Classroom assessment manual

CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT MANUAL FOR
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL
TEACHERS
Arega Mamaru
National Educational Assessment
and Examinations Agency
January 2014
Addis Ababa
This document has been prepared with support from the Russia
Education Aid for Development Trust Fund

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NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT
AND EXAMINATIONS AGENCY ©
Prepared by
Arega Mamaru Yewore
abitygobez@gmail.com
Supported by
Yilikal Wondimeneh
Effa Gurumu
Bekele Geleta
Tel: 011-1-22-65-21/ 011-1-23-28-84/0911012109
Fax: 011-1-22-65-21/251-11-1-23-28-90
P.O.Box: 30747
Website: www.nae.gov.et
Email: noe@telecom.net.et
January, 2014
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My heartfelt thanks should go to all people who participated for the realization of this
manual but mentioning all of them is impossible. I have, however, to name a few
professionals and organization for their special contribution. Primarily, I am indebted to
my assistants, rather my intimate friends, Yilikal Wondimeneh, Effa Gurumu, and
Bekele Geleta for their technical advisement, insightful feedback and patience in
shaping the framework, the development and the completion of the manual.
My sincere thanks should go to Ato Araya G/Egziabher, Director General of NEAEA
and Ato Zerihun Duressa, Deputy Director General, for their special attention and
unreserved support, and continued understanding throughout the assignment. I should
also acknowledge my colleagues, Ato Tamiru Zerihun (head of NEAD), Ato Mengistu
Admassu and Ato Abiy Kefyalew - for their unreserved moral and material support.
I should acknowledge H.E. Ato Fuad Ibrahim, State Minister of Education, for his
concern, following up and insightful interest he showed from the conception to
completion of the manual. Special acknowledgement with many thanks should be given
to the World Bank READ TF Ethiopia Country Office, for its generous provision of the
required financial assistance and material facilitation for the validation and firming up
workshops and the two round TOT workshops participants.
Last, but not least, I deserve my special thanks to all participants who involved in the
validation workshops, firming up and TOT workshops for their enormous and
professional contributions.

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Table of Contents Page
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 8
1.0. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 8
1.1. Background .............................................................................................................. 8
1.2. Rationale .................................................................................................................. 9
1.3. Purpose of the Manual............................................................................................. 11
1.4. Organization of the Manual ...................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 14
2.0. OVERVIEW OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT................................................................ 14
2.1. Concepts of Terms Related to Classroom Assessment................................................ 14
2.1.1. Testing, Measurement, Assessment, and Evaluation .......................................................................14
2.1.2. Classroom Assessment and Examinations..........................................................................................14
2.1.3. Assessment, Evaluation and Action....................................................................................................15
2.1.4. Formative and Summative Assessments ............................................................................................17
2.2. Purpose and Characteristics of Classroom Assessment............................................... 17
2.2.1. Purposes of Classroom assessment....................................................................................................17
2.2.2. Characteristics of Effective CA ............................................................................................................18
2.3. Assumptions and Principles of Classroom Assessment................................................ 19
2.3.1. Assumptions of Classroom Assessment..............................................................................................19
2.3.2. Principles of Classroom Assessment...................................................................................................19
2.4. Alignments of Competency Based Curriculum, Learning, and Assessment ................... 20
2.4.1. Competency Based Curriculum...........................................................................................................20
2.4.2. Learning...............................................................................................................................................22
2.4.3. The Interaction of Curriculum, Learning and Assessment..................................................................24
2.5. Country Experiences on Classroom Assessment......................................................... 27
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................... 30
3.0. COMPONENTS CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT................................................................ 30
3.1. Assessment For Learning ( AfL)................................................................................ 31
3.1.1. Purposes and Principles of AfL ..........................................................................................................31
3.1.2. Strategies of Assessment for Learning................................................................................................33
3.1.3. Assessment for Learning Practices......................................................................................................36
3.1.4. Commonly Used AfL Techniques and Tools........................................................................................41
3.1.5. Commonly Used AfL Tools ..................................................................................................................46
3.2. Assessment As Learning (AaL) ................................................................................. 52
3.2.1. Purposes of AaL...................................................................................................................................52
3.2.2. Planning AaL........................................................................................................................................53
3.2.3. Techniques of Assessment as Learning...............................................................................................55

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3.3. Assessment Of Learning (AoL).................................................................................. 60
3.3.1. Purpose of assessment of learning.....................................................................................................60
3.3.2. Techniques of Assessment Of Learning ..............................................................................................61
3.4. Assessment Tools for Integrated Assessment............................................................ 62
3.4.1. Performance Assessment ...................................................................................................................63
3.4.2. Personal Communication Assessment................................................................................................73
Summary of the components of assessment..................................................................................................76
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 78
4. 0. Providing Feedback for Classroom Assessment......................................................... 78
4.1. Concept of Feedback ............................................................................................... 78
4.1.1. What is feedback?...............................................................................................................................78
4.1.2. Purposes of Feedback .........................................................................................................................79
4.1.3. How to give and receive feedback......................................................................................................79
4.1.4. Strategies for Effective Feedback .......................................................................................................81
4.2. Ways of Giving Feedback......................................................................................... 82
4.2.1. Giving feedback by Comparing ...........................................................................................................82
4.2.2. Outcome and Process Ways of Giving Feedback................................................................................83
4.2.3. Descriptive and Evaluative Ways of Feedback....................................................................................84
4.3. Feedback for Target Users and Stakeholders............................................................. 86
4.3.1. Feedback to Students..........................................................................................................................86
4.3.2. Feedback to Teachers .........................................................................................................................87
4.3.3. Feedback to Parents............................................................................................................................88
4.3.4. School Administrators and Authorities...............................................................................................88
4.4. Utilizing the Information for Improvement ................................................................ 89
CHAPTER FIVE............................................................................................................... 90
5. 0. Planning and constructing Paper and Pencils Assessment Tools................................ 90
5.1. The Preconditions before Constructing Assessment Tools........................................... 90
5.2. Planning and constructing the instruments................................................................ 90
5.2.1. Determining the Purpose of the Assessment .....................................................................................91
5.2.2. Identifying the Learning Outcomes to be Measured..........................................................................91
5.1.3. Defining the Learning Outcomes ........................................................................................................93
5.2.4. Outlining the subject matter to be measured ....................................................................................93
5.2.5. Developing Table of Specification.......................................................................................................94
5.3. Construction of Paper and pencil Tests ..................................................................... 99
5.3.1. Writing Objective Test Items ..............................................................................................................99
5.3.2. Writing Supply Items.........................................................................................................................112
5.3. 3.Writing Essay Test Items...................................................................................................................113
CHAPTER SIX .............................................................................................................. 118

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6.0. Assembling, Administering, Scoring Tests and Reporting Results .............................. 118
6.1. Assembling, Administering and Scoring Test Items.................................................. 118
6.1.1. Assembling test items.......................................................................................................................118
6.1.2. Administering Tests...........................................................................................................................120
6.1. 3. Scoring Tests ....................................................................................................................................121
6. 2. Marking, Referencing, Recording and Reporting Test Result.................................... 123
6.2.1. Marking/grading ...............................................................................................................................123
6.2.2. Approaches for Referencing and Interpretation...............................................................................124
6.2.3. Recording and Reporting Students’ Progress and Achievement......................................................126
CHAPTER SEVEN.......................................................................................................... 127
7.0. Describing and Summarizing Test Scores................................................................ 127
7.1. Ways of Describing Test Scores.............................................................................. 127
7.1.1. Frequency distribution......................................................................................................................127
7.1.2. Graphs...............................................................................................................................................128
7.2. Measures of Central Tendency ............................................................................... 129
7.3. Measures of variability ........................................................................................... 130
CHAPTER EIGHT.......................................................................................................... 133
8.0. Evaluating the Test and Test items......................................................................... 133
8. 1. Attributes of Good Test......................................................................................... 133
8.1.1. Validity ..............................................................................................................................................133
8.1.2. Reliability...........................................................................................................................................134
8.1.3. Fairness and Wash-back Effect .........................................................................................................136
8.1.4. Practicability......................................................................................................................................139
8.2. Improving the Quality of Test Items through Item Analysis...................................... 139
8.2.1. Quantitative item analysis ................................................................................................................140
8.2.2. Interpreting item-analysis data.........................................................................................................144
CHAPTER NINE............................................................................................................ 148
9.0. THE WAY FORWARD ............................................................................................. 148
9.1. National and Regional Level................................................................................... 148
9.2. Teacher Training Colleges and Universities ............................................................. 148
9.3. Schools/ School Cluster centers.............................................................................. 149
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 150
ANNEXES..................................................................................................................... 157

