Distributed Generation In Spain

MASTER IN TECHNICAL AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN THE POWER
SECTOR

MASTER THESIS

DISTRIBUTED GENERATION IN SPAIN

AUTHOR: DAVID TREBOLLE TREBOLLE

Madrid, 01/01/2006

Distributed Generation in Spain

Table of Contents
1. Introduction 10

1.1. Reason of thesis 11

1.2. Purpose of thesis 11

1.3. Structure of thesis 12
2. Definition and types of Distributed Generation technologies 13

2.1. Definition 14

2.2. Different types of technologies 17
2.2.1 Gas turbines 18
2.2.2 Microturbines 20
2.2.3 Steam turbines 22
2.2.4 Combined cycles 23
2.2.5 Alternative motors 24
2.2.6 Mini-hydraulics 26
2.2.7 Wind farms 27
2.2.8 Solar 28
2.2.9 Fuel cells 34
2.2.10 Flywheels 37
3. Installed power and distributed generation production in
Spain 40

3.1. Installed power of distributed generation 41

3.2. Distributed generation production in Spain 48

3.3. Potential of renewable energies in peninsular Spain 50
4. Regulations regarding distributed generation in the Spanish
power sector 52

4.1. Period 1998-2004 54
4.1.1 RD 2818/1998 54
4.1.2 RD841/2002 55

2


4.2. Period 2004 – Present: 57
4.2.1 RD 436/2004 57
4.2.2 RD 2392/2004 60
4.2.3 RD 2351/2004 60
4.2.4 RD 1454/2005 60
4.3. European regulation 62
5. Impact of DG in grid business. Planning and design 63

5.1. Introduction 64

5.2. Influence of DG in the planning and design of the grid 66
5.2.1 Technical grid connection criteria 66
5.2.2 New investments in the grid 69
6. Impact of DG in grid business. Grid operation and
exploitation 76

6.1. Influence of DG in the operation and exploitation of
the grid 77
6.1.1 Delivery grid 77
6.1.2 MV and LV grid 81
6.2. Influence of DG in losses 81

6.3. Influence of DG in service quality 87
6.3.1 Product quality 87
6.3.2 Continuity of supply 98
6.4. Influence of DG in the voltage profiles 98
6.4.1 Delivery grid 99
6.4.2 MV and LV grid 105
6.5. Influence of DG in the safety of maintenance
personnel 107
7. Influence of DG in short-circuit powers 109

7.1. Transmission 111

7.2. Distribution 111

3


7.3. Conclusions 113
8. Influence of DG in ancillary services 115

8.1. Power Frequency Control 116

8.2. Voltage Control - Reactive 128

8.3. Autonomous start-up and island operation 136
9. Impact of DG in the purchases of power from distribution
companies 142
10. Conclusions 145

10.1. Influences of distributed generation in the planning
and design of networks 147

10.2. Influences of distributed generation in the operation
and exploitation of the network 147

10.3. Influences of distributed generation in short-circuit
powers 148

10.4. Influences of distributed generation in ancillary
services 148

10.5. Influences of distributed generation in the purchases
of power from distribution companies 149
11. Bibliography 150

4


Table of Figures
Figure 2.1.1 Traditional structure of the power sector 14
Figure 2.1.2 New grid layout with presence of DG 17
Figure 2.2.1.1 Elements involved in the Rankine cycle 18
Figure 2.2.1.2 P-V and T-S diagrams of the Rankine cycle 18
Figure 2.2.1.3 Gas turbine 19
Figure 2.2.1.4 Characteristics and properties of gas turbines 20
Figure 2.2.2.1 80kW Microturbine 20
Figure 2.2.2.2 Characteristics and properties of microturbines 22
Figure 2.2.3.1 Steam turbine 22
Figure 2.2.3.2 Characteristics and properties of steam turbines 23
Figure 2.2.4.1 Characteristics and properties of combined cycles 24
Figure 2.2.5.1 Internal combustion engine 25
Figure 2.2.5.2 Characteristics and properties of alternative 26
Figure 2.2.6.1 Characteristics and properties of Mini-hydraulics 27
Figure 2.2.7.1 Wind farms 27
Figure 2.2.7.2 Characteristics and properties of Wind farm stations 28
Figure 2.2.8.1 Photovoltaic panels 29
Figure 2.2.8.2 Characteristics and properties of photovoltaic power 30
Figure 2.2.8.3 Parabolic cylinder collectors 31
Figure 2.2.8.4 Production diagram of solar station with steam
turbine 31
Figure 2.2.8.5 Solar tower and heliostats 32
Figure 2.2.8.6 Diagram of a solar station production process with a
tower and heliostats 33
Figure 2.2.8.7 Parabolic collectors 33
Figure 2.2.8.8 Characteristics and properties of solar heat 34
Figure 2.2.9.1 Fuel cells. Operation diagram 35
Figure 2.2.9.2 Characteristics and properties of fuel cells 37
Figure 2.2.10.1 Flywheels 38
Figure 2.2.10.2 Operation diagram of a flywheel 38
Figure 3.1.1 Evolution of installed power under special regime in
Spain 42
Figure 3.1.2 Installed DG power by autonomous communities 44
Figure 3.1.3 Installed DG power by autonomous communities.
Group A 46
Group B 46

5


Group C 47
Group D 47
Figure 3.2.1 DG Production in GWh. 2003 49
Figure 3.2.2 Renewable production by technology. 2003 49
Figure 3.3.1 Potential renewable installed power estimated for
2050 51
Figure 5.2.1.1 Example protection diagram for connecting to the
distribution network 68
Figure 5.2.2.1 Overload of MV grid by degree of penetration of
cogeneration 71
Figure 5.2.2.2 Annual net and load curve load of 220/45kV 72
Figure 5.2.2.3 Annual and load curve generator production chart 72
Figure 5.2.2.4 Gross annual net and load curve load of 220/45kV
transformer 73
Figure 5.2.2.5 Annual net load and load curve of 132/45kV
transformer 73
Figure 5.2.2.6 Annual and load curve generator production chart 74
Figure 5.2.2.7 Annual net and load curve load of 132/45kV 74
Figure 6.1.1.1 Delivery grid in Segovia 78
Figure 6.1.1.2 P-V curve. Voltage collapse 79
Figure 6.1.1.3 Delivery grid in Madrid 80
Figure 6.2.1 Cash flow diagrams in the acquisition of energy from
the Spanish pool 82
Figure 6.2.1 U Curves. Losses in distribution networks depending on
degree of penetration of DG 85
Figure 6.2.2 U Curves. Losses in distribution networks depending on
degree of penetration of DG by technology 86
Figure 6.3.1.2 Perturbations corresponding to changes in
characteristics of the voltage wave 88
Figure 6.3.1.3 Voltage gap required in wind farm facilities 90
Figure 6.3.1.4 Asynchronous generator 91
Figure 6.3.1.5 Double feed asynchronous generator set 91
Figure 6.3.1.6 Asynchronous generator set with converter in stator 92
Figure 6.3.1.7 80% gaps with durations of 400, 1200 and 1300 ms 92
Figure 6.3.1.8 Sliding of wind farm generator in 400, 1200 and
1400ms gaps 93
Figure 6.3.1.9 Intensities of direct leg of wind farm generator
before 400, 1200 and 1400ms gaps 94
Figure 6.3.1.10 Intensities of transverse leg of wind farm generator
before 400, 1200 and 1400ms gaps 94

