2. Introduction
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Search for scientific truth – science became synonymous with
the idea of truth
Increasing understanding of nature
Social philosophers start to claim to have discovered
“scientific” socialism
Eventually developed social sciences – the study of individual
& behaviour
People could now use their intellect to raise from barbarism to
civilization
Evidence was everywhere – railways, steamboats, telegraph &
the light bulb.
Faith in continuing progress through the application of science
& reason
3. New Questions about the Biological
Universe – Darwin
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Charles Darwin (1802 – 1882) saw change and development to
be the pattern of nature.
Published “On the Origin of Species” on Means of Natural
Selection.
Widespread controversy spread throughout Europe as theories
of evolution conflicted with creation theories.
Darwin believed that humans & animals were not special
creations from God, but evolved from common ancestors
through a long process of gradual change.
People had generally thought that the age of the Earth was
relatively young – Darwin’s theory meant the earth’s age was
much greater do to the slow development of evolutionary
change.
4. New Questions about the Biological
Universe – Darwin
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Those species that could adapt survived, while those without the
physical &/or mental characteristics could not adapt and
therefore not survive.
Darwin spoke of favoured races, those that were more suited to
their environment.
Change was from nature – not a deity
If one accepted Darwin’s theories, peace & harmony were not
necessarily the natural way of the world.
How does this relate to politics, ethics and economics?
Class conflict now seemed necessary – Darwin’s theories, often
distorted, were used by those that struggle by people and
nations was essential for progress.
5. Social Darwinism
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Malthus – nature was not
benign and progress was not
inevitable because increase in
population would always outrun
people’s limited resources
Social Darwinists believe that
simple and uniform evolve to
the complex and specialized.
Competition was necessary to
allow those who were “fit” to
emerge on top in the economic
& social struggle – without
government interference.
Typically hated socialism –
some to the point where they
don’t like public education.
6. Religious Thought
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New Bible studies focused on the study of ancient languages as
philology (analysis of texts and language) grew
Both the Old Testament and New Testament underwent analysis
that challenged its spiritual truth.
Questions of Judaism & Christianity challenged the need for
religion – seen as a way for people to comprehend their place in
the universe.
7. Religious Thought
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The Atmosphere of Darwinism added additional challenges to
traditional faith – if Darwin is right, life was a process of constant
change not an act of special creation, species emerged and were
destroyed.
Many disagreed and adequately defended their faith, others
embraced new theories and accepted evolutions as part of God’s
plan and found beauty in how all living things could be
interrelated.
Agnosticism maintained that ultimate truths about God were not
knowable, therefore one should not waste time arguing them –
Darwin belonged to this group.
8. Positivism & Sociology
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Society itself became an
appropriate subject for scientific
analysis.
Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857)
affirmed “positive philosophy” to
use scientific synthesis of all
knowledge.
Comte termed “Sociology” that
studied both social stats and
social dynamics.
Through the study of history and
societies one could count on
progression that led to a world of
peace .
Comte began a scientific religion
that would honour all those that
contributed to the advancements
of civilization.
9. The Challenge to the Rational Universe
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Thinkers, writers, artists began to challenge the positive
approach to knowledge & rational understanding of human
nature.
Wilhelm Dilthey (1833 – 1911) believed that its important to
use imagination to understand history – use spontaneous
expressions of the past. Can’t just use historical documents
to get to the core of human reality.
Benedetto Croce (1866 – 1952) believed that it is impossible
to be completely objective when investigating the past. The
researcher picks the topic and can never fully escape their
own time.
Max Weber (1864 – 1920) “if something is scientific, this
does not mean that it is desirable.” Science cannot tell us
how to act.
10. Psychology & the Question of the
Irrational
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Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939)
realized that some of his
patients’ symptoms were not
physical, but had their origins in
the mind.
Developed psychoanalysis –
study mental history of patient
Rejected view that people are
rational creatures.
Distinction between the
conscious & the unconscious –
thus resulting in rational & non-
rational motive unexplainable
by conventional ways.
Childhood experiences often
influenced the actions of a
mature person.
11. Psychology & the Question of the
Irrational
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Freud’s theories described
sexual desires &
aggressions are often
repressed in a civilized
world.
Id – one’s basic desires
Super-Ego – conscience
acquired by people living in
society
Ego – everyday face
(constantly caught in-between
desires of the super-ego and
the id)
Challenged the
enlightenment view that
people are guided by
reason.
12. Psychology & the Question of the
Irrational
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Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 – 1900)
rejected common humanity and
stressed the importance for superior
individuals to develop their own
talents in their own way.
Christianity was a religion of the
weak because it made people
subordinate themselves to myths &
preached self-sacrifice.
Democracy was self-defeating
because it put power to the
weak, crushing genius
Nationalism destroyed individualism
because of the demands of the
group.
Noble man – one who determines is
own destiny
Common man – follows others
Basically, wanted superior individuals
to develop their full potential.
13. Toward an Uncertain Universe – The New
Reality of 1914
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Two types of culture in the West in 1914
Public Level – mass culture still using the old ideas of the
universe, society, and human nature
Intellectual Level – new ideas amongst intellectuals, however
still being questioned & even rejected
Most people prior to 1914 believed that technology was creating
a better life for all, however the major ideological foundations of
Western culture were slowly being eroded.
Everything seemed to be challenged with no new standards on
the horizon.
At the turn of the century, this was not a major problem as liberal
ideas seem to prevail – but major conflict was about to explode.