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATION
AaL : Assessment as Learning
AfL : Assessment for Learning
AoL : Assessment of Learning
APA: American Psychological Association
AERA: American Educational Research Association
ANCME: American National Council on Measurement in Education
ARG: Assessment Reform Group
CA: Classroom/Continuous Assessment
CDICP: Curriculum Development and Implementation Core Process
FCA: Formative Continuous Assessment
ICDR: Institute of Curriculum and Research
IEQ: Improving Educational Qualification
MLC: Minimum Learning Competency
MoE : Ministry of Education
NOE: National Organization for Examination
NEAEA: National Educational Assessment and Examinations Agency
OECD: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
SCA: Summative Continuous Assessment
TGE: Transition Government of Ethiopia
UNESCO: United Nations Education, Science and Culture Organization
USAID : United States Agency for International Development

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CHAPTER ONE
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
There is considerable evidence that assessment in general and classroom assessment (which is
also known as continuous assessment) in particular is a powerful instrument for enhancing the
attainment of learning outcomes to ensure quality education and academic excellence in the
education institutions.
Realizing this, the current Ethiopian education and training policy (TGE, 1994) emphasized the
ongoing classroom assessment (continuous assessment) in academic and practical subjects to ascertain
the formation of all round profile of students at all levels. To translate this policy issue into practical at
the classroom level, a comprehensive and system-wide classroom assessment manual is needed for
teachers to help them engage in the assessment activities.
Concerning this, even though there is no system-wide classroom assessment policy framework with
implementation guidelines, very few resources are available for teachers to conduct classroom
assessment activities. The newly reframed competency based general education curriculum framework
provides limited guidelines on what students are expected to learn and how to be assessed. As stated in
the framework, the subject teachers are advised to carry out regular checks on the progress of all
students in each subject through continuous and formal assessment (MoE, 2010). Moreover, NOE
(2002) and NOE (2004) had tried to prepare continuous classroom assessment guidelines and
techniques which mainly focused on the traditional summative aspect of classroom assessment for
primary and secondary teachers. After piloting in few schools, USAID (2012) seemed to include some
formative and summative continuous assessment guidelines into the first cycle primary school
teachers’ continuous professional development (CPD) resource material. This resource material is also
focused on lower primary school teachers and lacked comprehensiveness. Furthermore, ICDR (2004)
and Desalegn (2004) wrote on similar topics by focusing on some aspect of the classroom assessment
resource material.
Most of these classroom assessment resource materials are focusing on some aspects of classroom
assessments and lacked comprehensiveness to go with the current reframed competency based
curriculum. In the competency based education, assessment plays an important role to improve

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students’ learning progress. It enables to make judgments about whether the competency has been
achieved or not.
To assess students’ competencies in line with the reframed curriculum and to know whether the
learning process takes place so as to achieve the predetermined learning outcomes properly, school
teachers are supposed to conduct ongoing classroom assessment. For this to be more effective,
preparing this classroom assessment manual may be important to enable school teachers implement
the competency based curriculum in classroom and improve their assessment techniques. Hence, this
manual is designed to support teachers in assessing their students effectively, efficiently, and fairly
with the intention of enhancing student learning by empowering teachers in conducting classroom
assessment with active student involvement.
1.2. Rationale
The planned and intentional use of continuous assessment in the classroom enhances students’
achievement. When classroom assessment is frequent and varied, teachers can learn a great deal about
their students. They can gain better understanding about students’ existing beliefs and knowledge, and
identify the gaps in understanding that enable them to probe students’ thinking over time in order to
link the prior knowledge and new learning (Black, 1998; Hoy and Gregg, 1994). As learnt from Black
and Wiliam’s research, improving student learning through assessments depends upon five factors: (1)
providing feedback to students, (2) students’ active involvement in their own learning, (3) adjusting
teaching to take account for results of assessment, (4) recognizing the influence of assessment on
students’ motivation and self-esteem, and (5) ensuring students assess themselves and understand how
to improve. This implies teachers can use classroom assessment to become well aware of the
knowledge, skills, and beliefs that their students bring in to a learning task and to monitor students’
changing perceptions as the instruction proceeds.
In this regard, it would be good to note what Angelo and Patricia (1993) exemplified that to avoid
unhappy surprises, a school and its students need better ways to monitor learning throughout the
semester. If a teacher's goal is to help students learn points "A" through "Z" during the course, then the
teacher needs first to know whether all students are really starting at point "A" and, as the course
proceeds, whether they have reached intermediate points "B," "G," "L," "R," "W," and so on. To
ensure high-quality learning, it is not enough to test students when the syllabus has arrived at points
"M" and "Z”. Classroom Assessment is particularly useful for checking how well students are learning
at those initial and intermediate points, and providing information for improvement when learning is
below satisfactory. This means that teachers need a continuous flow of accurate information on
students learning.

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Similarly, some official documents including the current Ethiopian education and training policy
(TGE, 1994) and the GEQIP (MoE, 2008) documents have given special attention for the necessity of
ongoing classroom assessment to enhance academic excellence and answer important questions about
the student, the classroom, the school and the education system as a whole. Despite the fact that much
has been said about the importance of ongoing classroom assessment in different assessment related
documents and on different occasions like workshops, studies indicated that teachers seem to have
critical gaps in conceptions and practical application of it at the classroom level. For example, many
teachers have conducted over use of testing, not considering assessment as part and parcel of learning,
and inadequate provision of feedback. According to Kibre (2010) , Ethiopian Academy of Sciences
(2012) and MoE (2012) , the existing practices and knowledge of teachers regarding the pedagogical
advantages of ongoing classroom assessment and their attitude towards implementing it in their actual
classroom seem to be minimal. There seems to exist a general misunderstanding among teachers in the
use of ongoing classroom assessment techniques. Most teachers prepare mid exam and final exam in
assessing their student‘s level of understanding. This is professionally proved to be wrong because
these teachers are using only limited variety of assessment tools. The following misunderstandings
were found as some of the common ones.
1. Ignoring the importance of ongoing assessment with appropriate feedback , many teachers
carry out over use of testing at the end of a week, month, mid semester or unit/ series of
lessons;
2. Being confused with the purposes of assessment, many teachers grade student dispositions
and behaviors like attendance, effort, attitudes etc instead of reporting separately from
achievement;
3. Being confused about the purposes of assessment (focusing on gathering information about
student learning) and grading (an end point judgment about achievement), many teachers
consider the two as the same;
4. Many teachers are giving the same mark/ grade to each participant in a group assessment.
This ignores the importance of validly assessing each student’s work within a group
process.
5. Failing to align teaching objectives with assessment tasks, many teachers use assessment as
an auditing exercise about what students do and don’t know or can and can’t do, by testing
student memory, asking trick questions etc.
6. Failing to address what is important for learning, many teachers focus only on what is
easiest to measure. They use mainly simple learning outcomes with paper and pencil tests
rather including high order learning thinking skills and performances.

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Various reasons may be attributed for the aforementioned problems and misunderstandings. Here it
would be good to pinpoint some major reasons why many teachers do not use ongoing classroom
assessment in their classrooms from Desalegn’s (2004) study. The following are mentioned as the
causes of the problems in the study:
 Lack of sufficient training in classroom assessment;
 Lack of skills to develop classroom assessment tools;
 Absence of manuals and other supporting materials that assist teachers in the development of
classroom assessment tools and the like.
In responding to the aforementioned problems, National Educational Assessment and Examinations
Agency (NEAEA) has prepared this comprehensive and system-wide classroom assessment manual to
equip primary and secondary school teachers with practical classroom assessment techniques and tools
and engage them in the context specific assessment activities. During the preparation of the manual,
assessment and curriculum experts together with university and college instructors have participated
from conception to the realization of the work. Then, it had been presented to policy makers two times
and their concern and suggestion were taken as feedback and included in the manual.
1.3. Purpose of the Manual
Classroom assessment is now seen as one of the best vehicle to reach quality education for which
most schools are dying for to achieve. Many examples of classroom assessment are for a primary and
secondary level, but the concept and process can also be applied to higher education level as well.
This handbook can guide teachers, who are the intended users of the manual and potential
implementer of context specific classroom assessment. Therefore, teachers may find this manual as a
useful tool to adapt and implement a classroom assessment activity in their own educational
environment.
More specifically, the manual has the following objectives:
1. To acquaint teachers with the essence (theoretical and practical foundation) and advantages of
classroom assessment for students achievement.
2. To ensure the assessment process should demonstrate to students, teachers, principals, and
outsiders how they work jointly to improve students’ achievement through classroom
assessment
3. To enable teachers to prepare better table of specifications/ blueprint/ for their classroom
assessment

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4. To improve teachers’ knowledge and skills of preparing and administering assessment
instruments, and analyzing, recording and utilizing the classroom assessment data
5. To guide teachers to utilize the assessment results and provide feedback to determine how the
students achievement can be improved.
6. To enable teachers to identify the learning difficulties of students through classroom
assessment at the early stage and apply context specific teaching methods and assessment
tools.
7. To help teachers plan their own context specific remediation for alleviating the problems they
faced.
8. To serve as a base for future specific subject level assessment manual development.
1.4. Organization of the Manual
The manual is organized into different chapters with different topics. The first chapter provides
background information about why classroom assessment has moved recently to the forefront and the
rationale for preparing this handbook. The second chapter deals with a detailed description of the
theoretical foundations and practical implications, assumptions and principles. This chapter also
provides with a brief description of the concepts and alignment of curriculum, learning and
assessment. Moreover, case examples from highly performed countries in international assessments
are presented. The components (paradigms) of classroom assessment are discussed in chapter three.
Even though the assessment for learning and assessment as learning are dealt in detail, assessment of
learning is also highlighted. Besides, the chapter is enriched with Afl and AaL strategies and,
techniques and suggested tools including performance and personal communications assessment with
practical examples. Chapter four suggests different ways of providing feedback for the different
classroom assessment components.
Chapter five is focusing on constructing paper and pencil assessment instruments that school teachers
can adapt in their test development process. This chapter will include an extensive discussion on how
to assess learning outcomes, develop table of specification (blueprint) for classroom assessment. It
also presents a discussion on guidelines and criteria for selecting the appropriate methods of
assessment by considering each student’s learning needs and measuring the learning outcome.
Chapter six focuses on assembling, administering and scoring of classroom assessment instruments
(tests), marks and marking systems. Chapter seven is dealing with describing and summarizing test
results with graphs and measure of central tendency.