6


Figure 6.3.1.11 Blackout after a three-phase failure in the 400kV
substation of Loeches 95
6.3.1.12 Evolution of wind farm production delivered in Magallón 96
Figure 6.3.1.13 Evolution of 400/220kV transformer load in
Magallon 96
Figure 6.3.1.14 Voltage gap in the Magallon incident 97
Figure 6.3.1.15 Loss of wind farm production due to the incident 97
Figure 6.4.1 P-Angle and Q-V relation for a generator set connected
to an infinite network 99
Figure 6.4.1.1 Delivery grid in Segovia 100
Figure 6.4.1.2 Generation of P and Q of cogenerator connected to
substation B 101
Figure 6.4.1.3 Voltage profile in substation B 101
Figure 6.4.1.4 Delivery grid in Leon 102
Figure 6.4.1.5 Generation of P and Q of generator set connected to
substation D 103
Figure 6.4.1.6 Voltage profile of substation D 104
Figure 6.4.1.7 Voltage profiles of substations F and D 104
Figure 6.4.2.1 Voltage profile in MV grids 106
Figure 6.5.1 Five golden rules 108
Figure 7.1 Single wire diagram of a short-circuit 110
Figure 8.1.1 Frequency response in a generation failure 117
Figure 8.1.2 Demand profile on the peninsula. 8-12-2005 119
Figure 8.1.3 Wind farm production profile on the peninsula. 8-12-
2005 120
Figure 8.1.4 Demand profile on the peninsula. 1-03-2005 121
Figure 8.1.5 Wind farm production profile on the peninsula. 1-03-
2005 121
Figure 8.1.6 Interconnection lines from Italy to Europe 123
Figure 8.1.7 Balance of power in Italy on disconnect 124
Figure 8.1.8 Evolution of frequencies in Italy before the Blackout 124
Figure 8.1.9 Evolution of frequency in the UCTE after the Italian
disconnect 126
Figure 8.1.10 Evolution of the deviation in the exchange with
France after the Italian disconnect 126
Figure 8.1.11 power balance in Spain after the Italian disconnect 127
Figure 8.2.1 Voltage – reactive – control diagram 128
Figure 8.2.2 Voltage profile requirements of the 400kV network
depending on reactive as per OP 7.4 131
Figure 8.2.3 Voltage profile requirements of the 220kV network
depending on reactive as per OP 7.4 131

7


Figure 8.2.4 Classification of time periods: peak, valley and flat as
per OP 7.4 132
Figure 8.2.5 Power factor requirements at transmission border
points – distribution for peak hours as per OP 7.4 132
points – distribution for valley hours as per OP 7.4 133
points – distribution for flat hours as per OP 7.4 134
Figure 8.3.1 Zone classification for reposition in the event of zonal
or national blackout 137
Figure 8.3.2 Reposition diagram in the event of national blackout 138
Figure 8.3.3 Possible future active distribution network diagram 140
Figure 8.3.4 Delivery grid in Segovia 141

8


Index of Tables
Table 3.1.1 Installed power of the various DG technologies 41
Table 3.1.2 Installed DG power by province according to
classification in RD 436/2004 43
Table 3.1.2 Installed DG power by autonomous communities 44
Table 3.1.4 Installed DG power by autonomous community as per
RD 436/2004 45
Table 3.3.1 Potential of renewable installed power estimated for
2050 50
Table 4.1.2.1 Summary of RD841/2002 57
Table 4.2.1.1 Incentive to the compensation of reactive as per RD
436/2004 58
Table 8.1.1 Coverage of demand on blackout in Italy 125
Table 8.1.2 International exchanges in Spain at the time of the
blackout in Italy 125
Table 8.2.1 Incentive to the compensation of reactive as per RD
436/2004 129

9


1. Introduction

10


1. Introduction

1.1. Reason of thesis

The current map of the Spanish Electricity Sector, result of Act 54/1997,
established generation and sale as free competition activities and transmission and
distribution as regulated activities.
As the price has become a real driver that encourages the activities within a
deregulated environment, the fee became the "regulated price" that rewards the
activities of the businesses that constitute the so called natural monopolies.

Immersed in this scenario, in the last few years, there has been an important
increase in the number of Distributed Generation (DG) facilities connected to
Distribution, Medium and Low Voltage networks, which we shall refer to as
distribution hereinafter. These connections create a series of costs and benefits in
these networks, such as increasing or reducing losses, the need to strengthen the
capacity of lines and transformation centres in order to provide for new power
flows injected by DG or, on the contrary, reduce the investments in network
reinforcements (generating points closer to demand reduces energy flows). In a
way, these costs and/or benefits should be included in the network access fees.

On the other hand, the operation of the distribution network will become
increasingly complicated, as the distribution network is no longer considered a
radial type grid where power flows go from higher voltages to lower; instead the
grids show different behaviour throughout the day as generators connect and
disconnect without any kind of control by the operator of the distribution
networks.
The connection of these generators in the lower levels of the hierarchy changes
the scheme, generating a series of technical and regulatory problems.

The current Spanish access fee regulation does not add cost for the use of the
generation grids. This generates economic inefficiencies, as it does not include
costs or benefits contributed by each generator. In addition, there is no transparent
method that can be explained in order to calculate access fees. There is no
uniformity of criteria in the operation or the connection of distributed generation
to the grid.

1.2. Purpose of thesis

This thesis has been produced in order to analyze the various difficulties that arise
in the current distribution framework as a result of DG in the grid, both from a
technical and regulatory perspective within the Spanish peninsular electricity
system. Extrapeninsular systems will not be reviewed in this thesis.

11


The technical and regulatory problems derived from the presence of DG in
distribution networks encompass several aspects such as: losses, investments,
voltage profiles, service quality, short-circuit power, safety of maintenance
personnel, stability, ancillary services and grid operation.

This thesis does not aim to provide a technical solution to all technical and
regulatory problems that may arise in power grids caused by the presence of DG,
but it does provide sufficient information to identify all the problems and the
reasons for the current situation.
It will describe actual distribution problems within the Spanish power sector and
analyze the most important regulatory aspects that in some way have caused most
of the inconsistencies in the distribution of the power sector.

