Management Theory & Practice(Robbins, S. Coulter M.)

Computer People 2000Computer People 2000 11
Lecture # 6Lecture # 6
MotivationMotivation

What is MotivationWhat is Motivation
Motivation is the willingness to exert highMotivation is the willingness to exert high
level of effort to reach org. goals,level of effort to reach org. goals,
Conditioned byConditioned by
the effort’s ability to satisfy somethe effort’s ability to satisfy some
individual needs.individual needs.
TheThe efforteffort is a measure of intensity oris a measure of intensity or
drive.drive.
AA needneed refers to some internal state thatrefers to some internal state that
makes certain outcomes appear attractive.makes certain outcomes appear attractive.

What is MotivationWhat is Motivation
An unsatisfied internal state createsAn unsatisfied internal state creates
tension that stimulates drives within antension that stimulates drives within an
individual.individual.
These drives lead to a search behavior toThese drives lead to a search behavior to
find particular goals that, if attained, willfind particular goals that, if attained, will
satisfy the need and reduce the tension.satisfy the need and reduce the tension.
Unsatisfied
Need
Tension Drive
Satisfy
Need
Reduction
Of Tension
Search
Behavior

Motivation is the result of theMotivation is the result of the
interaction between the person andinteraction between the person and
situation.situation.
Individual differ in motivation drive.Individual differ in motivation drive.
The overall motivation varies fromThe overall motivation varies from
situation to situation.situation to situation.
In the motivation process individual’sIn the motivation process individual’s
need be compatible with org.’s goal.need be compatible with org.’s goal.

Early Theory of MotivationEarly Theory of Motivation
Three theory of motivation are important.Three theory of motivation are important.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need TheoryMaslow’s Hierarchy of Need Theory
There is a hierarchy of five human needs:There is a hierarchy of five human needs:
1) Physiological needs:1) Physiological needs: food, drink,food, drink,
shelter and other physical requirement.shelter and other physical requirement.
2) Safety Needs:2) Safety Needs: Security and protectionSecurity and protection
from physical and emotional harm.from physical and emotional harm.
3) Social Needs:3) Social Needs: affection, belongingness,affection, belongingness,
acceptance, and friendship.acceptance, and friendship.

4) Esteem Needs:4) Esteem Needs: Internal esteem factorsInternal esteem factors
such as self-respect, autonomy andsuch as self-respect, autonomy and
achievement.achievement.
5) Self-actualization Needs:5) Self-actualization Needs: growth,growth,
achieving one’s potential and self-achieving one’s potential and self-
fulfillment: the drive to become what onefulfillment: the drive to become what one
is capable of becoming.is capable of becoming.
Maslow separated the five needs into higherMaslow separated the five needs into higher
and lower levels.and lower levels.
Physiology and Safety needs -- Lower Level.Physiology and Safety needs -- Lower Level.
Social, Esteem, Self-actualization– HigherSocial, Esteem, Self-actualization– Higher
Level.Level.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedMaslow’s Hierarchy of Need
SELF
Actualizations
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological

Mcgregor’s Theory X & Theory YMcgregor’s Theory X & Theory Y
Theory X:Theory X: Offers negative view of people.Offers negative view of people.
It assumes that workers have littleIt assumes that workers have little
ambition, dislike work, want to avoidambition, dislike work, want to avoid
responsibility and need to be controlledresponsibility and need to be controlled
to work effectively.to work effectively.
Theory Y:Theory Y: offers a positive view.offers a positive view.
It assumes that workers can exerciseIt assumes that workers can exercise
self-direction, accept and actually seekself-direction, accept and actually seek
out responsibility and consider to be aout responsibility and consider to be a
natural activity. Summarynatural activity. Summary