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Chapter eight focuses on evaluating the test and test items with validity and reliability, fairness, and
wash back effect of tests. Some recommendations about implementing classroom assessment are
forwarded in chapter nine. The annotated references/bibliographies used in the preparation of this
manual are listed next to chapter nine. Some pertinent templates, practical examples and some
assessment formats together with brief explanations are annexed for teachers to model them in their
day- to- day classroom assessment practices.

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CHAPTER TWO
2.0. OVERVIEW OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT
2.1. Concepts of Terms Related to Classroom Assessment
In this section, an attempted is made to clarify the concepts of classroom assessment in relation to
other related concepts since some people use them interchangeably in a wrong way.
2.1.1. Testing, Measurement, Assessment, and Evaluation
Testing refers to specific instruments that measure the achievement and proficiency of students, and
measurement refers to systematic description of student’s performance in terms of numbers.
Essentially, measurement is the process of scoring a test that involves assigning numbers, or
quantifying to represent an individual’s performance (Alausa, 2004). Tests and measurement are
subset of assessment. Assessment (sometimes known as “student assessment,” “educational
assessment,” or simply “assessment”) to a more general concept of examining closely the students'
learning progress. As mentioned in Clarke (2012), assessment includes classroom assessment,
examinations, and large scale (system level) assessments. Whereas, Evaluation is the process of
systematic collection of information regarding to the nature and quality education in order to make
rational decisions. Testing, measurements, assessment, are the subsets of evaluation. The following
figure depicts the relationship of among them.
Figure 1: Relationship among testing, measurement, assessment, and evaluation
Source: Dochy (2001, p.4343)
2.1.2. Classroom Assessment and Examinations
Classroom assessment is also known as continuous assessment. For this reason these two phrases are
used interchangeably in this guiding manual as used in other books. According to NOE (2004)
document, classroom assessment is a process of collecting information on the progress of students’

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learning using varieties of tools like checklist, formal tests, observations, self-assessment, creative
writing, and portfolios. For Black and Wiliam (1998), classroom assessment refers to all those
activities undertaken by teachers and by their students in assessing themselves to provide information
as feedback to modify teaching and learning activities. Such assessment becomes formative
assessment when the evidence is actually used to adapt the teaching to meet student needs.
Examination is a series of questions designed to measure a learner's knowledge on a particular subject
at the mid or end of the academic year. Classroom assessment and end-of-year examinations are meant
to complement one another. When classroom assessments are done properly, they can predict
performance on the end-of year examinations.
2.1.3. Assessment, Evaluation and Action
Assessment is a thorough but constant appraisal, judgment and analysis of students' performance
through meticulous collection of information, whereas, evaluation is an overall but regular judgment
and analysis of teaching and learning as well as curriculum through systematic collection of data. In
assessment, the focus is on specific points of the subject; but in evaluation, the emphasis is placed on
overall aspects of the subject. Assessment calls for forming a process which occurs during the learning
process, but evaluation emphasizes the conclusion of a process that takes place at the end of the term.
Assessment looks at the individual subject learners to improve the process of teaching and learning,
but evaluation judges the goodness, worth or quality of learning, students’ achievement, and the whole
learning program.
Data in assessment are collected by concentrating on students' moment-by-moment performance in
the classrooms through various techniques while evaluation involves the gathering of data by focusing
on teaching performance and learning outcomes.
Action is what we do as the result of the assessment of learners and evaluation of their assessment
information. For example, when we stand on a scale that assesses our weight at is 100 kilograms. We
evaluate this assessment as being unhealthy for us. We then decide to take action and go on a diet to
reduce our weight. This process can be summarized as:
1. Assessment: 100 kilograms of the personal weight
2. Evaluation: unhealthy condition
3. Action: weight reduction diet

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Actions in Classroom Context
Remediation
Remediation is a method of helping students to overcome their learning difficulties. After assessing
the learners, the teacher is expected to give non masters and borderline’s remediation. As shown in the
figure below, remediation by peers is very important to feel at ease students who have learning
difficulties.
Example
Assessment: During a Grade 2 lesson, in which a teacher is teaching the learners to identify square
shapes, the teacher gathers information on whether learners can identify square shapes. Suppose the
learners cannot identify square shapes.
Evaluation: The teacher judges that it is not good that the learners cannot identify square shapes. The
learners must be able to identify square shapes in order to move on to the next learning outcomes
(competencies) which are to name the different shapes and to identify objects of the same shape.
Action: Based on students’ performance, the teacher may decide that remediation or enrichment
actions are necessary. Therefore, the teacher groups the learners in pairs and they practice drawing big
and little squares, circles and triangles. The teacher then helps them to learn how to identify squares
from among the other shapes.
Figure 2: Remediation by peers
Enrichment
Enrichment is the work that is given to the group of students who have mastered the objectives. The
students work independently, but are checked by the teacher. However, to be meaningful, enrichment
is supposed to be meaningful, motivating, rewarding, enjoyable and challenging. Remediation and
enrichment are intended to run parallel in the classroom.
Example
Assessment: During a Grade 2 lesson in which a teacher is teaching the learners to identify circles,
the teacher gathers information that establishes the learners can identify circles.

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Evaluation: The teacher judges that the ability of learners to identify circles is very good. The
learners must be able to identify circles in order to move on to further objectives, for instance; to
identify the different shapes and to identify objects of the same shape.
Action: Depending on the time available, the teacher may decide to go on to teach the next
competency or provide the learners with further instruction (enrichment) on circles. For example, the
teacher may ask the learners to identify circles in common objects such as car and bicycles. Or, the
teacher may ask them to draw pictures of objects in their school that shows how circles are part of the
real world (Angelo and Patricia, 1993)
2.1.4. Formative and Summative Assessments
Formative assessment is an ongoing assessment including reviews and observations in a classroom as
part of the instructional process with the intention of modifying and validating instruction. Summative
assessment, on the other hand, is typically used to evaluate the effectiveness of instructional programs
and services at the end of an academic year or other predetermined time for making a judgment of
student competency after an instructional phase is complete (READ, 2011). To sum up, it is very
important to note what the Earl (2004) analogy about the delineation of assessment and evaluation that
when the cook tastes the soup, that is formative assessment; when the guests taste the soup that
is evaluation. If the cook tastes the soup, he/she has time to add some ingredients and can learn from this
for next time. However, when the gust tastes the soup, he/she judges how good the soup is.
2.2. Purpose and Characteristics of Classroom assessment
2.2.1. Purposes of Classroom assessment
If a teacher conducts continuous classroom assessment to find out what a student knows,
understands, and can do, he /she becomes in a position to get better understanding about where his/her
students are and what their learning needs are. When teachers know how students are progressing and
where students are having trouble, they can use this information to make necessary instructional
adjustments such as re-teaching, trying alternative instructional approaches, or offering more
opportunities for practice. The main purposes of Classroom assessment are to:
1. find out what students know and can do
2. help teachers to adjust their teaching methods based on the need of students
3. have confidence in what students know, understand and can do.
4. Provide all students with opportunities to show what they know

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5. help students to learn with understanding
6. improve teaching methods
7. help to determine the remediation and enrichment methods
8. let students know their own progress
9. let parents know their child’s progress
10. lead to overall evaluation of the students
2.2.2. Characteristics of Effective CA
The following are the characteristics of classroom assessment.
 Systematic
 Comprehensive
 Cumulative
 Guidance –Oriented
 Learner-Centered
 Teacher-Directed
 Mutually Beneficial
 Formative
 Context-Specific
 Ongoing
 Rooted in Good Teaching Practice
(Atkin, Black and Coffey, 2001).
The table below signifies how important the classroom assessment is for students and teachers.
Table 1: the need of classroom assessment for students and teachers
Student Teacher
Classroom assessment helps to Classroom assessment helps to
identify prior knowledge
identify strengths and weaknesses
help in setting success criteria and learning goals
help in understanding themselves as learners
help in understanding the learning process
measure learning progress and attainment
identify strengths and weaknesses in teaching
help in setting learning outcomes and objectives
tell how and what to assess
show fairness and objectivity of assessment
inform and guide teaching and learning
assign grades
monitor student progress and attainment
be used to develop oneself as a teacher

