrial psychology

1. IP
-BY GAURAV RAJPUT

2. Motivation

4. What Is Motivation?
Direction
Intensity Persistence

5. Direction, Intensity and Persistence
• Fixing a particular goal- Direction
• Effort put in to achieve the goal- Intensity
• For a time (Till achieving the goal)- Persistence

6. What is Motivation at Work ?
 Motivation.
– The individual forces that account for the
direction, level, and persistence of a person’s
effort expended at work.

7. What is Motivation to Work?
 Direction.
– An individual’s choice when presented with a
number of possible alternatives.
 Level.
– The amount of effort a person puts forth.
 Persistence.
– The length of time a person stays with a given
action.

8. The Motivation Process
Unsatisfied
need
Tension
Search
behavior
Satisfied
need
Reduction
of
tension
Drives
Internal Observable externally
Internal

9. Theories of Motivation
Organizational Behavior 9
Content Theories
Identify internal factors
influencing motivation
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Herzberg’s Motivator-
Hygiene theory
Process Theories
Identify the process by
which internal factors
and cognitions
influence motivation
Vroom’s Expectancy
theory
26-10-2014

10. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

11. Human needs in the form of a hierarchy, ascending from
the lowest to the highest, and when one set of needs is
satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivator.
As each of these needs are substantially satisfied, the next
need becomes dominant.
So if you want to motivate someone, you need to
understand what level of the hierarchy that person is on
and focus on satisfying those needs or needs above that
level. The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most
complex (highest-latest) are as follows:

12. Psychological:
Includes hunger,
thirst, shelter, sex,
and other bodily
needs.
Safety:
Includes security
and protection
from physical
and emotional
harm.
Social:
Includes
affection,
belongingness,
acceptance, and
friendship.
Esteem:
Includes internal esteem
factors such as self-respect,
autonomy, and achievement;
and external esteem factors
such as status, recognition, and
attention.
Self-actualization:
The drive to become one
is capable of becoming;
includes growth,
achieving one’s potential,
and self-fulfillment.

14. Lower order needs ( External ) :
Physiological and safety needs
Higher order needs( Internal ) :
Social, Esteem, and Self-actualization

15. Maslow’s Theory Limitation
• Lack of hierarchal structure
• Lack of relationship between need and
behavior
• Individual needs are different
• Some people may not be a part of hierarchy

16. ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

17. • Condenses Maslow’s model into three
levels
• Based on core needs of existence,
relatedness and growth
• Individuals progress through the ERG needs
hierarchy though Alderfer suggests that it is
a continuum rather than a hierarchy

18. • More than one need may be activated at
the same time.
• Individuals may progress down the
hierarchy.
• If needs are blocked at one level then
attention will be focused on satisfaction of
needs at other levels.

19. Alderfer has categorized the various need
into three categories:-
• EXISTENCE NEEDS.
• RELATEDNESS NEEDS.
• GROWTH NEEDS.

20. ERG Theory — cont.
– Existence needs.
• Desire for physiological and material well-being.
– Relatedness needs.
• Desire for satisfying interpersonal relationships.
– Growth needs.
• Desire for continued personal growth and
development.

21. Content Theories—Alderfer’s ERG
Theory
Self-
Actualization
Needs
Esteem Needs
Social Needs
Growth, advancement, creativity
Safety & Security Needs
Physiological Needs
Self-respect, prestige, status
Affection, belonging, love
Security, stability, protection
Food, water, sleep

22. Implication of ERG theory
• It avoids the implication that the higher up an
individual is in the need hierarchy, better it is.
• Different type of need operate simultaneously.
• It includes satisfaction progression and frustration
regression component.Satisfaction progression
process suggests that after satisfying one category of
needs a person progresses to the next level.
• If individual path toward satisfaction is blocked, he
may persist along the path, but at same time, he
regresses toward more easily satisfiable need.
• It distinguishes between chronic need and episode
need.

23. CRITICISM
• No empirical support

24. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

25. Herzberg avoids using the word ‘need’ and maintains
that in any work situation, you can distinguish
between two sets of factors.
Hygiene factors
features of the work environment which, if present,
help avoid dissatisfaction with work.
concerned with job context e.g work environment,
status, company procedures, quality of supervision.
Can be related roughly to Maslow’s lower-level needs.

26. Motivators
• features of the job itself that people find enjoyable
and that have a motivational effect.
• Mainly intrinsic in nature e.g. sense of achievement,
recognition, responsibility.
• can be related to Maslow’s higher-level needs.

27. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Organizational Behavior 27
26-10-2014

28. Limitations of Herzberg two factor
theory
• Limited by its methodology.
• The reliability of Herzberg's theory is
questionable.
• The theory to a degree is valid as it provides
explanation for job satisfaction. It is not really
a theory of motivation.
• There is no overall measure of satisfaction was
utilized.

29. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

30. Expectancy Theory
• Motivation depends on how much we want
something and how likely we are to get it.
• Assumes that:
– Behavior is determined by a combination of personal
and environmental forces.
– People make decisions about their own behavior in
organizations.
– Different people have different types of needs, desires,
and goals.
– People choose among alternatives of behaviors in
selecting one that that leads to a desired outcome.

31. Expectancy Theory (cont’d)
• Model of Motivation
– Suggests that motivation leads to effort, when
combined
with ability and environmental factors, that
results
in performance which, in turn, leads to
various outcomes that have value
(valence) to employees.

32. Expectancy Theory
Organizational Behavior 32
26-10-2014

33. Thought Processes and Decisions
• Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
motivation = expectancy x instrumentality x valence
– Expectancy
• a person’s belief that working hard will result in achieving a desired level of
task performance
– Instrumentality
• a person’s belief that successful performance will lead to rewards and other
potential outcomes
– Valence
• the value a person assigns to the possible rewards and other work-related
outcomes.

34. Expectancy Model of Motivation
EEffffoorrt t Performance Reward
Perceived effort–
performance
probability
Perceived
value of reward
Perceived
performance–
reward probability
“If I work hard,
will I get the job
done?”
“What rewards
will I get when
the job is well
done?”
“What rewards
do I value?”

35. How Expectancy Theory Works
Your tutor offers you £1 million if you memorise the textbook by tomorrow morning.
Expectancy
Effort - Performance Link
No matter how much effort
you put in, probably not possible
to memorise the text in 24 hours
E=0
Instrumentality
Performance - Rewards Link
Your tutor does not look
like someone who has £1 million
I=0
Valence
Rewards - Personal Goals Link
There are a lot of wonderful things
you could do with £1 million
V=1
Conclusion: Though you value the reward, you will not be motivated to do this task.

36. Guidelines for the Use of
Expectancy Theory
• Practical use of the theory by managers:
– Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.
– Decide what levels and kinds of performance are
needed to meet organizational goals.
– Make sure the desired levels of performance are
possible.
– Link desired outcomes and desired performance.
– Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.
– Make sure the rewards are large enough.
– Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.

37. WHAT IS LEADERSHIP??

38. The process of
influencing a group
towards the
achievement of
goals.

39. WHO IS A LEADER??

40. Someone who can influence others and
who has managerial authority
or
A leader is a person who can influence or
motivate others to do what he wants them
to do.

41. LEADERSHIP vs. MANAGERSHIP
Manager Leader
1.He drives and orders
2.He depends on authority
3.He engenders fear
4.He fixes blames and
finds fault
5.He knows all the
answers
6.He makes the work
drudgery
7.He believes in ‘I’
1.He coaches and
advises
2.He depends on his
confidence and goodwill
3.He inspires enthusiasm
4.He solves problems
5.He consults and seeks
advice
6.He makes work a
game.
7.He believes in ‘WE’
and ‘YOU’

42. BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES

43. • Behavioural theory emphasises that strong leadership is the
result of effective role behaviour.
• Leadership is shown by a person’s acts more than by his
traits.
• Researchers exploring leadership role come to the
conclusion that to operate effectively, group needs to
perform two functions:-
(i) Task Related Function:- It is also known as problem solving
functions, relates to providing solutions to the problem
faced by the group, in performing jobs and activities.
(ii) Group Maintenance Function:- It is also known as social
functions, relates to action of mediating disputes and
ensuring that individuals feel valued by groups

44. • Functional Behaviour:-Functional behaviour influences
followers positively and includes such functions as
setting clear goals, motivating employees for achieving
goals, raising the level of morale, building team spirit,
effective two way communication.
• Dysfunctional Behaviour:-Dysfunctional behaviour is
unfavourable to the followers and denotes ineffective
leadership. Such a behaviour may be inability to accept
employees ideas, display of emotional immaturity,
poor human relations etc.

45. The Ohio State University Studies

46. • Initiating Structure – the extent to which a
leader is likely to define and structure his or
her role and those of subordinates in the
search for goal attainment.