The motivationThe motivation
theory thattheory that
intrinsic factors areintrinsic factors are
related to jobrelated to job
satisfaction andsatisfaction and
motivation,motivation,
whereas extrinsicwhereas extrinsic
factors arefactors are
associated with jobassociated with job
dissatisfaction.dissatisfaction.
SummarySummary
MotivatorsMotivators HygieneHygiene
FactorsFactors
AchievementAchievement
RecognitionRecognition
Work itselfWork itself
GrowthGrowth
AdvancementAdvancement
SupervisionSupervision
CompanyCompany
PolicyPolicy
SalarySalary
StatusStatus
SecuritySecurity
WorkingWorking
ConditionsConditions
ExtremelyExtremely
SatisfiedSatisfied
ExtremelyExtremely
DissatisfiedDissatisfied
Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory:

Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory:Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory:
According to Herzberg, the factors that ledAccording to Herzberg, the factors that led
to job satisfaction were separate andto job satisfaction were separate and
distinct from those that led to jobdistinct from those that led to job
dissatisfaction.dissatisfaction.
Managers who are sought to eliminateManagers who are sought to eliminate
factors that create job dissatisfaction couldfactors that create job dissatisfaction could
bring about workplace harmony but notbring about workplace harmony but not
necessary motivation. (Hygiene Factor)necessary motivation. (Hygiene Factor)
To motivate people on their job, HerzbergTo motivate people on their job, Herzberg
suggested emphasizing motivators, thesuggested emphasizing motivators, the
intrinsic factors that increase jobintrinsic factors that increase job
satisfaction.satisfaction.

Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory:Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory:
MotivatorsMotivators
SatisfactionSatisfaction No SatisfactionNo Satisfaction
Satisfied Dissatisfied
Traditional View
Hygiene FactorsHygiene Factors
No DissatisfactionNo Dissatisfaction DissatisfactionDissatisfaction
Herzberb’s View

Contemporary Theories of MotivationContemporary Theories of Motivation
Three Needs Theory:Three Needs Theory:
There are three needs that are major motivesThere are three needs that are major motives
in work.in work.
1) Need of Achievement (nAch):1) Need of Achievement (nAch): The drive toThe drive to
excel, to achieve in relation to a set ofexcel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, and to strive to succeed.standards, and to strive to succeed.
2) Need for Power (nPow):2) Need for Power (nPow): The need to makeThe need to make
others behave in a way that they would notothers behave in a way that they would not
have behave otherwise.have behave otherwise.
3) Need for affiliation (nAff):3) Need for affiliation (nAff): The desire forThe desire for
friendly and close interpersonal relationship.friendly and close interpersonal relationship.

Contemporary Theories ofContemporary Theories of
People with a high need for achievementPeople with a high need for achievement
are striving for personal achievement.are striving for personal achievement.
They have a desire to do something betterThey have a desire to do something better
or more efficiently than it’s been doneor more efficiently than it’s been done
before.before.
High achiever focus on their ownHigh achiever focus on their own
accomplishments while good manageraccomplishments while good manager
emphasize helping others accomplish theiremphasize helping others accomplish their
goals.goals.
The best managers tend to be high in theThe best managers tend to be high in the
need for power and low in the need forneed for power and low in the need for
affiliation. Summaryaffiliation. Summary

Goal Setting Theory:Goal Setting Theory:
The proposition thatThe proposition that specific goalsspecific goals increaseincrease
performance andperformance and
– That difficult goals, when accepted,That difficult goals, when accepted,
result in higher performance then doresult in higher performance then do
easy goalseasy goals..
Intention to work toward a goal is a majorIntention to work toward a goal is a major
source of job motivation.source of job motivation.
Specific, hard goals produce a higher levelSpecific, hard goals produce a higher level
of output than does generalized goal ofof output than does generalized goal of
“do your best”.“do your best”.

Goal setting theory has two partsGoal setting theory has two parts
1)1) Goal setting theory deals withGoal setting theory deals with
people in general.people in general.
2)2) Second, goal setting apply to thoseSecond, goal setting apply to those
who accept and committed to goals.who accept and committed to goals.
Employees try hard when they participateEmployees try hard when they participate
in the setting of goals.in the setting of goals.
People will do better when they getPeople will do better when they get
feedback on how well they are progressingfeedback on how well they are progressing
towards their goals.towards their goals.