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2.3. Assumptions and Principles of Classroom Assessment
2.3.1. Assumptions of Classroom Assessment
Assumptions are sets of beliefs and theories or conceptual frameworks developed for practical
understandings. From assessment perspectives, teachers need certain assumptions relevant to the
classroom assessment issues in order to make more effective decisions about their students' actual
learning abilities. According to UTC (2002), the assumptions of classroom assessment are the
following:
1. The quality of student learning is directly, although not exclusively, related to the quality of
teaching. Therefore, one of the most promising ways to improve learning is to improve
teaching.
2. To improve their teaching effectiveness, teachers need first to make learning outcomes explicit
and then to get specific, comprehensible feedback on the extent to which they are achieving
them. Teachers should articulate specific skills and competencies on where are they going and
where do their students want to go.
3. To improve their learning, students need to receive appropriate and focused feedback early
and often; they also need to learn how to assess their own learning.
4. The type of assessment most likely to improve teaching and learning conducted by teachers is
to answer questions teachers themselves have formulated in response to issues or problems in
their own teaching.
5. Systematic inquiry and intellectual challenge are powerful sources of motivation, growth, and
renewal for teachers, and classroom assessment can provide such challenge.
6. Classroom assessment does not require specialized training; it can be carried out by dedicated
teachers from all disciplines.
7. By collaborating with colleagues and actively involving students in classroom assessment
efforts, teachers and students enhance learning and personal satisfaction.
2.3.2. Principles of Classroom Assessment
The following principles are identified as the major and common ones to guide excellence in
improving quality education with classroom assessment by providing guidelines and framework for
stakeholders (Rudner and Schafe, 2002) to better perform their part.
1. Classroom assessment of student learning begins with educational values (cognitive,
psychomotor, and affective).
2. Classroom assessment works best when it is ongoing, not episodic.

20
3. Classroom assessment provides efficient feedback on instruction to make decision for
enrichment and/or remedial actions
 satisfactory (proceed to next)
 unsatisfactory (re teach)
4. Classroom assessment uses a variety of assessment procedures to gather appropriate
information about students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Just as one size of learning
doesn’t fit all, one size of assessment doesn’t suit either.
5. Classroom assessment ensures that assessments are valid, reliable, fair and usable
 Valid- reflects purpose of the test( fit for purposes)
 Reliability- yields consistence on the results
 Fair- free from biases
 Usability- practicability, coverage, convenience, and economical
6. Classroom assessment allows students to document/keep record of their performance assessment
like portfolio.
7. Classroom assessment fosters wider improvement when representatives from across the
educational community are involved.
 Interpreting/communicating the results of assessment meaningfully with stakeholders
 Assessing with correct meaning, student can make correct decision, falling scores can
motivate, passing can inspire,
 Through assessment, educators meet responsibilities to students and to the public
2.4. Alignments of Competency Based Curriculum, Learning, and Assessment
2.4.1. Competency Based Curriculum
Competency-based learning or competency based education and training is an approach to teaching
and learning more often used in learning concrete skills than abstract learning. It differs from other
approaches in that the unit of learning is extremely fine grained. Learners work on one competency at
a time, which is likely a small component of a larger learning outcome. After being evaluated on the
individual competency, the student moves on to the next only if he/she has mastered it.
Competency-based learning is learner-focused and works naturally with independent study and with
the teacher in the role of facilitator. Competency –based learning methods allow a student to learn
those individual skills they find challenging at their own pace, practicing and refining as much as they

21
like. Then, they can move rapidly through other skills to which they are more adept. It requires
mastery of every individual learning outcome making it very well suited to learning credentials. This
implies that teachers need to know the learner so that they can make sure that the curriculum fits.
They need to know students’ traits, how students access, process, and express information, to know
their learning and thinking styles. Teachers should use of varied instructional methods and varied
assessment techniques to meet diverse student needs.
There are four student traits that teachers must often address to ensure effective and efficient learning.
These are readiness, interest, learning profile, and affect of the students.
Readiness refers to a student’s knowledge, understanding, and skill related to a particular sequence of
learning. Only when a student works at a level of difficulty that is both challenging and attainable for
that student does learning take place.
Interest refers to those topics or pursuits that evoke curiosity and passion in a learner. Thus, highly
effective teachers attend both to developing interests and as yet undiscovered interests in their
students.
Learning profile refers to how students learn best. Those include learning style, intelligence
preference, socioeconomic background, culture and gender. If classrooms can offer and support
different modes of learning, it is likely that more students will learn effectively and efficiently.
Affect has to do with how students feel about themselves, their work, and the classroom as a whole.
Student affect is the gateway to helping each student become more fully engaged and successful in
learning.
Fundamental shift in Curriculum
Currently, there is a fundamental shift on curriculum reform of standards, curriculum itself and
assessment worldwide. The goal of emerged curriculum is less dependence on rote learning, repetitive
tests and ‘a one size fits all’ type of instruction, and more engaged learning, discovery through
experiences, differentiated teaching, the learning of life-long skills the building of character through
innovative and effective teaching approaches and strategies (Bartram, 2005). The following table
shows the difference between the emerged competency based and the traditional curriculum.

22
Table 2: Change characteristics for shifting the learning emphasis
No Element Competency-Based Content-Based
1 Outcomes Specific, measurable Global
2 Content Outcomes and standards-based Subject content-based
3 Time Continued until outcome achieved Fixed time units
4 Teacher’s role Facilitator Transmitter
5 Focus Learner readiness Teacher-directed
6 Materials Variety of media and resources Text book dominated
7 Feedback Immediate Delayed and summative
8 Assessment Criterion-referenced and developmental Norm-referenced
9 Criteria Demonstrated competence Grades or scores
10 Learning Communication inquiry, reasoning and
problem solving
Fixed body of knowledge under teacher
control
11 Learner Independence and responsibility, self
monitoring
Follows a pre-determined course of
learning
12 Context New and generalized context to aid inference
prediction and generalization
Highly contextualized instruction
content based. Inhibits generalization
and prediction
13 Reporting Descriptive, developmental reports prepared
for teachers and parents, progress and targets
shared with students
Grades, scores and norms provided to
parents and teachers
Adapted from Bartram (2005)
2.4.2. Learning
The contemporary learning has stemmed from constructivism theory, which is a view of learning is
something that happens inside the heads of learners as a core concept. No matter how meticulously we
plan or what marvelous strategies we use during teaching, we can’t reach inside learners’ heads and
put the learning there. There is a gap between learning and teaching that learners have to negotiate in
order to construct new knowledge, skills and attitudes. This view strongly underpins what all teachers
and school leaders know lies at the heart of good classroom practice. In order to have knowledge of
individual learner’s needs and quality of teaching, these actors should create good relationships with
students. It is via these that the gap between learning and teaching may be more successfully bridged.

23
The Four Pillars of Learning
The four pillars of learning and their details are dealt as follows:
1. Learning to know (learning how to learn)
This type of learning is looking learning as both a means and an end of human existence.
 Looking at as a means, students have to learn to understand the world around them, at least as
much as necessary for them to lead their lives with some dignity, develop their occupational
skills and communicate with other people.
 Regarding as an end, pursuit of knowledge for the sake its own that can be derived from
understanding, knowledge and discovery. This aspect of learning is typically enjoyed by
researchers, but good teaching can help everyone to enjoy it. The broader our knowledge, the
better we can understand the many different aspects of our environment for greater intellectual
curiosity, sharpens the critical faculties and enables people to develop their own independent
judgments on the world around them.
2. Learning to do
This type of learning is closely associated with the issue of occupational training: how do we adapt
education so that it can equip us to do the types of work needed in the future? In this regard, skill
training has to evolve and become more than just a means of imparting the knowledge needed to do a
more or less routine job.
3. Learning to live together
Students should be taught to understand other people's reactions by looking at things from their point
of view. Where this spirit of empathy is encouraged in schools, it has a positive effect on young
persons' social behavior for the rest of their lives. For example, teaching youngsters to look at the
world through the eyes of other ethnic or religious groups is a way of avoiding some of the
misunderstandings that give rise to hatred and violence among adults.
4. Learning to be
Education should contribute to every person's complete development - mind and body, intelligence,
sensitivity, aesthetic appreciation and spirituality. All people should receive in their childhood and
youth an education that equips them to develop their own independent, critical way of thinking and
judgment so that they can make up their own minds on the best courses of action in the different
circumstances in their lives ( http://www.unesco.org/delors/fourpil.htm) retrieved on 01/01/2013.