47. • Consideration – the extent to which a leader
is likely to have job relationships characterized
by mutual trust, respect for subordinates’
ideas, and regard for their feelings.
• The studies concluded that leaders high in
initiating structure and high in consideration (
a “high-high leader”) tended to achieve high
employee performance and satisfaction.

48. University of Michigan Studies

49. • Employee Oriented Leadership – An employee
oriented leader is one who emphasizes the
interpersonal relations. Such leaders take
personal interest in the needs of their
subordinates.
• Production Oriented Leadership – A production
oriented leader is one who emphasizes the
technical or task aspects of the job. The main
concern of such leaders is in accomplishing their
group’s tasks.

50. • Michigan studies reported that employee-oriented
leaders were associated with higher
group productivity and higher job satisfaction

51. MANAGERIAL GRID

52. Robert Blake and Jane Mouton developed the
managerial grid. The managerial grid is more complex
and identifies five leadership styles that combine
different degrees of concern for production and
concern for people.
The belief that there is one best style of leadership.
Concern for production: the desire to achieve greater
output, cost-effectiveness, and profits.
Concern for people: promoting friendships, helping
coworkers get the job done, and attending to things
that matter to people

53. Blake and Mouton proposed a nine-by-nine matrix
outlining 81 different leadership styles.
The grid is based on the styles of concern for people
and concern for production

54. THE MANAGERIAL GRID
1,9 9,9
5,5
1,1 9,1
9
8
7
6
5
3
2
1
HIGH
LOW
4
concern for people
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
LOW Concern for production HIGH

55. The Leadership Grid Styles
9, 1 style: primary concern for
production; people
secondary.
1, 9 style: primary concern for
people; production
secondary.
1, 1 style: minimal concern for
production or people
5, 5 style: moderate concern for
both production and people
to maintain the status quo.
9, 9 style: high concern for both
production and people
(commitment, trust, and
teamwork)

56. Trait Theories of Leadership

57. Trait Theories of Leadership
• Trait theories:
– Is there a set of characteristics that determine a
good leader?
– Are such characteristics inherently gender
biased?
– Do such characteristics produce good leaders?
– Does this imply that leaders are born not made?

58. Trait Theories (1920s-30s)
– Research focused on identifying personal
characteristics that differentiated leaders from
non leaders who was unsuccessful.
– studies lead to the conclusion that there was no
such set of personal characteristics that by
themselves distinguished leaders from non-leaders.

59. – A few traits such as above average intelligence,
responsibility, self confidence, and persistence
were associated with leaders, but they are not
sufficient
– Later Studies:

60. – Later research on the leadership process
identified seven traits associated with successful
leadership:
• Drive, the desire to lead, honesty and integrity, self-confidence,
intelligence, job-relevant knowledge, and
extraversion.

61. Traits Often Shared by Effective
Leaders
• Drive
– Successful leaders have high energy, display initiative, and are tenacious.
• Self-confidence
– Successful leaders trust themselves and have confidence in their abilities.
• Creativity
– Successful leaders are creative and original in their thinking.
• Cognitive ability
– Successful leaders have the intelligence to integrate and interpret information.
• Business knowledge
– Successful leaders know their industry and its technical foundations.
• Motivation
– Successful leaders enjoy influencing others to achieve shared goals.
• Flexibility
– Successful leaders adapt to fit the needs of followers and demands of situations.
• Honesty and integrity
– Successful leaders are trustworthy; they are honest, predictable, and dependable.

62. Limitations of Trait Theories
•No universal traits found that predict leadership in
all situations.
• Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than
“strong” situations.
•Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of
relationship of leadership and traits.
•Better predictor of the appearance of leadership
than distinguishing effective and ineffective
leaders

63. Fiedler’s Theory

64. Fiedler’s Theory
• Fiedler’s contingency theory proposes that
effective group performance depends upon
the proper match between the leader’s style
of interacting with his/her subordinates and
the degree to which the situation gives control
and influence to the leader.

65. Fiedler’s Theory
• Therefore, the theory proposes a 3 step model
consisting of
– Identifying the leadership style
– Defining and analyzing the situation, and
– Matching the leader and situation

66. Fiedler created the Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC)
Questionnaire to identify the basic leadership style of an
individual.
The questionnaire consisted of 16 sets of bipolar
adjectives on a 8-point scale.