1.3. Structure of thesis

This master thesis is broken down into three main areas.
Chapter two provides a qualitative description of the various technologies that are
being integrated into existing distribution networks. We will also review other
technologies of recent appearance but not widespread such as fuel cells or
flywheels. Chapter three shows the installed generation power under special
regime and its production.

Chapter four provides a regulatory revision mentioning the most important aspects
that have determined the distributed generation framework and the existing
distribution network.

Chapter 5 to 9 covers the technical and regulatory impact caused by distributed
generation to the distribution activity, considering both its activity as manager and
owner of the distribution network, and the activity of the purchasing agent in the
still regulated electricity wholesale market.

Chapter 10 highlights the most important conclusions of the thesis.

12


2. Definition and types of Distributed Generation
technologies

13


2. Definition and types of Distributed Generation technologies

2.1. Definition

Traditionally, the structure of the power systems presented a highly hierarchical
aspect:

Figure 2.1.1 Traditional structure of the power sector

Conventional generation connected to the transmission grid and power was
transmissioned long distances to the consumption centres.
When this power reached the distribution network, the power flow was practically
unidirectional due to the radial nature of such grids.

Slowly, distributed generation started to connect to networks with a lower voltage
than the transmission grid. Initially this type of generation was not of a lobbying
nature; it was installed in centres whose activities had a high social repercussion
such as hospitals, airports, etc.
Thanks to incentives policies based fundamentally on premiums or subsidies, new
technologies have been introduced with a clearly different objective than the
previous case, involving an important economic incentive.

14


Thanks to these policies, wind farm power has increased considerably during the
last decade reaching 9500MW installed in the Iberian Peninsula.
There is currently an important increase in solar power as a distributed resource
thanks to the economic incentive with the current applicable regulation.

Today there is no accurate and unique definition of Distributed Generation (DG).
Several authors or organizations use similar definitions although they differ in
several aspects. Some of the definitions we can find are:

• Willis & Scott (Willis and Scott, 2000): These authors define DG as small
generators (typically between 15 kW and 10 MW) distributed in the power
systems. According to said authors, these generators may be connected to the
distribution network (at the facilities of the distribution company or in consumer
facilities) or isolated from them. Furthermore, they use the concept of Disperse
Generation to refer to very small generators, of the size necessary to feed
residential consumption or small businesses (typically between 10 and 250 kW)
and connected to the facilities of consumers or isolated from the grids.

• Jenkins et al. (Jenkins, 2000): These authors prefer a broad definition without
discussing details regarding the size of generators, connection voltage, generation
technology, etc. However, they mention some attributes generally associated to
DG:
Not planned centrally.
Not distributed or programmed centrally.
Normally with less than 50 or 100 MW of power.
Usually connected to distribution networks (V ≤ 145 kV).

• Ackermann (Ackermann, 2001): These authors propose a definition of DG based
on a series of aspects: purpose of DG, location, capacity or size of facility, service
area, generation technology, environmental impact, operation mode, ownership
and penetration of DG. Only the first two aspects are considered relevant by said
authors proposing the following definition: “Distributed Generation is a source of
power connected to the distribution network or in the facilities of consumers”.
The distinction between the distribution network and the transmission grid has
been left subordinated to the legal provisions in each country. Moreover, they
propose a classification of DG depending on its size:
Micro DG: 1 W < power < 5 kW.
Small DG: 5 kW < power < 5 MW.
Medium DG: 5 MW < power < 50 MW.
Large DG: 50 MW < power < 300 MW

• Distributed Generation Coordination Group (DTI/OFGEM Distributed
Generation Coordination Group, 2002): this body defines DG as the generation of
electricity connected to distribution networks instead of the national high voltage

15


grid. This is a very broad definition as it does not distinguish between the size or
type of generator, the only differentiating element with traditional generation is
the fact they are connected to the distribution network.

• International Energy Agency (International Energy Agency, 2002): This body
refers to DG as the production of power at consumer facilities or in the facilities
of the distribution company, supplying power directly to the distribution network.
As can be seen from the aforementioned definitions, almost all authors coincide
on a fundamental characteristic of DG: to be connected to distribution networks.
The biggest discrepancies arise on the size or power of DG although these are
smaller than traditional generators.

• Doctoral thesis Distributed Generation: Technical aspects and its regulatory
treatment (Mendez Quezada, 2005): Distributed Generation are sources of
electricity connected to the distribution network, either directly to said grids or
connected through consumer facilities, which in this case may operate in parallel
to the grid or in isolation.

• Generally and considering the regulatory aspects for the Spanish power sector,
we could say that Spain defines distributed generation as the combination of
electricity generation systems connected to the distribution networks as a result of
their reduced power and location close to consumers.
The main characteristics are:
• Connected to the distribution network.
• Often a part of the generation is consumed by the same facility and the
rest is exported to a distribution network (e.g.: cogeneration)
• There is no centralized planning of said generation and is not distributed
centrally.
• The power of the groups is usually less than 50 MW.

Graphically, we have evolved from the aforementioned traditional scheme to the
following type of grid:

16


Figure 2.1.2 New grid layout with presence of DG

2.2. Different types of technologies

The following shows the various types of technology employed in generation
facilities connected to the distribution network.
The most important characteristics of each type will be described including a table
with the type of fuel they use, their size in terms of installed power, efficiency,
availability, cost of investment, cost of operation and maintenance and the average
cost calculated based on average availability, cost of installation, O&M, price of
fuel and efficiency. This last cost is the one employed to compare the cost of each
technology.
We recommend reading the following for further details (Jenkins, 2000; Marnay,
2000; ONSITE SYCOM Energy Corporation, 1999; Penche, 1998 and Willis and
Scott, 2000). The emissions analysis is based on (Greene and Hammerschalg,
2000) and (California Alliance for Distributed Energy Resources, 1999) and
(Mendez Quezada, 2005).

Because the purpose of this thesis is not to describe the state of the art of each
type of technology, below are the definitions and most important aspects of each
technology:

• Gas turbines
• Microturbines Possible cogeneration processes
• Steam turbines
• Combined cycle
• Alternative motors
• Mini-hydraulics
• Wind farms
• Solar

17


• Fuel cells
• Flywheels

2.2.1 Gas turbines

Gas turbines have experienced great progress in the last decades mainly as a
result of the aeronautic industry. Thanks to the advances in efficiency and
reliability, this technology represents an excellent alternative for DG uses.
Gas turbines, sometimes called open cycle gas turbines due to its big
combined cycle brother are based on the Rankine Cycle:

Figure 2.2.1.1 Elements involved in the Rankine cycle

Figure 2.2.1.2 P-V and T-S diagrams of the Rankine cycle

18


Figure 2.2.1.3 Gas turbine

The heat produced by the turbines offers an excellent option for
cogeneration purposes. Turbines respond quickly to changes in demand as
they have little inertia.