24
2.4.3. The Interaction of Curriculum, Learning and Assessment
Why link assessment with instruction?
Learning is impossible without ongoing assessment. Learning is about attempting to reduce the gap
between what the learner knows and what he/she wants to know. Assessment is the process of gaining
information about the gap. To identify the gap, teachers need to pre-assess the learner so that they can
find out what they already know, to assess during the learning by using ongoing assessments, and
to assess after the learning. The following figure illustrate how better assessment is a means for teacher
teaching and learning for better opportunities for a better life.
Figure 3: Assessment for better teaching and learning
The three main components of any learning program are the curriculum, which provides a framework
of knowledge and capabilities, or the content, the instructional methods used to deliver the curriculum
and the assessment techniques with which the success in attaining the learning outcome is evaluated.
Effective curriculum, learning, and assessment are appropriate for students’ development and
responsive to individual interests and needs and sensitive to their cultural and linguistic contexts.
Aligning standards, curriculum, instruction, and assessment horizontally and vertically creates a
learning continuum within which all students can develop and learn at their own pace
( http://www.flaguide.org/start/assess-in-context-pup, retrieved on 10/06/2013).
Linking assessment directly to curriculum and instruction generates meaningful data needed to inform
instructional practice. Using appropriate classroom assessment to refine instruction and provide
individualized support helps ensure that students make academic progress and develop in all domains.
The following figure depicts the interaction of the three.

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Figure 4: The Interaction of Curriculum, Learning and Assessment
Assessment purposes and practices are closely linked to curriculum principles and to students’
learning practices. These three components are inextricably linked and are bound together as shown in
figure 4 above. The role of assessment then is to measure the effectiveness of the curriculum and the
learning methods with respect to the intended outcomes.
For practical reasons, let us borrow an example from Teachers Handbook on Formative Continuous
Assessment Grades 1-4 in Ethiopia and have a look at how well assessment tasks align with MLC and
intermediate/ higher learning outcomes (USAID, 2012). The table below signifies to what extent the
curriculum goals, learning outcomes, and assessments are aligned.
curriculum
LearningAssessment

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Table 3: Example of Alignment of curriculum goals, student profiles, learning outcomes, and
assessment in Grade 1 English
Educational
Goal in the
curriculum
Student
Profile
Statements
Learning Outcomes
AssessmentMinimum Learning
Competencies
Intermediate and Higher
Competencies
Provide
basic
education
appropriate
to learner
developing
basic
language
skills.
1. They will
be able to
write in
standard
calligraphy,
speak some
English and
understand
some
English.
2. Have some
awareness
about
themselves
and their
families.
1. 1. Pronounce the 26
letters of the English
alphabet.
2.
2.Write the 26 capital
and small letters of the
English alphabet from
a model
3. Identify English
names of human body
parts.
4. Greet each other in
English
5. Follow simple oral
commands in English
6. Read all English
letters
7. Write the 26 capital
and small letters from
memory.
8. Say short English
phrases to describe
people, animals and
objects.
9. Listen to and respond
to greetings in
English.
10.Understand and
respond appropriately
to short questions in
English.
1. Giving assignment to
bring any 5 English
letters on flash card.
2. Class work: copy A,
B, V,D and E five
times in your exercise
book.
3. Point to human body
parts on poster
4. Asks oral questions
like ‘What is this?
5. Pair work on greeting
through
demonstration.
6. Oral commands like
‘Show me’
Source: USAID (2012: 7)
As shown in table 3 above, not all the assessments are aligned with the learning outcomes. The activity
that the teacher asks students to do in an assessment must be the same as that required by the
corresponding learning outcome. If the teacher asks the students to do something different, then the
assessment is not aligned with the learning outcome. Poor alignment of assessment will provide
misleading information about students learning and is poor teaching.
A. MLC 1 requires students to pronounce the letters of the English alphabet. However, the
assessment task corresponding to MLC does not require students to pronounce letters of the
alphabet only to bring 5 letters on a flash card. The assessment is not aligned.
B. MLC 2 requires students to copy both upper and lower case of all 26 English letters from a
model. Assessment tasks 1 and 2 only require 5 letters to be copied and do not specify both
upper and lower case letters. Even taken together assessments 1 and 2 do not align with
MLC1.

27
C. MLC 3 requires students to name body parts in English. Assessment task 3 asks students to
name body parts on a poster of the human body and so it is aligned.
D. MLC 4 requires students to greet each other in English. Assessment task 5 asks students to
work in pairs to demonstrate greeting in English and so assessment task 5 is aligned with
MLC 4.
E. MLC 5 requires a student to follow simple commands in English. Assessment task 6 only
mentions one command and so we cannot be sure this is a complete assessment for MLC 5.
Moreover, a very poor alignment of the assessment tasks with intermediate and higher competencies
from 6-10 is observed.
2.5. Country Experiences on Classroom Assessment
Several countries promote classroom assessment as a fundamental approach to education reform.
Darling –Hammond and Wentworth (2010) cited in Clarke (2012) reviewed the high performing
education systems around the world and noted the following student assessment activities:
 illustrate the importance of integrating of assessment of, for , and as student learning , rather
than as a separate disjointed element of the education system,
 provide feedback to students , teachers and schools about what has been learned, and feed
forward information that can shape future learning as well as guide college and career –related
decision making,
 closely align curriculum expectation, subject and performance criteria and desired learning
outcomes,
 engage teachers in assessment development and scoring as a way to improve their professional
practice and their capacity to support student learning and achievement,
 engage students in authentic assessments to improve their motivation and learning,
 seek to advance student learning in higher – order thinking skills and problem solving by using
a wider range of instructional and assessment strategies,
 privilege quality over quantity of standardized testing ( for example Finland) ,
These imply that classroom assessment helps to identify and respond to the students’ learning needs.
This enables the countries to adjust their teaching to meet individual student’s needs, and to better help
all students to reach high standards. Similarly, Looney (2011), found that many teachers in these high

28
performing countries incorporate aspects of continuous (formative) assessment into their teaching
systematically. They still work toward standards while identifying the factors behind the variation in
students’ achievements and adapting their ultimately since the goal of formative assessment is for
students to develop their own “learning to learn” skills.
In classrooms, teachers gather information on student understanding and adjust teaching to meet
identified learning needs. In schools, school leaders use information to identify areas of strength and
weakness and to develop strategies for improvement. At the policy level, officials use information
gathered through national or regional assessments, or through monitoring of school performance, to
guide investments in training and support for schools, or to set broad priorities for education. The
following countries were found high performing countries in Program for International Student
Assessment (PISA) and Third International math and Science study (TIMSS) assessments except
South Africa.
Table 4: Country experience on classroom assessment
COUNTRY CLASSROOM BASED ASSESSMENT
SINGAPORE
Teachers perform CA of their students at all levels of education. On a-day-to-day bases, this
assessment is informal and based on student work in and out of the classroom. Considering the overall
achievements of the child, teachers are encouraged to explore alternative modes of assessment from
pen-and-paper tests, as appropriate for their subject(s). A Classroom assessment culture has been
developed to find a ‘right’ balance between summative and formative assessment practices in class. In
addition, clarifying of teaching goals, using appropriate questioning techniques and the provision of
feedback are some of the assessment-teaching strategies that would be advocated in the classrooms.
IRELAND
Ireland places an emphasis on early diagnosis of serious literacy and numeracy problems at the
beginning of primary schooling. Teachers and learners assess progress, and use information to shape
next steps. In primary school, classroom assessment includes observation, teacher-designed task and
tests, conferencing and portfolio assessment. In secondary schools, oral assessments in languages and
hands-on assessments in subjects like geography and science are increasingly common.
FINLAND
Finland supports classroom assessment, which is based on each student’s progress. Diverse
assessments, including verbal feedback, assessment interviews, and portfolio assessments, are based
on objectives defined in the curriculum. Curriculum guidelines outline the principles of student
assessment, e.g., encouragement of student self-assessment skills.
NORWAY
In Norway, classroom assessment is seen as a tool for promoting the student’s learning and
development. Students play an active role in the process, and also develop skills for self assessment.
Assessments (unmarked) are an integral part of the daily learning process. The results of daily
assessments are included in regular conferences between teachers, students and parents. Students do
not receive marks at all during primary school. Marks are introduced in lower secondary schools as
part of student assessment. During primary school (Years 1 to 7) there are no formal assessments of
pupils.