67. • On the basis of the results, individuals with high LPC
score were termed as task-oriented leaders and
individuals with low LPC scores were termed as
relationship-oriented leaders.
• After determining the basic leadership style, the next
step involves defining and analyzing the situation in
terms of favourableness or unfavourableness.
• For that purpose, Fiedler identified 3 contingency
dimensions: leader-member relations, task structure,
and position power.

68. • Leader-Member relations mean the degree of
confidence, trust and respect subordinates
have in their leader. This can be good or poor.
• Task structure implies the degree to which the
job assignments are procedurized, that is,
structured or unstructured. It can be either
high or low.

69. • Position power means the degree of influence
a leader has over power variables such as
hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and
salary increases. It can be strong or weak.
• The final step in Fiedler’s model proposes
matching leaders and situations.

70. E X H I B I T 11-2
Findings from Fiedler
Model

71. • The model concluded that task-oriented
leaders tended to perform better in situations
that were either very favourable or very
unfavourable.
• Relationship oriented leaders were found to
be effective in moderately favourable or
unfavourable situations.

72. • Fiedler’s theory has been criticized on several
grounds, such as:
– The assumption that leadership style is fixed is not
valid
– The LPC is not a valid tool to identify the
leadership style
– The contingency variables are difficult to be
measured and analyzed accurately.

73. Hersey & Blanchard’s Theory

74. Hersey & Blanchard’s Theory
• Like Fiedler’s theory, this theory also proposes
a 3 step model. These steps are:
– Identifying the leadership style
– Identifying the followers’ state of readiness, and
– Matching leadership style with followers’ state of
readiness

75. Hersey & Blanchard’s Theory
• Unlike Fiedler, Hersey & Blanchard assume
that leadership style is flexible, that is, one
person can and should display different
leadership styles in different situations,
depending on the competence and willingness
of the followers.
• Further, one may even lead the same person
one way sometimes, and another way at other
times.

76. Leadership Styles and Follower Readiness
(Hersey and Blanchard)
Able
Unwilling Willing
Unable
High Task
and
Relationship
Orientations
Supportive
Participative
Monitoring
Follower
Readiness
Leadership
Styles
Directive

77. Hersey And Blanchard’s Situational
Theory
• A Contingency theory that focuses on
follower’s readiness
• Its followers that accept or rejects leaders
• Readiness means the extent to which people
have ability and willingness to accomplish a
specific task
• If followers are unable and unwilling to do a
task ,the leader needs to give clear and
specific direction

78. Hersey And Blanchard’s Situational
Theory (cont..)
• If followers are unable and willing, the leader
needs to display high task orientation to
compensate for followers lack of ability and high
relationship orientation to get followers to “buy
into” the leader’s desires
• If followers are able and unwilling, the leader
need to use a supportive and participative style
• If followers are both able and willing the leader
doesn’t need much to do

79. • The theory states that successful leadership is
achieved by selecting the right leadership
style, which is contingent on the followers’
readiness.

80. The Situational Leadership Model
High Moderate Low
R4 R3 R2 R1
Able and willing
or confident
Able but unwilling
or insecure
Unable but willing
or confident
Unable and unwilling
or insecure
4.Provide specific
instruction and
closely supervise
performance
1.Share ideas and
facilitate in
decision making
3.Turn over
responsibility
for decisions and
implementation
2.Explain your
decisions and provide
opportunity for
clarification

81. • According to this theory, there are 4 specific
styles of leadership:
– Telling (high task-low relationship)
– Selling (high task-high relationship)
– Participating (low task-high relationship)
– Delegating (low task-low relationship)

82. • The next step involves defining followers’ state
of readiness.
– R1 (unable-unwilling)
– R2 (unable-willing)
– R3 (able-unwilling)
– R4 (able-willing)

83. • Therefore, the theory recommends that the
leader should use a telling style with immature
followers who are at R1 stage.
• The selling style should be used with unable but
willing kind of followers who are at R2 stage.
• The participating style is appropriate for
followers who are able but unwilling, that is, who
are at R3 stage.
• Finally, for the most mature followers who are
both able and willing, that is, at R4 stage,
delegating style will be most effective

84. • SLT essentially views the leader-follower
relationship as analogous to that of a parent
and a child.
• Just as a parent needs to relinquish control as
a child becomes more mature and
responsible, so, too, should leaders.

85. Limitations of SLT
SLT is criticized because Hersley and Blanchard have
neglected to provide a coherent and explicit
rationale for the hypothesized relationships. Also
they oversimplified the situation by giving only
surface recognition to follower maturity. Also as in
the grid approach there is a noted absence of any
empirical test of this model.