This paper looks at the issues that arise when teaching forensic anthropology with a limited skeletal collection 10-15 full or partial skeletons. It is fine being able to teach using a large collection as many older universities can and those who have been able to build up collections, but what about those Universities or colleges that are only starting to build up a collection or are teaching using whatever has been accumulated over the years? Is it feasible that a small collection can have sufficient variability to support a positive learning experience? Our experience shows that it is possible and this presentation looks at how to make the best use of a small collection including learning, teaching and assessment methodologies which will be of benefit to those faced with this scenario and help others make even better use of a large collection. One surprising feature is the number of non-metric variations enabling students to see that skeletons are different even within such a small population. Making use of these and other features means that teaching is real as morphological variations can be seen in the skeletal remains they are analysing not just in textbooks.

1. Teaching Forensic
Anthropology with a
small skeletal collection
David Bryson
Department of Biology and Forensic Science
For further information please contact me at
d.bryson@derby.ac.uk or via my website
http://www.cladonia.co.uk

2. Small collections and
learning
•What do I mean by a small collection?
•What learning are we trying to support
•Disadvantages real or imagined?

3. What do I mean by a
small collection?

4. “It is an easily verified observation that
most American Universities do not have
departments of anthropology or
interdepartmental programs that are
prepared to provide adequate training for
physical anthropology. Most departments
do not have laboratories, skeletal
collections, anthropometric instruments,
incubators, [etc].” (Lasker 1963 p. 91)

5. Skeletal collection
• The boxes in the corner plus
• 5 Complete articulated skeletons

6. Skeletal collection
• The boxes in the corner plus
• 5 Complete articulated skeletons

7. Hundreds and
thousands

8. Hundreds and
thousands

9. Hundreds and
thousands

10. Hundreds and
thousands

11. Hundreds and
thousands

12. “For comparison purposes with modern
man, well preserved human skeletons,
which can be purchased through any
medical supply company generally
show more detail and are, therefore,
preferable for use in the elementary
course to broken bones from
archaeological collections.” (Lasker
1963 p.108)

13. Could we
purchase more
skeletons?
• E-Bay $4,600
• The Bone Room $4-5000
• India export ban in 1987
• China export ban to
coincide with Olympics
2008

14. Even what we have is valuable!

15. Black Market

16. What learning are
we trying to
support?

17. Modules Year Level
Student
numbers
Techniques in
Human
Identification
2005/6
2006/7
2007/8
2008/9
2009/10
2010/11
6/HE3
28
26
36
34
43
45
Forensic
Anthropology
2011/12 5/HE2 33
Medical Forensics 2011/12 6/HE3 45

18. Working with skeletal
materials
It takes time with ‘whole bones’ to develop
requisite skills;
Recognition - which bone is which
Siding - right from left
Introducing incomplete bones too early can
be counterproductive.
Students need to able to get a feel for the
weight and appearance of bones.

19. Biological
Forensic Anthropology
Physical
Key skills
Measurement Observation
Metric analysis Morphological

20. Not black and white
•Often dealing with probably male or
female in physical anthropology.
•“... W.M Krogman, who reports that the
skull requires the most frequent sexing in
medicolegal work, found himself
82-87% correct in sexing 750
specimens. T.D.Stewart determined he
could sex 77% accurately by inspection.”
(Giles E 1962)

21. Human variability
•We are all different
•Most books show only one skeleton.
Anatomy texts tend to illustrate one
typical skeleton rather than variations.
•Seeing a range of bones helps
students understand individual
variation.
•Need enough bones to be able to see

22. Disadvantages
real or imagined?

23. “For comparison purposes with modern
man, well preserved human
skeletons, ............. generally show more
detail and are, therefore, preferable for use
in the elementary course to broken bones
from archaeological collections.” (Lasker
1963 p.108)

24. Sex Age Stature
Race
Ancestry
Unique
features
4 PILLARS OF BIOANTHROPOLOGY 5th

25. Sex Age Stature Ancestry
Unique
features
Predominantly
male
Mainly
Middle aged
and older
up to 60
Variable
from 5’0”
to 6’0”
Caucasian
Surprisingly
large
number
Do have
enough
females for
sexing of
skulls/pelvis
Post-
puberty
except for a
few bones
Safely
covered
A complex
area
without
sufficient
numbers
Very
limited
pathology
Review of material

26. Making up for a limited
collection
•Strong book collection - Student’s were
using so we had an extra £3,500 just
for this area and have added more.
•Availability of e-journals and e-books
•Use of learning materials and problem
based learning
•Use of photographs of the collection
and photography by students.