29
COUNTRY CLASSROOM BASED ASSESSMENT
SCOTLAND
The following assessment instruments have been used in the Scotland education system : Observation,
Product evaluation, Questioning , Alternative response questions , Assertion/reason questions
Assignments, Aural/oral tests , Case studies , Cloze questions , Completion questions , Expressive
activities ,
Extended response questions , Grid questions , Matching questions , Multiple choice questions ,
Multiple response questions , Oral questions , Practical exercises , Projects , Question papers ,
Restricted response questions, Role-plays , Self-report techniques ( Log-books, Personal interviews
and Questionnaires), Simulations , Short answer questions and Structured questions.
HONG
KONG
Classroom assessment involves students in activities such as making oral presentations, developing a
portfolio of work, undertaking fieldwork, carrying out an investigation, doing practical laboratory
work or completing a design project, help students acquire important skills ,knowledge and work
habits that cannot readily be assessed or promoted through paper – and-pencil testing .
Adapted from Looney (2011)
Moreover, in South Africa, learners’ progress is monitored during learning activities. This informal
daily monitoring of progress can be done through question and answer sessions; short assessment tasks
completed during the lesson by individuals, pairs or groups or homework exercises. Learners involve
actively in self-assessment, peer assessment and group assessment. The results of the informal daily
assessment tasks are not formally recorded unless the teacher wishes to do so. In such instances, a
simple checklist is used to record this assessment. However, teachers are supposed to use the learners’
performance in these assessment tasks to provide verbal or written feedback to learners, the school
management team and parents. This is particularly important if barriers to learning or poor levels of
participation are encountered (Department of Education of Republic of South Africa, 2008).
As can be learned from the aforementioned country experiences on CA, schools utilize a variety of
both formal and informal assessment approaches chosen to address the nature of the learning being
assessed and the varied characteristics and experiences of the students.

30
CHAPTER THREE
3.0. COMPONENTS CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT
There is considerable evidence that assessment is a powerful means for enhancing learning so as to
ensure quality in education. Black and Wiliam (1998) synthesized over 250 studies linking assessment
and learning, and found that the intentional use of assessment in the classroom is to promote learning
and improve student’s achievement. Teachers use classroom assessment to become aware of the
knowledge, skills, and beliefs that their students bring to a learning task. They use this knowledge as a
starting point for new instruction, monitor students’ changing perceptions as instruction proceeds and
evaluate the students’ level of achievement.
The components of classroom assessment are also known as paradigms of assessment and purposes of
assessment as well in some literatures. The following figure depicts the category of traditional and
contemporary classroom assessments as an introductory part of this chapter.
Figure 5: Components of Classroom Assessment
Source: Stiggins (2002)
In most cases, teachers use three intertwined but distinct assessment components –assessment For
learning; assessment Of learning and assessment As learning (Stiggins , 2002). Following are details
of each.

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3.1. Assessment For Learning ( AfL)
The term 'Assessment for Learning' (AfL) was coined in 2002 by the Assessment Reform Group
(ARG), based on research that had begun in 1998 by Black and Wiliam. AfL is the process of
seeking and interpreting evidence for use by teachers and learners for the purpose of deciding where
learners are in there learning, where they need to go and how best to get there. It acknowledges that
individual students learn in idiosyncratic (special) ways, but it also recognizes that there are
predictable patterns and pathways that many students follow. It requires careful design on the part of
teachers so that they use the resulting information to determine not only what students know, but also
to gain insights into how, when, and whether students apply what they know (Manitoba Education,
Citizenship and Youth, 2006).
3.1.1. Purposes and Principles of AfL
Purposes of AfL
The major purposes of assessment for learning are to:
 plan lesson considering the previous experience of the learners
 diagnose learners’ needs
 monitor learning progress
 improve and guide learning
 adjust learning-teaching techniques
 intervene for remedial action
 provide immediate feedback
 report the status of learner’s progress
Principles of AfL
According to Flórez and Sammons (2013), the ARG defined ten principles in order to summarize the
main aspects of the frame in which any practice of AfL should be understood and developed. The
following table depicts the category of the ten principles with their descriptions.

32
Table 5: Principles of AfL and their Descriptions
Source: Flórez and Sammons (2013)
Principles Descriptions
1.AfL is part of effective planning
2.AfL is central to Classroom
Practice
3. AfL promotes understanding of
goals and Criteria
These first three principles can be understood as a whole. In brief,
they refer to the need to recognize assessment not as a mere accessory
to pedagogical practice, but as an integral part of it. Assessment
must be intertwined with all the moments of a learning process and,
thus, must be considered when planning. For this to happen, teachers
must define clear learning goals or criteria and be able to share them
with students in an understandable way. Along with this, students
should be constantly reminded of these criteria or learning goals
during the learning process, their learning evaluated and feedback
given to analyze the progress of students and take decisions according
to this evidence.
4. AfL is sensitive and
constructive
5. AfL fosters motivation
6. AfL recognizes all educational
achievement
This second set of principles is related to the impact of assessment in
shaping students’ motivation, especially in terms of the nature of
the feedback they receive. Teachers should be careful in what they
say to students and try to give descriptive feedback exclusively
centred on the quality and content of each student’s work rather than
use value-laden terms such as ‘good’ or ‘poor’. They should also
suggest ways for students to improve their work. In the context of
AfL, there is not only an excellence level which all must achieve in
order to have recognition; any learning progress made by the student
in relation to his or her previous state deserves recognition and
positive feedback.
7. AfL focuses on how pupils
learn
8. AfL helps learners know how
to improve
9. AfL develops the capacity for
peer and self-assessment
The process through which students learn must be a focus of attention
in classroom practice, both for teachers and students. This involves
developing awareness in the student about his or her learning
processes, and increasing autonomy through practices of peer
and self-assessment in order to support students in developing their
own responsibility for their learning. Giving feedback to students on
how to improve, and not just on their mistakes, also contributes to the
development of autonomous thinking and learning.
10. AfL is a key
professional skill
This principle highlights the complexity involved in taking
assessment for learning into practice, as it requires teachers to learn
how to work from this perspective and to develop the necessary
skills for doing so. It is recognized that the need for good quality
professional development program as a fundamental requirement for
the successful implementation of assessment for learning in
classroom practice.

33
3.1.2. Strategies of Assessment for Learning
3.1.2.1. The Pivotal Questions and the Seven Strategies
There are seven common strategies that do build on one another although they may not be a recipe to
be followed step by step. These strategies are a collection of actions that will strengthen students’
sense of self-efficacy (a belief that their effort will lead to improvement), their motivation to try, and
ultimately their achievement (Stiggins, Arter, Chappuis and Chappuis , 2004). The seven strategies are
to help students take control of their own learning and organized with three compelling essential
questions. Moving students forward in their learning depends on the teacher and the students
answering the three pivotal questions, but they cannot be answered if the teacher hasn’t first identified
and shared clear learning outcomes and success criteria for students. The three pivotal questions are:
Teachers Students
1. Where is the learner going? 1. Where am I going?
2. Where is the learner right now? 2. Where am I right now?
3. How will the learner get there? 3. How will I get there?
The following are some details of the pivotal questions on the teacher’s side with the seven strategies.
Where is the learner going?
Strategy 1 Provide students with a clear and understandable vision of the learning target
Strategy 2 Use examples and models of strong and weak work
Where is the learner right now?
Strategy 3 Offer regular descriptive feedback.
Strategy 4 Teach students to self-assess and set goals.
How will the learner get there?
Strategy 5 Design lessons to focus on one learning target or aspect of quality at a time.
Strategy 6 Teach students focused revision.
Strategy 7 Engage students in self-reflection, and let them keep track of and share their learning.

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Table 6: Overview of Seven Strategies of Assessment for Learning
No Question to
be addressed
Strategies Explanations
1
Where is the
learner
going?
1. Provide students with a
clear and understandable
vision of the learning
target.
Motivation and achievement both increase when instruction is
guided by clearly defined targets
2. Use examples and models
of strong and weak work
Carefully chosen examples of the range of quality can create
and refine students’ understanding of the learning outcomes by
helping students answer the questions,
“What defines quality work?” and “What are some problems to
avoid?”
2 Where is the
learner right
now?
3. Offer regular descriptive
feedback
Effective feedback shows students where they are on their path
to attaining the intended learning. It answers for students the
questions, “What are my strengths?”; “What do I need to work
on?” and “Where did I go wrong and what can I do about it?”
4. Teach students to self-assess
and set learning goals.
It teaches students to identify their strengths and weaknesses
and to set learning goals for further learning. It helps them
answer the questions, “What am I good at?”; “What do I need
to work on?”; and “What should I do next?”
3
How will
the learner
get there?
5. Design lessons to focus on
one learning target or aspect of
quality at a time.
When assessment information identifies a need, the teacher can
adjust instruction to target that need. In this strategy, the
teacher scaffolds learning by narrowing the focus of a lesson to
help students master a specific learning outcomes or to address
specific misconceptions or problems.
6. Teach students focused
revision.
When a concept, skill, or competence proves difficult for
students, the teacher can let them practice it in smaller
segments, and give them feedback on just the aspects they are
practicing. This strategy allows students to revise their initial
work with a focus on a manageable number of learning targets
or aspects of quality.
7. Engage students in self-
reflection, and let them keep
track of and share their
learning.
Long-term retention and motivation increase when students
track, reflect on, and communicate about their learning. In this
strategy, students look back on their journey, reflecting on their
learning and sharing their achievement with others.
Adapted from Chappuis (2007)
3.1.2.2. Effective Questioning Technique as AfL Strategies
Assessment for learning (day-to-day assessment) strategies of questioning, observing, discussing,
checking on students’ understanding and analyzing their responses are not mutually exclusive; neither
is the list necessarily exhaustive. Asking questions to assess children’s starting points, in order to be
able to adapt learning and teaching activities appropriately to meet children’s needs. The following
questioning techniques are also important to provide effective assessment opportunities.