These characteristics make this technology suitable for local power demand
and even to work in isolated operation mode feeding part of the distribution
network. It can be distributed perfectly and does not generate problems in
terms of harmonics or flicker.

One of the inconveniences is that its efficiency is more affected depending
on the full load percentage it operates at in comparison with other
technologies such as alternative motors.
Production also depends on the environmental conditions it operates in
(pressure, temperature and humidity). For example, the generated power
drops as the temperature increases, which increases as the pressure rises.
They produce less noise and vibration than the alternative motors but
produce a noise typical of turbines, which is difficult to muffle without
affecting turbine efficiency.
The following is a summary chart with the most important characteristics
(Mendez Quezada, 2005):

Turbines
Characteristics Favourable aspects
Fuel: Natural gas & Diesel Cogeneration ***
Size (MW): > 1MW Dispatch ***
Efficiency (PCI) %: 25-40% Island mode ***
Emissions (kg/MWh): CO2 545-700 Demand mon ***
NOx 1.8-5 Ancillary services ***
SO2 0.14-0.18 Black start ***

19


CO 0.5-4.5 Unfavourable aspects
Availability %: 90-98 Harmonics ***
Start-up time: 10 min-1 h Flicker ***
Surface (m2/kW): 0.003-0.01 Remarks: Its efficiency is largely
Cost of investment (€/kW): 350-950 dependent on the operation point
O&M (cent/kWh): 0.3-0.5 and environmental factors such as
LEC (cent/kwh)i: 6.4 (4.3-9.8) pressure and temperature. It
LEC (pts/kwh)i: 10.7 (7.1-16.3) produces the characteristic noise
of turbines. It is a mature
technology.
i: The first value is the average value calculated with availability averages, cost of
installation, O&M, price of fuel and efficiency. The values between brackets are values
calculated for the entire variation range.
Worse that gas combined cycle *** Very good
Approximately the same as gas combined cycle ** Good
Better than gas combined cycle * Normal
◊◊ Poor
◊◊◊ Very poor

Figure 2.2.1.4 Characteristics and properties of gas turbines

2.2.2 Microturbines

They are combustion turbines with power in the range of 20-500kW,
developed based on blow turbo technology from the automobile industry
and small turbo reactors from the aeronautics industry. They consist of a
compressor, turbine, heat recovery and generator, normally assembled on a
single axis. Its main advantages are the lack of moving parts, its compact
size, its great variety of sizes and less noise and emissions than a gas
turbine. Its main disadvantage is its high cost.
The following picture shows an 80kW microturbine:

Figure 2.2.2.1 80kW Microturbine

20


They support two modes of operation:

• With heat recovery, which allows transferring part of the heat from the
exhaust fumes to the compressor input, increasing its temperature and
allowing a substantial improvement of electrical efficiency of the
microturbine, which can reach performance levels around 27-30%.

• Without the heat recovery, in cogeneration applications, where the use of
the residual heat takes precedence over electricity production. In this case,
the electrical efficiency drops to 15-18%, but total performance can be
around 80%.

Microturbines can be used in various ways:

a) As backup energy
b) To satisfy peaks in demand
c) In hybrid systems with fuel cells
d) In hybrid electric vehicles

Micro-turbines
Fuel: Natural gas, propane Cogeneration **
& Diesel
Size (MW): 20-500MW Dispatch ***
Efficiency (PCI) %: 20-30 Island mode ***
NOx 0.09-0.64 Ancillary services **
SO2 Negligible Black start ***
Availability %: 90-98 Harmonics ◊◊i
Start-up time: 60 Flicker ◊
Surface (m2/kW): 0.025-0.065 Remarks: This technology is not
Cost of investment (€/kW): 700-1,000 very efficient and still under
O&M (cent/kWh): 0.5-1 development.
LEC (cent/kwh)ii: 8.6 (6.0-12.5)
LEC (pts/kwh)ii: 14.3 (10.0-20.7)
i: New types of investors tend to minimize this problem.
ii: The first value is the average value calculated with availability averages, cost of
◊◊ Poor
◊◊◊ Very poor

21


Figure 2.2.2.2 Characteristics and properties of microturbines

2.2.3 Steam turbines

In this technology, the fuel is used to produce heat, which is used to
generate steam. The steam is used in the turbines to produce electricity. This
technology can be used with a great variety of fuels including natural gas,
Diesel, solid urban waste and biomass resources (agricultural waste or
energy cultivation for the generation of electricity).

Figure 2.2.3.1 Steam turbine

This technology, typical of conventional stations, is justifiable in DG under
cogeneration applications (when fossil fuels are used) or as renewable
generation.
In the case of biomass, it can mainly be obtained from forest or agricultural
waste and energy cultivation. Forest or agricultural waste was obtained as a
subproduct of other activities such as pruning of olive trees or vineyards,
cereal straw such as wheat and barley, wood transformation process, olive
industry waste, cleaning of hills, etc. Energy cultivations are dedicated
exclusively to the production of biomass in order to generate electricity. It
uses species of great energy potential and rapid growth such as the thistle
and eucalyptus.
This technology presents similar characteristics of large size generator
stations. They do not present problems with harmonics or flicker and can be
perfectly programmed. Their technical characteristics allow them to operate
in isolation mode. If biomass is used as fuel, it has the inconvenience that it
requires large areas of land to obtain sufficient biomass and the use of
monocultivations can lead to the deterioration of the land.

Steam turbines

22


Fuel: Biomass (can also Cogeneration **
use natural gas,
diesel, SUW, etc.)
Size (MW): >5 Dispatch ***
Emissions (kg/MWh)i: CO2 0 – 1,000 Demand mon ***
NOx 0.15-3 Ancillary services ***
SO2 Less than 0.15 Black start ***
CO 1-4 Unfavourable aspects
Availability %: 90 Harmonics ***
Surface (m2/kW): Flicker ***
Cost of investment (€/kW): 1,500-3,000 Remarks: It is a mature
O&M (cent/kWh): 0.8-1 generation technology
LEC (cent/kwh)ii: 9.1 (6.9-12.0)
LEC (pts/kwh)ii: 15.2 (11.5-20.0)

i: The behaviour of emissions depends on the type of fuel used. The values presented in the
table correspond to biomass. If renewable biomass is used, the CO2 levels can be
considered zero as in this case CO2 issued on burning is absorbed during growth.
◊◊ Poor
◊◊◊ Very poor
Figure 2.2.3.2 Characteristics and properties of steam turbines

2.2.4 Combined cycles

Combined cycles integrate one or more turbines with a water steam cycle.
Heat recovered from the turbines is used as part of the steam cycle,
achieving high levels of efficiency. Today, this technology is only used in
DG for large scale cogeneration applications thanks to its efficiency and low
cost of installation and generation.
Combined cycle is defined as the thermo-dynamic coupling of two different
thermo-dynamic cycles: one that operates at high temperature and another at
low temperature. Residual heat of the high cycle is used as a contribution of
heat to the low temperature cycle.
The most frequent combined cycles are combined gas-steam cycles, i.e.:
with an open cycle gas turbine as the high temperature cycle (Brayton) and a
steam turbine cycle (Rankine) as the low temperature cycle. The fluids
employed are water and air due to its abundance, simple replacement and
easy operation.