Beside feed back, three other factors haveBeside feed back, three other factors have
been found to influence the goalsbeen found to influence the goals
performance relationship.performance relationship.
These are goal commitment, self efficacy,These are goal commitment, self efficacy,
and national culture.and national culture.
Commitment:Commitment: not to lower or abundantnot to lower or abundant
the goal.the goal.
Self efficacy:Self efficacy: An individual’s belief thatAn individual’s belief that
he /she is capable of performing a task.he /she is capable of performing a task.

Goals
Committed
to Achieve
Motivation
(Intention to work
Toward goal)
Higher Performance
Plus
Goal Achievement
Specific
Difficult
Accepted
Participation
in Setting
•Goals are Public
•Individual has internal
Locus of control
•Self set goals
Self Efficacy
N-Culture
Feedback
Goal Setting

Reinforcement Theory:Reinforcement Theory:
The theory says that behavior is a functionThe theory says that behavior is a function
of its consequences.of its consequences.
Goal theory purposes that an individual’sGoal theory purposes that an individual’s
purpose directs his or her behavior.purpose directs his or her behavior.
Reinforcement theory argues thatReinforcement theory argues that
behavior is externally caused.behavior is externally caused.
Behavior is controlled by reinforces: anyBehavior is controlled by reinforces: any
consequence immediately following aconsequence immediately following a
response that increase the probability thatresponse that increase the probability that
the behavior will be repeated.the behavior will be repeated.

Reinforcement theory ignores factors suchReinforcement theory ignores factors such
as goal, expectations and needs.as goal, expectations and needs.
According to one author, people will mostAccording to one author, people will most
likely engage in desired behaviors if theylikely engage in desired behaviors if they
are rewarded for doing so.are rewarded for doing so.
Mangers can influence employees behaviorMangers can influence employees behavior
by reinforcement actions they deemby reinforcement actions they deem
desirable.desirable.
Research has shown that reinforcement isResearch has shown that reinforcement is
undoubtedly an important influence onundoubtedly an important influence on
work behavior.work behavior.
SummarySummary

Designing Motivating jobs:Designing Motivating jobs:
Managers are primarily interested in howManagers are primarily interested in how
to motivate individuals on job.to motivate individuals on job.
In order to motivate individuals on job,In order to motivate individuals on job,
manager has to design motivating jobs.manager has to design motivating jobs.
Job Design:Job Design: The way tasks are combinedThe way tasks are combined
to form complete jobs.to form complete jobs.
Managers should design jobs that reflectManagers should design jobs that reflect
the demand of the changing environmentthe demand of the changing environment
as well as the org.’s technology, skills andas well as the org.’s technology, skills and
abilities and performance of employees.abilities and performance of employees.

Job Enlargement:Job Enlargement:
In a specialized it is difficult to createIn a specialized it is difficult to create
element of motivation.element of motivation.
To overcome this drawback of jobTo overcome this drawback of job
specialization involved the horizontalspecialization involved the horizontal
expansion of a job through increasing jobexpansion of a job through increasing job
scope.scope.
Job Scope:Job Scope: The number of different tasksThe number of different tasks
required in a job and the frequency withrequired in a job and the frequency with
which those tasks are repeated.which those tasks are repeated.
The Horizontal expansion of a job byThe Horizontal expansion of a job by
increasing job scope.increasing job scope.

Job Enrichment:Job Enrichment:
Another approach to designing motivate jobAnother approach to designing motivate job
is vertical expansion of a job by addingis vertical expansion of a job by adding
planning and evaluating responsibility.planning and evaluating responsibility.
Job enrichment increaseJob enrichment increase job depthjob depth which iswhich is
the degree of control employee have overthe degree of control employee have over
their work.their work.
Employees are empowered to assume someEmployees are empowered to assume some
of task typically done by their manager.of task typically done by their manager.
This allow worker to do a complete activityThis allow worker to do a complete activity
with increased freedom, independence andwith increased freedom, independence and
responsibility.responsibility.

