Academic research proposal writing at Masters and PhD levels

1. RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING:
A GUIDE
BY
C.E. OCHONOGOR , PH.D; FCAI
OCHONEC@UNISA.AC.ZA
INSTITUTE FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION (ISTE)
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA, PRETORIA
MAY, 2013

3. Outline of the Presentation
 Some reasons for doing research
 What is a Proposal?
 What is a Research Proposal?
 Preparing to write a research proposal
 Writing the proposal
 Contents of a research proposal:
 Ethical Considerations

4. Some of the reasons for doing research are as
follows: To
Contribute to the body of knowledge;
Expand the body of scientific knowledge;
Learn to think critically (to question, analyze, identify, be
logical, find solutions and seek justifications);
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

5. Reasons for doing research contd.
• Add value to benefit the society by proffering
possible solutions to identified problems;
• Get fame, wealth and recognition; and
• Improve practice.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

6. Reasons for doing research contd.
At the Masters Degree level, a student/candidate is
expected to become a master of specific subject
having built on the knowledge of others.
He/she is further expected to have incremental
improvement in an area of knowledge, or the
application of known techniques in a new area.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

7. Reasons for doing research contd.
• At the doctoral level, the student is encouraged to create
academic knowledge and learning which should be
substantial and innovative.
• It involves contribution to knowledge which necessarily
requires a more difficult problem to be solved in order to
make more substantial contributions.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

8. What is a Proposal?
•
A proposal is generally a suggestion or plan made towards
accomplishing a given task.
•
It is expected that such a plan previews the nature of the task
ahead and the step(s) and activities that lead to achieving the
goals and objectives of the task.
•
A proposal therefore, is a foundation or scaffold upon which a
given product (body of knowledge, building, etc) can be
successfully made.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

9. What is a Proposal? Contd.
A proposal serves a framework and foundation on
which a research work or study is to be built upon.
Therefore, a poor proposal is like a poor framework
or foundation and will give rise to a poor research at
the end.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

10. What is a Research Proposal?
• A research proposal is a carefully prepared plan or
path-way that precedes any research study or work.
• It is a comprehensive plan by a researcher to carry
out a chosen research study or activity.
• It shows the preliminary actions the researcher
proposes to take or do based on a chosen and agreed
title with the supervisor/promoter.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

11. What is a Research Proposal? Contd.
Academic or scientific research carried out with a poor
proposal is bound to experience any or all of the
following problems:
Inability to locate any important knowledge gap;
Lack of appropriate research design;
Poor methodology and procedure
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

12. Poor and inappropriate research instrument(s);
Inappropriate ways of data collection;
Use of wrong method(s) of data analysis;
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

13. Wrong results and misleading interpretations and
inferences; and
 Eventual failure to solve any problem.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

14. PREPARING TO WRITE A RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
A good research proposal is NOT just done in a rush.
This implies that a student-researcher preparing to
produce a research proposal needs to take necessary
steps such as:
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

15. PREPARING TO WRITE A RESEARCH
PROPOSAL Contd.
•
Be ready to always submit his/her work in chapters to
the supervisor/promoter for corrections and instructions.
•
Ensure that the language used in the proposal is
characterized by present continuous tenses. This is to
explain what is to be done and not what has been done
particularly in chapter 3. However, the activities and results of
pilot studies are expectedly reported in
past- tense since they connote what must have been done in the
process of preparing the proposal.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

16. WRITING THE PROPOSAL
A well written proposal is 50% completion of the
main task.
A good student-research proposal must contain the
first three chapters of a full research report, list of
tables, references and appendices resulting from the
proposal.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

17. CONTENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL:
A layout of the content of a research proposal is as
follows:
Title Page.................................................... I
List of Tables................................................ Ii
List of Figures……………………………... iii
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

18. Chapter One
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Significance of the Study
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

19. Chapter One contd.
•
Research Questions
•
Research Hypotheses
•
Operational Definition of Terms
•
Structure of the Thesis/Dissertation
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

20. Chapter Two
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A good and plausible Theoretical Framework
Or
A well-directed Conceptual Framework
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

21. Developing the theoretical framework
Theories are constructed in order to explain, predict
and master phenomena (e.g. relationships, events, or the
behavior). In many instances we are constructing models
of reality.
A theory makes generalizations about observations and
consists of an interrelated, coherent set of ideas and
models.
The theoretical framework is but a theory that serves as a
basis for conducting research.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

22. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE CONTD.
The use of Theoretical Framework entails stating a
matching theory, discussing the nature of the theory,
justifying the relationship between the theory and the
proposed study and finally, explaining its application in
the study.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

23. The Uses contd.
It helps the researcher see clearly the variables
of the study;
It can provide him/her with a general framework
for data analysis;
It is essential in preparing a research proposal
using descriptive and experimental methods
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

24. How to produce a theoretical framework
 Specify the theory used as basis for the study
 Mention the proponents of the theory
Cite the main points emphasized in the theory
Support your exposition of the theory by ideas from
other experts;
Illustrate your theoretical framework by means of a
diagram; and,
Reiterate your theoretical proposition in the study.
 C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

25. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE CONTD.
Conceptual Framework involves seeking conceptual
meanings of terms and concepts surrounding the
thrust of the study to be carried out. Such terms and
concepts are discussed with citations of what others
have done and said in such directions and must
have analytical input from the student/present
researcher.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

26. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE CONTD.
A concept is an image or symbolic representation
of an abstract idea. Chinn and Kramer (1999)
define a concept as a “complex mental formulation
of experience”.
While the theoretical framework is the theory on
which the study is based, the conceptual
framework is the operationalization of the theory.
It is the researcher’s own position on the problem
and gives direction to the study.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

27. How to produce a Conceptual framework
show the relationships of the different constructs
that he wants to investigate.
cite your conceptual framework or paradigm;
Identify your variables;
Show the direction of the study.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

28. Importance of Theoretical or Conceptual
Framework
The use of either of the two frameworks is to have a
broad based reference point to discover knowledge
and information gaps that the present study would
try to proffer solutions to.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

29. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE CONTD.
•
Other sections of the literature review preferably under
some carefully selected sub-headings. Each subheading is expected to exhaustively discuss a given
issue before jumping to another.
•
The researcher is to ensure the use of recent citations
covering empirical and non-empirical findings of other
people with some level of critical analysis of the
statements.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

30. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE CONTD.
The last sub-heading of Chapter Two is the
Summary/Appraisal of the review done pointing out the
observed strengths, weaknesses and gaps within which
the present work shall fit into when eventually carried
out.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

31. Chapter Three
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE
Research Design
Population of the Study
Sample and Sampling Technique
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

32. Chapter Three contd.
Instrumentation:
(i) Development of Instrument
(ii) Validation of Instrument (Face, Content, Predictive,
Construct and other forms of validity depending on the
nature of the instrument and of the study).
(iii) Reliability of the Instrument.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

33. Chapter Three contd.
Administration of the Instrument or Method of
Data Collection
Control of External Variables (if any)
Method of Data Analysis
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

34. Ethical Considerations
•
Unisa basic requirement is that every research work to
be conducted under the supervision of the University
must have evidence of ethical clearance for Theses and
Dissertations before proceeding with the study(ies).
•
The clearance must be sort and obtained at the
proposal stage while the student and the supervisor
should sign the paragraph proforma before
submission.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

35. •
Pilot Study (If necessary)
•
Work Plan
•
References
•
Appendices
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

36. Types of Designs
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI

38. Single Group Threats
Internal Validity is the approximate truth
about inferences regarding cause-effect or
causal relationships. Thus, internal validity is
only relevant in studies that try to establish a
causal relationship. It's not relevant in most
observational or descriptive studies, for
instance. But for studies that assess the effects
of social programs or interventions, internal
validity is perhaps the primary consideration.

40. Regression to the Mean
A regression threat, also known as a "regression artifact" or
"regression to the mean" is a statistical phenomenon that occurs
whenever you have a nonrandom sample from a population and
two measures that are imperfectly correlated.

43. The Formula for the Percent of
Regression to the Mean
You can estimate exactly the percent of regression to
the mean in any given situation. The formula is:
Prm = 100(1 - r)
where:
Prm = the percent of regression to the mean
r = the correlation between the two measures
Consider the following four cases:
if r = 1, there is no (i.e., 0%) regression to the mean
if r = .5, there is 50% regression to the mean
if r = .2, there is 80% regression to the mean
if r = 0, there is 100% regression to the mean

44. The End: Thank You.
C.E. Ochonogor , Ph.D; FCAI