23


This technology presents similar characteristics of large size generator
stations. They do not present problems with harmonics or flicker and can be
perfectly programmed. Its technical characteristics allow them to operate in
isolation mode.

The following is a summary chart of this technology (Mendez Quezada,
2005):

Combined cycle
Fuel: Mainly natural gas Cogeneration **
Size (MW): > 20 Dispatch ***
Emissions (kg/MWh)i: CO2 320-400 Demand mon ***
NOx 0.05-0.40 Ancillary services ***
SO2 Negligible Black start ***
Availability %: 90-98 Harmonics ***
Surface (m2/kW): Flicker ***
Cost of investment (€/kW): 350-700 Remarks: It is a mature
O&M (cent/kWh): 0.2-0.5 generation technology
LEC (cent/kwh)ii: 4.7 (2.9-6.4)
LEC (pts/kwh)ii: 7.8 (4.8-10.6)

i: Emission symbols have not been included as this technology has been considered the
reference for comparing other technologies.
*** Very good
** Good
* Normal
◊◊ Poor
◊◊◊ Very poor

Figure 2.2.4.1 Characteristics and properties of combined cycles

2.2.5 Alternative motors

Alternative motors are the ones that typically have been called internal
combustion engines.

24


Figure 2.2.5.1 Internal combustion engine

This is the most used technology, with a broad range of powers. Its main use
is as support in the event of a blackout.
Its primary advantage is its rapid response, and the disadvantages are high
noise levels, high cost of operation and maintenance and high NOx
emissions.
There are two types of engines, natural gas and diesel engines.
The energy efficiency of these engines is around 30-45%, with expectations
of reaching 50% in 2010.
The following table summarizes the most important characteristics (Mendez
Quezada, 2005):

Alternative motors
Fuel: Biomass (can also Cogeneration **
use natural gas,
diesel, SUW, etc.)
Size (MW): 0.05-5 Dispatch ***
Efficiency (PCI i) %: 30-45 Island mode ***
NOx 4.5-18.6 Ancillary services ***
SO2 0.18-1.36 Black start ***
CO 0.18-4 Unfavourable aspects
Availability %: 90-95 Harmonics **
Start-up time (s): 10 Flicker **
Surface (m2/kW): 0.003-0.03 Remarks: This type of technology
Cost of investment (€/kW): 350-550 has high levels of emissions and
O&M (cent/kWh): 1-1.5 noise. It is a mature technology
LEC (cent/kwh)ii: 10.3 (4.7-19.1)
LEC (pts/kwh)ii: 17.1 (7.7-31.8)
i: PCI (Lower Calorific Value): Heat produced during combustion without including heat
from water steam generated during combustion and released into the atmosphere through
the exhaust conduit.

25


◊◊ Poor
◊◊◊ Very poor

Figure 2.2.5.2 Characteristics and properties of alternative

2.2.6 Mini-hydraulics

A mini-hydraulic generator is a turbine connected to an electricity generator
and all the necessary structures such as channels and dams to regulate river
flow. This technology turns kinetic energy from water into electricity.
Kinetic energy depends on volume and the height difference between the
upper level of water in the dam and the turbine level. The energy
performance of this technology is around 80%.

There are three types of mini hydraulic generation technologies:

• Flowing (little height difference, much volume, Franklin turbines and
little possibility of regulating output power).
• Medium height
• High height (high difference in height, little volume easily regulated and
Pelton turbines).

A hydraulic plant supports fast start-up, which turns it into a technology
suitable to adapt to demand variations. In addition, the possibility of
installing pump groups in order to increase water during periods of low
electricity price periods to later turbine it during high price periods, offers a
weapon against the price risk.

Mini hydraulics
Fuel: Water Cogeneration ◊◊◊
Size (MW): 0.1-10 Dispatch ◊◊
Efficiency (PCI) %: 75-0’ Island mode ◊◊◊
Emissions (kg/MWh): CO2 0 Demand mon ◊◊◊
NOx 0 Ancillary services ◊◊◊
SO2 0 Black start ◊i
CO 0 Unfavourable aspects
Equivalent hours (j): 2,500-3,500 Harmonics ◊
Surface (m2/kW)ii: 1-1,000 Flicker ◊
Cost of investment (€/kW): 1,500-4,000 Remarks: Its growth potential is
O&M (cent/kWh): 0.8-1.9 limited as most jumps are already
LEC (cent/kwh)iii: 8.7 (4.0-15.5) being used. It is a mature
LEC (pts/kwh)iii: 14.5 (6.7-25.8) technology.

26


i: Depends on the availability of a hydraulic resource at the time.
ii: Includes the area of the entire facility. Source: (Eberhard et al, 2000).
iii: The first value is the average value calculated with availability averages, cost of
◊◊ Poor
◊◊◊ Very poor

Figure 2.2.6.1 Characteristics and properties of Mini-hydraulics

2.2.7 Wind farms

Technology that uses wind farm energy and transforms it into electricity.
The power of these units is currently ranges from 30 kW to more than
2MW. It is a relatively mature technology, reaching reliability levels of
around 97%.

Figure 2.2.7.1 Wind farms

There are two mechanical blade energy transformation technologies; one
based on a synchronous generator and the other with an asynchronous
generator. The current trend focuses on asynchronous generators controlled
by pulse converters (double feed generators). This allows regulating output
voltage by modifying consumption or generation of reactive energy. This
option is very useful when the generator set is connected to weak grids,
where a strong power injection can increase voltage at the connection point
to values above tolerable ranges. In addition, the construction of blades with
the possibility of varying their angle allows regulating the generated active
power.

27


The main disadvantage of this technology is the difficulty of predicting
generated power, due to “unforeseeable” variations in wind. Another
problem is known as the flicker effect due to the passing of the blades in
front of the post that supports the generator, which causes small and
repetitive voltage variations.

Below is the summary table (Mendez Quezada, 2005):

Wind farms
Fuel: Wind Cogeneration ◊◊◊
Size (MW)i: >5 Dispatch ◊◊◊
Efficiency (PCI) %: 15-30 Island mode ◊◊◊
NOx 0 Ancillary services ◊◊
SO2 0 Black start ◊◊◊
Equivalent hours (h): 2,000-2,500 Harmonics ◊◊
Coverage surface (m2/kW): 1.9-2.6 Flicker ◊◊
Surface (m2/kW)ii: 60-330 Remarks: New wind farm
Cost of investment (€/kW): 750-1,500 technologies try to minimize
O&M (cent/kWh): 1.5-2 some of the most unfavourable
LEC (cent/kwh)iii: 5.8 (3.6-8.5) aspects. This technology has
LEC (pts/kwh)iii: 9.6 (6.0-14.2) reached a considerable level of
maturity but can still develop
further.
i: Size refers to wind farms and not individual generators
ii: Includes the area of the entire facility. Source: (Eberhard et al, 2000).
◊◊ Poor
◊◊◊ Very poor

Figure 2.2.7.2 Characteristics and properties of Wind farm stations

2.2.8 Solar

Solar Photovoltaic:

Technology that turns solar energy into electricity. The energy performance
achieved today is around 25%.