Job Characteristics Model:Job Characteristics Model:
Job enlargement and enrichment do notJob enlargement and enrichment do not
provide a conceptual framework forprovide a conceptual framework for
analysining jobs or for guiding managers inanalysining jobs or for guiding managers in
designing motivating jobs.designing motivating jobs.
JCM offers such a framework.JCM offers such a framework.
It identify five primary job characteristic,It identify five primary job characteristic,
their interrelationships, and their impact ontheir interrelationships, and their impact on
employee productivity, motivation, andemployee productivity, motivation, and
satisfaction.satisfaction.
1) Skill Variety:1) Skill Variety: The degree to which a job requiresThe degree to which a job requires
a variety of activities so that an employee can usea variety of activities so that an employee can use
a number of different skills and talents.a number of different skills and talents.

2) Task Identify:2) Task Identify: The degree to which a jobThe degree to which a job
requires competition of a whole andrequires competition of a whole and
identifiable piece of work.identifiable piece of work.
3) Task Significance3) Task Significance: The degree to which a: The degree to which a
job has a substantial impact on the livesjob has a substantial impact on the lives
or work of other people.or work of other people.
4) Autonomy:4) Autonomy: The degree to which a jobThe degree to which a job
provides substantial freedom,provides substantial freedom,
independence and discretion to the inindependence and discretion to the in
individual in scheduling the work andindividual in scheduling the work and
determining the procedures to be used indetermining the procedures to be used in
carrying it out.carrying it out.

5) Feedback:5) Feedback: The degree to whichThe degree to which
carrying out work activities required bycarrying out work activities required by
a job results in the individual’s obtaininga job results in the individual’s obtaining
direct and clear information aboutdirect and clear information about
effectiveness of his/her performance.effectiveness of his/her performance.
First three dimension combine to createFirst three dimension combine to create
meaningful work.meaningful work.
JCM provides specific guidance toJCM provides specific guidance to
managers for job design.managers for job design.
SummarySummary

Equity Theory:Equity Theory:
The theory that an employee comparesThe theory that an employee compares
his or her job’s inputs-outcomes ratio withhis or her job’s inputs-outcomes ratio with
that of relevant others and then correctsthat of relevant others and then corrects
any inequity.any inequity.
Outcome AOutcome A << Outcomes BOutcomes B InequityInequity
Inputs A Inputs BInputs A Inputs B
Outcome AOutcome A == Outcomes BOutcomes B EquityEquity
Outcome AOutcome A >> Outcomes BOutcomes B InequityInequity

Equity Theory:Equity Theory:
The term equity is related to the concept ofThe term equity is related to the concept of
fairness and equal treatment compared withfairness and equal treatment compared with
others who behave in similar way.others who behave in similar way.
Equity Theory proposes that employeesEquity Theory proposes that employees
mightmight
– 1) Distort either their own or others input1) Distort either their own or others input
outcomes.outcomes.
– 2) Behave in some way to induce others to2) Behave in some way to induce others to
change their own inputs or outcomes.change their own inputs or outcomes.
– 3) Behave in some way to Change their own3) Behave in some way to Change their own
inputs or outcomes.inputs or outcomes.
– 4) Choose a different comparison.4) Choose a different comparison.
– 5) Quit their job.5) Quit their job.

The other aspect we need to examine inThe other aspect we need to examine in
equity theory is who these “others” areequity theory is who these “others” are
against whom people compareagainst whom people compare
themselves.themselves.
The referent is an important variable inThe referent is an important variable in
equity theory.equity theory.
Three referent categories have beenThree referent categories have been
defined.defined.
Others, system, and self.Others, system, and self.