35
Questioning Techniques
• Challenging (how did you do it/why did you do that?) How do you …?
• Checking learners’ understanding (how do you know…? ) Is it ever /always true/false
that…? What is wrong with…? What is the same and what is different about …?
(‘Wrong’ answers are also helpful)
• Uncovering thinking (can you explain this?) How do you explain …?
• Offering strategies (have you thought about….?)
• Re-assuring (are you happy with that?) What does that tell us about …?
• Sometimes a ‘devil’s advocate’ question (what makes you sure?, How can we be sure
that…?) Why is …true?
• ‘Going beyond’ questions: (how does this idea connect with …?)
• Asking a range of questions, from literal to higher-order, to develop understanding:
 application, for example ‘What other examples are there?’
 analysis, for example ‘What is the evidence for parts or features of…?’
 synthesis, for example ‘How could we add to, improve, design, solve …?’
 evaluation, for example ‘What do you think about …?’, ‘What are your criteria for
assessing?
• Using thinking time and talk partners to ensure all students are engaged in answering questions.
Some questions are better than others. For example, a teacher wants to find out if students know the
properties of prime numbers. The teacher asks, “Is 7 a prime number?” a student responds, “Yes, I
think so, or No, it’s not”
This question has not enabled the teacher to make an effective assessment of whether the student
knows the properties of prime numbers. Changing the question to “Why is 7 an example of a prime
number?” does several things.
 It helps the students recall their knowledge of properties of prime numbers and the properties
of 7 and compare them.
 The answer to the question is “Because prime numbers have exactly two factors and 7 has
exactly two factors.” This response requires a higher degree of articulation than “Yes, I think
so.”

36
 It provides an opportunity to make an assessment without necessarily asking supplementary
questions. The question “7 a prime number?” requires further questions before the teacher can
assess the student’s understanding.
The question “Why is 7 an example of a prime number?” the general question “Why is X an example
of Y?”
3.1.3. Assessment for Learning Practices
The figure below followed by the details shows the steps to make assessment for learning practices
effective at school and classroom levels.
Figure 6: Eliciting of Understanding
Adapted from Earl (2004)
Developing student self and peer-assessment skills
& setting goal
Providing Descriptive Feedback
Identifying Success Criteria
Sharing Learning Intentions (Outcomes)

37
3.1.3.1. Sharing the Learning Intention/ Outcomes
Assessment for learning (and as learning) requires that students and teachers share a common
understanding of what is being learned and assessed. Learning outcomes clearly identify what
students are expected to know and be able to do, in a given subject. Teachers develop learning goals
based on the curriculum expectations and share them with students at or near the beginning of
learning. Teachers and students come to a common understanding of the learning outcomes through
discussion and clarification during instruction. The learning intentions/outcomes are what the teacher
hopes students will know, understand or be able to do by the end of a lesson. They are expressed in
terms of knowledge, understanding and skills, and link directly with the relevant curriculum
objectives/ competencies.
The questions to be answered by the teacher during sharing learning intentions
What do I want students to know?
What do I want students to understand?
What do I want students to be able to do?
If these questions are stated at the beginning as the target question that the teacher wants answered,
then this could become the learning intention. Students should have clear notion of learning intention
of each lesson (should be put on board at start of class).
Examples:
 By the end of this lesson students should be able to separate sand, salt and water...
 By the end of this lesson students should be able to understand the character of ….
 By the end of this lesson students should be able to draw a diagram of …
3.1.3.2. Identifying Success criteria
The term 'success criteria' is synonymous with 'assessment criteria' but, instead of reminding students
of their (perhaps negative) experiences of being assessed, this term focuses (much more positively) on
students' ability to succeed. Sometimes the success criteria might be just a series of dot points. The
success criteria are the benchmarks of successful attainment of the learning outcomes. Success criteria
are described in specific terms what successful attainment of the learning outcomes look like. When
planning assessment and instruction, teachers, guided by the achievement chart for the particular
subject or discipline, identify the criteria they will use to assess students’ learning, as well as what
evidence of learning students will provide to demonstrate their knowledge and skills. The success

38
criteria are used to develop an assessment tool, such as a checklist, a rubric, or an exit card (i.e., a
student’s self-assessment of learning).
Teachers can ensure that students understand the success criteria by using clear language that is
meaningful to the students and by directly involving them in identifying, clarifying, and applying
those criteria in their learning. Examining samples of student work with their teachers helps students
understand what constitutes success and provides a basis for informed co-construction of the success
criteria. The learning intention of a lesson or series of lessons tells students what they should know,
understand and be able to do, and the success criteria help teachers to decide whether their students
have in fact achieved the learning intention. Importantly, the success criteria also answer the same
question from the point of view of the student: “How will I know whether I've achieved the learning
intention?”
Success criteria are developed for student use and should be written in language students understand.
Students use them to monitor their own learning in relation to the learning outcomes. Behavioral
objectives are generally written for the teacher or parent. The success criteria are used to make sure the
students know what is in the teachers mind as the criteria for judging their work. Similarly, the
students know what they have to do but do not know how the teacher is going to judge their
performance can be lists of ingredients/ series of steps. The success criteria are written in student
friendly language for student use. Learning outcomes are generally written in teacher language for
teacher use. Both are important and have very different uses.

39
Table 7: The Difference between Learning Outcomes and Success Criteria
Learning outcomes ( G9 Maths) Success Criteria
The student will apply the SSS, SAS and AA
similarity theorems to prove similarity of
triangles
I can use the SSS, SAS and AA similarity theorems to prove
similarity of triangles
Students will discover the relationship between the
perimeters of similar plane figures and use this
relationship to solve related problems.
I can discover the relationship between the perimeters of
similar plane figures and use this relationship to solve related
problems..
Students will solve quadratic equations by using any
one of the three methods ((a unique solution, no
solution, infinitely many solutions)
I can solve quadratic equations by using any one of the three
methods ((a unique solution, no solution, infinitely many
solutions)
To achieve success criteria, the teacher can give samples just simply be one statement or a list of
success criteria e.g. the “how will we know” needs to state exactly what the students and teacher will
want to see.
For example: let’s look at language learning intention of “using effective adjectives” with three
alternatives, success criteria might be:
• What you’re looking for is that you have used at least five effective adjectives in your
paragraph;
• What you’re looking for is that you have used at least four adjectives just before a noun;
• What you’re looking for is that you used at least four adjectives which describe the jungle.
3.1.3.3. Providing descriptive feedback
Feedback is provided students with a description of their learning. The purpose of providing feedback
is to reduce the gap between a student’s current level of knowledge and skills and the learning
outcomes. Students learn better by receiving precise information about what they are doing well, what
needs improvement, and what specific steps they can take to improve. Ongoing descriptive feedback
linked specifically to the learning outcomes and success criteria is a powerful tool for improving
student learning and fundamental to building a culture of learning within the classroom. The details of
how to give feedback is dealt in chapter 4.

40
3.1.3.4. Developing student self- and peer-assessment skills and setting goal
The emphasis on student self-assessment represents a fundamental shift in the teacher-student
relationship, placing the primary responsibility for learning with the student. Once students, with the
ongoing support of the teacher, have learned to recognize, describe, and apply success criteria related
to particular learning outcomes, they can use this information to assess their own and others’ learning.
Teachers help students develop their self-assessment skills by modeling the application of success
criteria and the provision of descriptive feedback, by planning multiple opportunities for peer
assessment and self-assessment, and by providing descriptive feedback to students about the quality
of their feedback to peers.
Group work provides students with opportunities to develop and practise skills in peer and self-
assessment and gives teachers opportunities to model and provide instruction related to applying
success criteria, providing descriptive feedback, and developing collaborative learning skills.
Teachers and students can use assessment information obtained in group situations to monitor
progress towards learning goals and to adjust the focus of instruction and learning. As a result of
developing self-assessment skills, students learn to identify specific actions they need to take to
improve, and to plan next steps.
Teachers begin by modeling the setting of individual learning goals for students. They also provide
follow-up support, give specific feedback on learning goals, and help students identify and record
focused actions they can take to achieve their goals and procedures they can use to monitor their own
progress. In order to improve student learning and help students become independent learners,
teachers need to make a committed effort to teach these skills and provide all students in the class
with opportunities to practise them. Teachers need to scaffold this learning for students, using a
model of gradual release of responsibility for learning, as follows:
 demonstrate the skills during instruction;
 move to guided instruction and support;
 have students share in the responsibility for assessing their own work;
 gradually provide opportunities for students to assess their own learning independently.
The ultimate goal of the process is to move each student from guided practice to independent
practice, based on the student’s readiness.