28


Figure 2.2.8.1 Photovoltaic panels

Photovoltaic generation systems can be divided into three segments:

• Isolated operation: Isolated operation is used in areas that do not have
access to the distribution network and require the use of batteries and a
load regulator.
• Hybrid operation involves connecting photovoltaic panels in parallel with
another source of generation, such as a diesel engine or a wind farm
generator.
• Connected in parallel with the grid: consumption feeds either from
photovoltaic panels or the grid, switching through an inverter. This
solution offers the advantage of not requiring a battery or load regulator,
which reduces losses and the required investment.

It is a highly intensive technology in terms of capital (cost of 5000-7000
euros/kW) but does not require any fuels. The advantages are that it does not
require maintenance and can feed consumptions away from distribution
networks.

Solar photovoltaic
Fuel: Solar radiation Cogeneration ◊◊◊
Size (MW)i: 1-500 Dispatch ◊◊◊
Efficiency (PCI) %: 10-20 Island mode ◊◊◊
NOx 0 Ancillary services ◊◊◊
SO2 0 Black start ◊◊◊
Equivalent hours (h): 1,100-1,500 Harmonics ◊◊

29


Surface (m2/kW): 7.5-20 Flicker ◊◊
Cost of investment (€/kW): 5,000-7,000 Remarks: Some of these aspects
O&M (cent/kWh): 40-50 can be improved if combined
LEC (cent/kwh)i: 37.4 (26.9-51.7) with storage systems. It is a
LEC (pts/kwh)i: 62.2 (44.8-86.0) technology that is still under
development.
◊◊ Poor
◊◊◊ Very poor

Figure 2.2.8.2 Characteristics and properties of photovoltaic power

Solar heat:
This technology is still under development but represents an interesting
alternative. The basic concept of this technology is that the heat obtained by
concentrating solar radiation is used to heat a fluid and then produce steam
suitable for use in a conventional steam turbine. Generally, the fluids used
are molten salts as they support higher operating temperatures.
There are mainly three types of electricity generation using solar heat
technology:

• Cylinder-parabolic collectors:
This scheme involves cylindrical-parabolic mirrors to concentrate solar
radiation in a tube located along the core of the collector. The tube contains
the fluid to be heated and can reach temperatures close to 400ºC. Figure 3
shows a diagram of this kind of collector.
The fluid that is heated is taken to heat exchanges to produce steam and
drive the turbine. These systems are provided with a movement mechanism
that allows tracking the sun in order to improve efficiency. This movement
can be on one axis (vertical or horizontal) or both.

30


Figure 2.2.8.3 Parabolic cylinder collectors

A possible scheme of production with steam turbine would be:

Figure 2.2.8.4 Production diagram of solar station with steam turbine

• Central tower or heliostats:
This scheme involves a large number of flat mirrors, known as heliostats, to
concentrate solar radiation in a central receiver located in the upper part of

31


the tower. The number of mirrors involved is normally hundreds or even
thousands. The mirrors tend to be large in size in order to minimize the
number of solar radiation directing and tracking mechanisms.
Two tanks are used to store the fluid: one “cold” and another “hot”. The
“cold” tank stores the fluid at around 300ºC, which is pumped to the central
receiver where it reaches temperatures of around 560ºC. From there it is
pumped to the “hot” tank, where it is stored for subsequent use in steam
production. The current designs offer storage times between 3 to 13 hours,
reaching an annual availability of up to 65%.

The following shows a diagram of the process and a photo of a solar station
with central tower and heliostats:

Figure 2.2.8.5 Solar tower and heliostats

32


Figure 2.2.8.6 Diagram of a solar station production process with a tower
and heliostats

• Parabolic disks:
This scheme involves mirrors in the form of parabolic dishes to concentrate
solar radiation in a receiver located in the focus of the mirror. The fluid in
the receiver is heated to around 750ºC and can be used to generate steam or,
in the event of a gas, used directly in a Stirling type motor located in the
receiver.
The Stirling motor is similar in operation to a two-stroke internal
combustion engine but the fundamental difference is that the heat source is
external. The parabolic dish system is the one that provides greatest
concentration of solar radiation due to its two dimensional parabolic section.
This enables reaching greater operating temperatures and therefore greater
efficiency.

Figure 2.2.8.7 Parabolic collectors

33



Solar heat
Fuel: Solar radiation Cogeneration ◊◊
Size (MW)i: 5-100 Dispatch **
Efficiency (PCI) %: 10-20 Island mode **
Emissions (kg/MWh): CO2 0 Demand mon **
NOx 0 Ancillary services **
SO2 0 Black start ◊
Equivalent hours (h): 2,000-2,500 Harmonics **
Surface (m2/kW): 7.5-15 Flicker **
Cost of investment (€/kW): 2,500-3,800 Remarks: A technology in
O&M (cent/kWh): 2 research phase. Requires large
LEC (cent/kwh)i: 13.2 (9.6-17.7) areas of land install the mirrors.
LEC (pts/kwh)i: 22.0 (16.0-29.5)

◊◊ Poor
◊◊◊ Very poor

Figure 2.2.8.8 Characteristics and properties of solar heat

2.2.9 Fuel cells

Device capable of converting chemical energy directly into electricity. They
are based on a chemical reaction based on Hydrogen and Oxygen to
generate water, heat and electricity. Its operation is similar to a conventional
battery, with two electrodes and an electrolyte that conducts ions. Fuel
(hydrogen) reaches the anode, where it loses, thanks to the help of a catalyst
that reacts with the electrode, an electron. Hence the resulting H+ ion starts
its migration through the electrolyte to the cathode, where it combines with
oxygen to form water and generate heat in an exothermic reaction.

The advantages are great energy efficiency (35-50%), no contribution to the
greenhouse effect and allowing greater safety of supply.

34


Contrary to the batteries, where the “fuel” is internal (and therefore need to
be recharged periodically), the cell is fed from an external source. In this
sense the fuel cell can operate in continuous and uninterrupted mode.

The basic fuel for the cell is hydrogen. Normally some kind of fossil fuel is
converted in order to contribute this fuel, which is generally natural gas.