Expectancy Theory:Expectancy Theory:
The theory that an individual tends to act inThe theory that an individual tends to act in
a certain way based on the expectationa certain way based on the expectation
– that the act will be followed by a giventhat the act will be followed by a given
outcomeoutcome
– and on the attractiveness of that outand on the attractiveness of that out
come to the individual.come to the individual.
This definition leads to three variables orThis definition leads to three variables or
relationship.relationship.
1.1. Expectancy or Effort-performance linkage-Expectancy or Effort-performance linkage- is theis the
probability perceived by the individual thatprobability perceived by the individual that
exerting a given amount of effort will lead toexerting a given amount of effort will lead to
certain level of performance.certain level of performance.

2.Instrumentality or Performance-Reward2.Instrumentality or Performance-Reward
Linkage:Linkage: is the degree to which theis the degree to which the
individual believes that performing at aindividual believes that performing at a
particular level is instrumental in attainingparticular level is instrumental in attaining
the desired outcome.the desired outcome.
3. Valence or Attractiveness3. Valence or Attractiveness of rewardof reward is theis the
importance that the individual places onimportance that the individual places on
the potential outcome or reward that canthe potential outcome or reward that can
be achieved on the job. (Valence considersbe achieved on the job. (Valence considers
both goals and needs of the individual).both goals and needs of the individual).

Integrating Contemporary TheoriesIntegrating Contemporary Theories
of Motivationof Motivation
To better understand differentTo better understand different
contemporary theories we have tocontemporary theories we have to
integrate them together.integrate them together.
This approach will give betterThis approach will give better
understanding how to motivate people inunderstanding how to motivate people in
an organ org..
SummarySummary

Organizational
Reward
Individual
Effort
Individual
Performance
Individual
Goal
Job
Design
Ability
Reinforcement
Goals
Direct
Behavior
High
nAch
Object
Performance
Evaluation
System
Dominant
Goal
Job
Design
Performance
Evaluation
Criteria

Contemporary Issues in MotivationContemporary Issues in Motivation
Motivating A Diverse WorkforceMotivating A Diverse Workforce
To maximize motivation among today’sTo maximize motivation among today’s
diverse workforce, manager need to thinkdiverse workforce, manager need to think
in term of flexibility.in term of flexibility.
Men Versus Women.Men Versus Women.
Older versus Young Worker.Older versus Young Worker.
Employees have different personal needsEmployees have different personal needs
and goals that they are hoping to satisfyand goals that they are hoping to satisfy
through their job.through their job.
A diverse array of rewards is needed toA diverse array of rewards is needed to
motivate employee with such variedmotivate employee with such varied
needs.needs.

Flexible Working SchedulesFlexible Working Schedules
Many org. have developed flexible workingMany org. have developed flexible working
schedules that recognize different needs.schedules that recognize different needs.
Compressed Workweek:Compressed Workweek: in which employeesin which employees
work longer hours per day but fewer dayswork longer hours per day but fewer days
per week.per week.
The most common form four 10-hour days.The most common form four 10-hour days.
Flexible work hour:Flexible work hour: which schedule thewhich schedule the
system in which employees are required tosystem in which employees are required to
work a specific number of hours a week butwork a specific number of hours a week but
are free to vary those hours within certainare free to vary those hours within certain
limits.limits.

In a flextime schedule, there are certainIn a flextime schedule, there are certain
common core hours when all employeescommon core hours when all employees
are required to be on job, but starting,are required to be on job, but starting,
ending and lunch hour are flexible.ending and lunch hour are flexible.
Job SHARING:Job SHARING: The practice of having twoThe practice of having two
or more people spilt a full time job.or more people spilt a full time job.
Telecommuting:Telecommuting: Employees work at homeEmployees work at home
and are linked to workplace by computerand are linked to workplace by computer
and modem.and modem.