27. E-Book options in library

28. Practical exam
•5 Benches are set up with 9 stations
each covering an aspect of Human
Identification, total 45 students.
•Student are given 10 minutes at each
station.

29. Examples of questions
Identify the bones in this collection as
accurately as possible

30. Examples of questions
What can these bones tell you about the
stature? (Assume Male Caucasian)

31. Individual variation
within our collection

32. Variation between same bone from different individuals

33. Frontal sinuses

34. Supraorbital foramen

35. Supraorbital notch

36. Ossicle at lambda

37. Lambdoid ossicles - Wormian bones

38. Skull showing unusual position of third molar
Presence of
styloid processes

39. Variation in septal aperture of the distal humerus

40. Divided anterior and
middle superior facet
Single anterior and
middle superior facet

41. Suprascapular notch

42. Suprascapular notch

43. No feature

44. 59
Physical Aging: Ectocranial Suture Closure
Description of technique
The aim of this technique, described by Meindl and Lovejoy (1985) is to examine the state of clo-
sure of the sutures of the skull at defined points on the cranium. From a complete skull two ages
can be determined one from using figures for the Ectocranial Vault sutures and the other from the
Ectocranial Lateral-Anterior sutures.
The sutures of the skull are examined at each of the 10 points given below on the diagram of the
skull, 1 cm lengths (Can use a 1cm circle on a scale for this), and given a numerical value according
to the stage of closure:
Stages of Closure
0 Open; there is no evidence of any ectocranial closure at site.
1 Minimal Closure; Some closure has occurred. This score is given for any minimal to
moderate closure i.e. from a single bony bridge across the suture to about up to about
50% synostosis at the site.
2 Significant Closure; there is a marked degree of closure but some portion of the site is
not completely fused.
3 Complete Obliteration; Site is completely fused.
Figure 1 Two examples of sutures, the left shows minimal closure so would be classified as 1 and
the right shows significant closure but still not completely fused so classified as 2.
Points of the skull
1. Mid-lambdoid
2. Lambda
3. Obelion
4. Anterior sagittal
5. Bregma
6. Mid-coronal
7. Pterion
8. Sphenofrontal
9. Inferior Sphenofrontal
10.Superior Sphenofrontal
Figure 2 Skull right lateral - showing the points for determining stage of ectocranial suture closure.
Learning materials
66
Stature estimation using long bones
The most accurate combination of bones to use for stature estimation is using the femur and tibia
this produces results within 1 standard deviation with 66% confidence, indicated in tables below
with an asterisk *. The figures used are those provided by Trotter (1970) from intact long bones. A
key aspect of stature estimation is measuring the bone accurately and from the same parts of the
bone as the original investigators, Bass (2005) uses Trotter’s figures and gives clear indications for
each bone where measurements are to be taken from.
Do note that there are variations for the tibia depending on which figures are used as sometimes
technicians measured the whole length as below for other studies they didn’t include malleolus
(see Bass 2005 p.245).
Methodology for measurements of maximum length
Humerus Place the head against a fixed vertical, raise the bone slightly and move it up and own as well as from side to side until
the maximum length is obtained.
Radius From the head to the tip of the styloid process, taken in the same way as the humerus.
Ulna From the top of the olecranon process to the tip of the styloid process, in the same way as the humerus.
Femur Place the distal condyles against a fixed vertical surface raise the bone slightly and move it up and down as well as from
side to side until maximum length is obtained.
Tibia Place the end of the medial malleolus against a fixed vertical surface with the bone resting on its anterior (dorsal)
surface with its long axis parallel to the measurement scale measure to the most prominent part of the lateral half of the
lateral condyle.
Fibula Maximum distance between the proximal and distal extremities, in the same way as the humerus.
Figure 1 Maximum length of upper limbs - Humerus, radius and ulna (Photographs not to scale).

47. Faculty of Education, Health and Science
PRACTICAL GUIDE TO
TECHNIQUES IN HUMAN
IDENTIFICATION
David Bryson - April 2011
Ongoing
development of
practical guide with
learning activities,
videos, slideshows
and interactive
materials as an
interactive e-book/
pdf

48. References
Giles, E & Elliot, O. (1962) Race identification
from cranial measurements. Journal of Forensic
Sciences 7 (2): 147-157.
Lasker, G.W. (1963) The introductory course. In:
Mandelbaum, D.G., Lasker, G.W. & Albert, E.M.
The teaching of physical anthropology. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
The Bone Room, http://www.boneroom.com
Bone trafficking http://www.wired.com/medtech/
health/magazine/15-12/ff_bones?currentPage=all