41
3.1.4. Commonly Used AfL Techniques and Tools
3.1.4.1. Techniques for Assessing Prior Knowledge/ Preconception Check
1. Background Knowledge Probe
This is surfacing the misconceptions to discover class’s preconceptions and useful for starting new
chapters. The teacher can consider the most important misconceptions/ areas of troublesome
knowledge in the topic. Generating a questionnaire for students is important to determine the most
effective starting point for a new lesson, elicit levels of prior knowledge (2-3 open ended questions or
series of short-answer questions).
Short and simple questionnaires prepared by teachers for use at the beginning of a course, at the start
of a new unit or lesson, or prior to introducing an important new topic.
• For fast analysis responses can be sorted into "prepared" and "not prepared" piles.
• For a detailed analysis, answers can be classified into the following categories: [-1] =
erroneous background knowledge; [0] = no relevant background knowledge; [+1] = some
relevant background knowledge; [+2] = significant background knowledge.
With this feedback the teacher can determine the most effective starting point for a given lesson and
the most appropriate level at which to begin instruction.
2. Focused Listing
This technique enables the teacher to check how students can define or describe the central tenets of a
topic or recall important terms. Write a word/brief phrase about the topic and ask students to write a
list of related words (3 minutes – 10 words). This allows the teacher to re-focus on his/her teaching.
Focused Listing focuses on a single important term, name, or concept from a particular lesson or class session
and directs students to list several ideas that are closely related to that “focus point.”
• Student responses can be compared to the content of teacher’s own lists.

42
• Focused listing can be used before, during, or after the relevant lesson. As a result, teachers
can use this technique to gauge the best starting point, make midpoint corrections, and measure
the class’s progress in learning one specific element of the course content.
3. Empty Outlines
This creates an outline of the teacher’s presentation and asks students to fill in it. Students fill in an
empty or partially completed outline of an in-class presentation or homework assignment within a limited
amount of time. Student responses can be compared to those the teacher expected, counting the number
of students who agreed or disagreed with your responses for each item. The range of responses among
students can be reviewed with a focus more on the patterns that emerge than on how well they match
instructor expectations. With this feedback teachers can find out who well have “caught” the important
points of a lecture, reading, etc.
Example: Provide 2 examples of each category.
1. Subject-Related Knowledge and Skills
a.
b.
2. Learner Attitudes, Values, and Self-Awareness
a.
b.
3. Learner Reactions to Instruction
a.
b.
This allows the teacher to check what he/she taught with what was caught.
3.1.4.2. Techniques for Assessing Understanding
1. One Minute paper:
One Minute paper provides a quick and extremely simple way to collect written feedback on student
learning. The teacher stops class two or three minutes early and asks students to respond briefly to
some variation on the following two questions:

43
"What was the most important thing you learned during this class?" and
"What important question remains unanswered?"
Students write their responses on index cards or half-sheets of a piece paper and hand them in.
The teacher cumulates answers and provides feedback at the start of the next class. He/she reviews
responses and notes any useful comments. With this feedback teachers can decide whether any
corrections or changes are needed and, if so, what kinds of instructional adjustments to make.
2. The Muddiest Point
It is a remarkably efficient instrument since it provides a high information return for a very low
investment of time and energy. Students write down one or two points on which they are least clear.
This could be from the previous lesson, the rest of the unit, the preceding activity etc. The teacher and
class can then seek to remedy the muddiness.
The technique consists of asking students to jot down a quick response to one question: "What was the
muddiest point in ... (class meeting, readings, homework assignment, lecture, etc.)?" The focus of the
Muddiest Point assessment might be a lecture, a discussion, a homework assignment, a play, or a film.
The teacher quickly reads through at least half of the responses, looks for common types of muddy
points. Then go back through all the responses and sort them into piles -several piles containing
groups of related muddy points, and one "catch-all" pile made up of one-of-a-kind responses. The
teacher cumulates answers and provides feedback during the next class.
With this feedback the teacher can discover which points are most difficult for students to learn and
this can guide their teaching decisions about which topics to emphasize and how much time to spend
on each.

44
3.1.4.3. Techniques for Assessing Skills in Analysis and Critical Thinking
1. Categorizing Grid
Students are given a grid containing two or three important categories along with a scrambled list
of items, which students must then sort into the correct categories. With this feedback the teacher can
determine quickly whether, how, and how well students understand “what goes with what.” Students
can also see if they need to revise their categorizing rules.
Example: Categorize the following list in to Plants and Animals cells or both category
Mitochondria, cell wall, nucleus, cell membrane, lysosomes, centrosomes , chloroplast,…
Plant cells Animal cell Both plant and animal
cells
2. Pro and Con Grid
Students are given a grid containing two or three important categories along with a scrambled list of
items, which students must then sort into the correct categories. Teachers do a frequency count for the
pros and cons students have listed; which points are most often mentioned. The teacher can compare
the students’ grids to see if they have excluded points or included extraneous points. This feedback
provides the teacher a quick overview of a class’s analysis of the pros and cons, costs and benefits,
and advantages and disadvantages of an issue of mutual concern. The teacher can thus see the depth
and breadth of the students’ analyses and their capacity for objectivity and discuss the results with the
participants at the next class session.
Example for Pro and Con Grid
Make a list of the pros and cons for using classroom assessment techniques instead of formal tests to
get feedback on student learning. Try to provide at least 3 of each.

45
3.1.4.4. Techniques for Assessing Skills in Synthesis and Creative Thinking
1. One sentence summary
One sentence summary is a simple technique in which the learner tries to summarize a given topic by
answering the questions "Who does/ did what to whom, when, where, how and why?" in a simple
informative sentence. Its main purpose is to require students to select only the defining features of an
idea. This allows the teacher to evaluate the quality of each summary quickly and holistically and note
whether students have identified the essential concepts of the class topic and their interrelationships.
2. Directed Paraphrasing
Students are asked to write a layman’s “translation” of something they have just learned–geared to a
specified individual or audience– to assess their ability to comprehend and transfer concepts. The
teacher separates the responses into four piles, which might be labeled “confused,” “minimal,”
“adequate,” and “excellent.” Then he/she compares within and across categories. This feedback allows
the teachers to evaluate the accuracy of the paraphrase, its suitability for the intended audience, and its
effectiveness in fulfilling the assigned purpose.
3.1.4.5. Techniques for Assessing Skills in Application and Performance
1. Application Cards
After learning about an important theory, principle, or procedure, students are asked to write down at
least one real-world application for what they have just learned. The teacher quickly reads once
through the applications and categorizes them according to their quality. He /she picks out a broad
range of examples (including both excellent and marginal/unacceptable examples) and present them to
the class. This feedback efficiently shows teachers how well student understand the possible
applications of what they have learned.
2. Student-Generated Test Questions
This technique allows students to write test questions and model answers for specified topics, in a
format consistent with exams. This will give students the opportunity to evaluate the course topics,
reflect on what they understand, and what good test items are.

46
The teacher tally the types of questions students propose and look at the range of topics the questions
span. This feedback shows the teacher to assess some aspects of student learning. In these questions,
teachers see what their students consider the most important or memorable content, what they
understand as fair and useful test questions, and how well they can answer the questions they have
posed. This also alerts the teacher when students have inaccurate expectations about upcoming tests
(Angelo & Patricia, 1993).
3.1.5. Commonly Used AfL Tools
The classroom teacher can match the assessments tools (instrument) with the learning targets
(knowledge, skills, and attitude). The type of assessment instrument depends on the kind of learning
to be measured. The classroom teacher can select the right tool that is appropriate for the pertinent
topic.
1. Homework: refers to tasks assigned to students by their teachers to be completed outside of class.
Common homework assignments may include a quantity or period of reading to be
performed, writing, problems to be solved, a school project to be built (display), or other skills
to be practiced.
2. Class works: are tasks that are given during learning teaching process.
3. Assignments: are tasks or activities that are undertaken at home or outside the classroom.
4. Group work: a form of cooperative learning. It aims to cater for individual differences, develop
students' knowledge, generic skills (e.g. communication skills, collaborative skills, critical
thinking skills) and attitudes.
5. Quiz: short and informal questions usually administered in class hours.
6. Oral presentation: a performance which requires a learner to use his or her oral skills to verbalize
their knowledge.
7. Debate: a performance which puts one learner, or team of learners, against another learner, or
team of learners, to logically argue issues.
8. Oral questioning: a process focused which requires a learner to respond to questions.

47
9. Observation: It is a process focused which is usually informal where the teacher gathers
information by watching learners interacting, conversing, working, playing, etc. A teacher can
use observations to collect data on behaviors that are difficult to assess by other methods
(attitude toward problem solving, ability to work effectively in a group, persistence,
concentration and completion of tasks). The details of collecting information with observation
are discussed in the next part. The following figure can be the best example in this context.
10. Dance/movement: a performance which requires a learner to move rhythmically to music,
using prescribed or improvised steps and gestures.
11. Gymnastic/Athletic competition: a performance which requires a learner to take part in
competitive sports. Checklist and rating scales and Scoring rubrics can be used.
12. Dramatic reading: a performance which requires a learner to combine verbalizations, oral and
elocution (voice production) skills in reading a theatrical passage.

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