Figure 2.2.9.1 Fuel cells. Operation diagram

The main characteristics are:

• Anode: fuel electrode, that supplies a common interface for the fuel and
electrolyte, promotes the catalytic reaction to oxidize the fuel and drives the
electrons from the reaction place to the external circuit, or to a current
collection, which in turn drives the electrons to the external circuit.

• Cathode: electrode of oxidant, which provides a common interface for
the oxygen and electrolyte, catalyzes the reduction reaction and drives the
electrons from the external circuit to the place of the oxygen reaction.

• Electrolyte: medium to transmission one of the species (cations or
anions) that participate in the fuel and oxidant electrode reactions, though it
must be conductive in order to avoid short-circuits in the system. On the
other part, it plays an important role in the separation of fuel and oxidizer

35


gases, which is achieved through the retention of the electrolyte in the pores
of a matrix. The capillarity force of the electrolyte within the pores allows
the matrix to separate gases even under differential pressure situations.

• Two pole plate: Its function is to separate individual cells and connect
them in sequence, hence creating the fuel cell. They include gas channels to
introduce reacting gases in the porous electrodes and to extract the resulting
and inert gases.

The basic unit of a cell can generate a current that is proportional to the
surface of electrodes and “standard” voltage of 1.2V. These basic units are
piled in order to find the desired levels of voltage and power and form what
is called a “stack”.

There are different types of cells, which vary depending on the nature of the
electrolyte being used:

• Direct Methanol Cells: The fuel used is a mixture of methanol and water,
not explosive and of easy storage. The oxygen required for its operation is
drawn from the atmosphere, which enters the cell through diffusion and
convection processes.
They are characterized by the ability to quickly change their output power,
adapting to changes in demand.

• Liquid oxygen cells: The electrolyte is a porous solid consisting of steel
oxides. It operates at temperatures around 900-1000 ºC. They can be used in
high power applications, including large scale power generation stations.
Several tests have been performed with 125kW prototypes. The electrical
efficiency can reach up to 60%.

• Molten carbonate cells: the electrolyte is a mixture of lithium carbonates,
sodium and potassium, in a ceramic matrix. It operates at a temperature
range of 650-700 ºC, temperatures that create a molten conductive mixture
suitable for the carbonated ions.
They offer high fuel-electricity efficiencies and the possibility of using
carbon-based fuels.

• Phosphoric acid cells: It uses highly concentrated (98%) phosphoric acid
(HPO3) as its electrolyte, held in a carbon silicon matrix. It operates at a
temperature between 150-200 ºC, range in which the ionic conductivity of
the phosphoric acid works best. It is the most developed cell on a
commercial level and is used in multiple applications such as clinics,
hospitals and hotels. Phosphoric acid fuel cells generate electricity with

36


efficiency greater than 40% and close to 85%; steam produced can be used
in cogeneration.

Today, the cost of a commercial fuel cell is around 1600-3500 euros/kW. In
the case of hydrogen based cells, the need to establish an infrastructure to
handle it, although technically possible, creates added difficulties to its cost.
Cells will only become economically viable when the hydrogen production
becomes cheaper.

Fuel cells
Fuel: Hydrogen, natural Cogeneration ***i
gas, propane
Size (MW)i: 20kW-2MW Dispatch ***
Efficiency (PCI) %: 30-50 Island mode **
Emissions (kg/MWh): CO2 360-630 Demand mon **
NOx < to 0.023 Ancillary services ◊◊
SO2 0 Black start ◊◊
Availability %: Greater than 95 Harmonics ◊◊ii
Start-up time: 3-48 h Flicker ◊
Surface (m2/kW): 0.06-0.11 Remarks: A technology in
Cost of investment (€/kW): 1,600-3,500 research phase. Requires large
O&M (cent/kWh): 1.5-2 areas of land install the mirrors.
LEC (cent/kwh)iii: 8.5 (6.0-12.1)
LEC (pts/kwh)iii: 14.2 (10.0-20.1)
i: Depends on fuel cell type.
ii: New types of investors tend to minimize this problem.
◊◊ Poor
◊◊◊ Very poor

Figure 2.2.9.2 Characteristics and properties of fuel cells

2.2.10 Flywheels

An emerging technology with little practical use today is the flywheel. The
objective of this kind of technology involves providing an amount of energy
during a relatively short period of time; they could play a very important
role in the primary regulation of frequency-power control.
The basic layout of a flywheel would be:

37


Figure 2.2.10.1 Flywheels

The operation diagram of the flywheel is as follows:

Figure 2.2.10.2 Operation diagram of a flywheel

The application uses of this technology could be:

For transmission:
a) Voltage support
- Important voltage drops (more than one train passing through a
point on the grid)
- may generate excessive transmission losses (RI2)
- Energy storage system suitably sized and placed can overcome
these problems
- when trains accelerate, the storage system provides energy to the
grid (increase grid voltage and reducing demand)
- During low demand periods, the storage system is recharged
b) Regenerative braking

38


- Brake energy is returned to the grid
- If there is no load that absorbs this energy, for example, a train
accelerating, or an energy storage system, this energy is wasted
- A system with a suitably sized flywheel is capable of absorbing and
returning system energy as required. Example: 200kW, 14MJ (4
kWhr)
c) Additional power
- As the systems are expanded, new technologies are developed and
the number of passengers increase, the grid at the substation may need
to be updated.
- Increasing an existing substation may not be possible
- The compact and modular nature of a flywheel offers a flexible
alternative to these matters.
d) Maintenance programs
- Maintenance routines and the need to repair substations and related
equipment has become a difficult task in congested metro systems:
Increase in voyages and demand for shorter journeys makes it difficult
to isolate substations while providing suitable voltage and operation of
the system.
- Under these situations, and as a temporary solution, a storage system
based on flywheels enables performing maintenance work, while the
flywheel maintains the required voltage level in the grid.

For a suitable power management:

a) Normalize consumption
- During low consumption periods, energy is stored in flywheels.
- At peak times, power is returned to the grid.

b) Result
- Reduction of losses in transmission and distribution
- Greater maximization of an existing substation. Lower
consumption peaks.

39


3. Installed power and distributed generation production
in Spain

40


3. Installed power and distributed generation in Spain

This section describes the evolution of installed distributed generation power in
Spain, as per UNESA data, production based on data provided by CNE and a
possible estimate for 2050 of renewable energy that could be installed on the
peninsula.

3.1. Installed power of distributed generation

First, we shall show the installed power since 1990 to 2004, according to data
provided by UNESA, considering the following types of technology:
Cogeneration, Wind farm, Hydraulic, Waste, Biomass, Waste treatment and Solar.