Cultural Difference in MotivationCultural Difference in Motivation
Managing a diverse workforce means thatManaging a diverse workforce means that
manager should be aware of culturalmanager should be aware of cultural
differences and show flexibility indifferences and show flexibility in
responding to these differences.responding to these differences.
Maslow’s need theory aligns well withMaslow’s need theory aligns well with
American culture.American culture.
Japan, Greece, Mexico---- Security NeedsJapan, Greece, Mexico---- Security Needs
Denmark, Sweden, Norway-- Social NeedsDenmark, Sweden, Norway-- Social Needs
Socialist Countries employees expectSocialist Countries employees expect
rewards to reflect their individual needs asrewards to reflect their individual needs as
well as their performance.well as their performance.

Pay-for-Performance ProgramPay-for-Performance Program
Compensation Plans that pay employee onCompensation Plans that pay employee on
the basis of some performance measure.the basis of some performance measure.
Pay plan, wage incentive plans, profitPay plan, wage incentive plans, profit
sharing and lump-sum bonuses aresharing and lump-sum bonuses are
examples.examples.
PFP is probably most compatible withPFP is probably most compatible with
expectancy theory.expectancy theory.
In this theory, individual should perceive aIn this theory, individual should perceive a
strong relationship between theirstrong relationship between their
performance and the reward they receiveperformance and the reward they receive
for motivation.for motivation.

If rewards are allocated only onIf rewards are allocated only on
nonperformance factors—such asnonperformance factors—such as
seniority, job title-then employees areseniority, job title-then employees are
likely to reduce their efforts.likely to reduce their efforts.
From a motivation perspective, makingFrom a motivation perspective, making
some or all of an employee’s paysome or all of an employee’s pay
conditional on some performance,conditional on some performance,
measure focus his or her attention tomeasure focus his or her attention to
wards that measure.wards that measure.
Studies shows that companies that usedStudies shows that companies that used
PFP performed better financially thenPFP performed better financially then
those that did not.those that did not.

Motivating Minimum WageMotivating Minimum Wage
EmployeeEmployee
One of the toughest motivational challengesOne of the toughest motivational challenges
a manger faces is how to achieve and keepa manger faces is how to achieve and keep
high performance levels among low wagehigh performance levels among low wage
employees.employees.
To over come this problem manager canTo over come this problem manager can
motivate through recognition program Likemotivate through recognition program Like
employee of month, quarterly employeeemployee of month, quarterly employee
performance ceremonies, etc.performance ceremonies, etc.
Second manager can use job design andSecond manager can use job design and
expectancy theories for motivation.expectancy theories for motivation.
Job redesign provides enhance motivationJob redesign provides enhance motivation
because employee now experience increasebecause employee now experience increase
skill variety, task identity, task significance,skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy and feedback.autonomy and feedback.

From Theory to Practices: SuggestionsFrom Theory to Practices: Suggestions
for Motivating employeefor Motivating employee..
Following suggestion are drawn formFollowing suggestion are drawn form
different motivation theories.different motivation theories.
Recognize Individual differences.Recognize Individual differences.
Match people to Jobs.Match people to Jobs.
Use GoalUse Goal
Ensure that goals are perceived asEnsure that goals are perceived as
attainable.attainable.
Individual rewards.Individual rewards.
Link rewards to performanceLink rewards to performance
Check the system for equityCheck the system for equity
Don't ignore money.Don't ignore money.

SummarySummary
Early theories of MotivationEarly theories of Motivation
Maslow’s theory of Need TheoryMaslow’s theory of Need Theory
Theory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory Y
Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene TheoryHerzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory
Contemporary Theories of motivationContemporary Theories of motivation
Three Need TheoryThree Need Theory
Goal setting TheoryGoal setting Theory
Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory
Designing Motivating jobsDesigning Motivating jobs
Equity TheoryEquity Theory

SummarySummary
Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
Integrating contemporary theory ofIntegrating contemporary theory of
motivation.motivation.
Current issue in MotivationCurrent issue in Motivation
Pay for performancePay for performance
Motivating Minimum-Wage EmployeesMotivating Minimum-Wage Employees
From Theory to Practice: Suggestion forFrom Theory to Practice: Suggestion for
motivating employees.motivating employees.

Management Theory & Practice(Robbins, S. Coulter M.)

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