AÑO /
COGENERACIÓN EÓLICA HIDRÁULICA RESIDUOS BIOMASA TRAT.RESIDUOS SOLAR Total
P.Instalada
(MW)
1990 356 2 640 43 1.042
1991 597 3 754 52 1 1.407
1992 648 33 796 82 24 1.582
1993 1.150 34 856 87 24 2.151
1994 1.441 41 940 158 26 1,0 2.605
1995 1.759 98 998 201 40 1,0 3.097
1996 2.350 227 1.058 247 40 1,0 3.922
1997 2.728 420 1.107 247 41 1,0 4.543
1998 3.734 884 1.240 292 68 1,1 6.218
1999 4.256 1.674 1.377 311 77 29 1,1 7.726
2000 5.015 2.289 1.407 294 127 82 1,4 9.213
2001 5.429 3.501 1.499 404 197 159 3,2 11.190
2002 5.663 5.059 1.532 416 321 327 6,8 13.317
2003 5.745 6.320 1.602 423 421 423 10,8 14.933
2004 5.869 8.203 1.641 540 433 468 21,1 17.154
Table 3.1.1 Installed power of the various DG technologies

41


Graphically:
Evolucion de la potencia instalada en el régimen especial en España

18.000 17.154

16.000
14.933

14.000 13.317

12.000 11.190

10.000 9.213
MW

7.726
8.000
6.218
6.000
4.543
3.922
4.000 3.097
2.605
2.151
1.407 1.582
2.000
1.042

0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

COGENERACIÓN HIDRÁULICA RESIDUOS EÓLICA BIOMASA TRAT.RESIDUOS SOLAR Total

Figure 3.1.1 Evolution of installed power under special regime in Spain

As can be seen, the DG technologies that have increased most in Spain is wind
farm energy, reaching 9300MW of installed power at the end of 2005. Biomass is
second although its growth has stabilized in recent years.
According to new economic incentives, it seems that solar energy will experience
an important increase in upcoming years.

Considering the regulatory division in RD 436/2004, the following summary table
displays the installed power in kW in each Spanish province updated as at 1-10-
2005:

42


Table 3.1.2 Installed DG power by province according to classification in RD 436/2004

43


Grouping the installed power by kW by autonomous communities, you get:

Potencia instalada (kW)
Andalucía 942.602
Aragón 1.557.989
Asturias 280.932
Baleares 9.835
Canarias 47.306
Cantabria 54.653
Castilla La Mancha 1.997.908
Castilla y León 1.844.812
Cataluña 510.287
Comunidad Valenciana 381.723
Extremadura 20.632
Galicia 2.250.821
la Rioja 461.416
Madrid 244.494
Navarra 868.602
País Vasco 286.748
Región de Murcia 249.538
Total 12.010.299
Table 3.1.3 Installed DG power by autonomous communities

Potencia ins talada por comunidad autónoma

Región de Murcia
Navarra 2,1% Andalucía
País Vasco Aragón
7,2% 7,8% Asturias
Madrid 2,4% 13,0%
2,3%
la Rioja 2,0%
3,8% Baleares
0,1%
Galicia Canarias
18,7% 0,4%
Cantabria
0,5%
Extremadura
0,2% Castilla y León Castilla La Mancha
Comunidad Valenciana 15,4% 16,6%
Cataluña
3,2% 4,2%

Figure 3.1.2 Installed DG power by autonomous communities

44


The autonomous community with greatest amount of installed power under
special regime is Galicia with 18.7%, followed by Castilla La Mancha 16.6%,
Castilla & Leon 15.4% and Aragon 13%.
The previous autonomous communities present high installed power levels thanks
to wind farm generation, which is the technology that experienced most increase.

Grouped by category and autonomous community:

Potencia instalada (kW)
Grupo a Grupo b Grupo c grupo d
y (%)
Andalucía 39.174 4,5% 536.788 5,9% 22.896 13,7% 343.744 19,2%
Aragón 25.667 2,9% 1.364.359 14,9% 10.234 6,1% 154.380 8,6%
Asturias 12.888 1,5% 236.561 2,6% 23.440 14,0% 8.043 0,5%
Baleares 6.094 0,7% 3.741 0,0% 0 0,0% 0 0,0%
Canarias 8.648 1,0% 38.658 0,4% 0 0,0% 0 0,0%
Cantabria 0 0,0% 51.653 0,6% 0 0,0% 0 0,0%
Castilla La Mancha 71.713 8,2% 1.766.545 19,3% 0 0,0% 159.645 8,9%
Castilla y León 55.145 6,3% 1.484.098 16,2% 0 0,0% 300.739 16,8%
Cataluña 115.477 13,3% 173.457 1,9% 5.200 3,1% 216.116 12,1%
Comunidad Valenciana 192.124 22,0% 57.411 0,6% 38.839 23,2% 93.349 5,2%
Extremadura 0 0,0% 9.001 0,1% 0 0,0% 11.631 0,7%
Galicia 100.656 11,6% 1.915.201 20,9% 66.883 39,9% 142.482 8,0%
la Rioja 6.716 0,8% 426.119 4,7% 0 0,0% 28.581 1,6%
Madrid 128.188 14,7% 39.077 0,4% 0 0,0% 77.228 4,3%
Navarra 33.047 3,8% 810.653 8,9% 0 0,0% 23.346 1,3%
País Vasco 66.597 7,6% 120.458 1,3% 0 0,0% 99.445 5,6%
Región de Murcia 9.250 1,1% 113.232 1,2% 0 0,0% 127.056 7,1%
Total 871.384 100% 9.147.013 100% 167.492 100% 1.785.785 100%
Table 3.1.4 Installed DG power by autonomous communities as per RD
436/2004

Graphically:

45


Potencia instalada por comunidad autónoma
Grupo a
Asturias
1,5% Baleares
Aragón 0,7%
Andalucía 2,9%
Región de Murcia 4,5%
1,1% Canarias
País Vasco 1,0%
7,6% Cantabria
Navarra
3,8% 0,0%
Castilla La Mancha
Madrid 8,2%
14,7%
Castilla y León
la Rioja
6,3%
0,8%
Comunidad Cataluña
Galicia Extremadura Valenciana 13,3%
11,6% 0,0% 22,0%

Figure 3.1.3 Installed DG power by autonomous communities. Group A

Potencia instalada por comunidad autónoma
Grupo b

Región de Murcia
1,2%
País Vasco Andalucía
Baleares
5,9% Asturias
Navarra 1,3% 0,0%
Madrid 8,9% Aragón 2,6%
0,4% 14,9% Canarias
0,4%
la Rioja
4,7% Cantabria
0,6%
Galicia
20,9%
Castilla La Mancha
Comunidad 19,3%
Castilla y León
Valenciana
Extremadura Cataluña 16,2%
0,6%
0,1% 1,9%

Figure 3.1.4 Installed DG power by autonomous communities. Group B

46

Distributed Generation In Spain

Distributed Generation In Spain

Recommandé

Recommandé

Contenu connexe

Similaire à Distributed Generation In Spain

Similaire à Distributed Generation In Spain (20)

Plus de davidtrebolle

Plus de davidtrebolle (20)

Distributed Generation In Spain