Essay Revision and Editing Checklist for Academic Essays U.docx

Essay Revision and Editing Checklist for Academic Essays
Use this checklist to ensure that the revision and editing work
you have completed in the writing process has helped you
to meet the goals of an assignment.
Keep in mind, each assignment may have ADDITIONAL goals
and conventions appropriate to established discipline and
conventions.
If you look at this list and do not understand how to complete
these tasks or why to complete these tasks, avail yourself
of resources posted for your class or do a web search of your
own. The Purdue OWL (Online Writing Lab) is an excellent
starting place.
________________________________________
Ideas/Content
☐ I used brainstorming and a concept map or outline to create
and organize my ideas.
☐ My thesis is clear, meaningful, and worthwhile.
☐ My essay relates to my thesis, exploring it with depth and
meaning.
☐ My ideas relate to one another.

☐ I have no stray ideas out of place in my writing.
☐ My writing makes complete sense.
________________________________________
Organization
☐ My title is thoughtful.
☐ Ideas are organized in a meaningful way.
☐ The sequence of ideas is logical and intentional.
☐ I have an interesting introduction that effectively leads the
reader to the thesis and creates interest.
☐ My ideas flow from one to another.
☐ Each paragraph has a strong, clear topic sentence. Each topic
sentence is like a mini-thesis for the paragraph.
☐ I used helpful transitions between main points, (e.g., "First of
all," or "Similarly").
☐ The body paragraphs are in logical order, and each paragraph
has its own development and relationship with
the thesis.
☐ I have a satisfying conclusion.
Voice & Style

☐ Point of view is consistent and appropriate for the context of
the assignment.
☐ The pronoun “you” and any form of 2nd person point of view
are avoided (you, your, you’re, yourself). I am not
assuming what the reader thinks, and I am not telling the reader
what to think.
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/
☐ The tone and level or writing are appropriate to college-level
writing. My writing sounds as intelligent and
educated as I am.
☐ The tone, style, and content are appropriate for my audience
of intelligent, educated readers.
__________________________________
Conventions
☐ Each of my paragraphs has one main idea.
☐ I have used correct grammar.
☐ I have used correct punctuation.
☐ I have checked my spelling.
☐ The tone and voice of the essay are appropriate to formal,
academic writing.
☐ My final draft contains no typographical errors.

________________________________________
Fluency & Correctness—needed for clarity
☐ My sentences build logically upon the one(s) before.
☐ My sentences are different lengths.
☐ My sentences start in different ways.
☐ The meaning of each of my sentences is clear.
☐ My sentences flow easily from one to another.
☐ I have scrutinized my paper for comma splices and other run-
on sentences.
☐ There are no incomplete sentences.
☐ I maintain consistent verb tense, especially in summaries.
☐ I express similar ideas using parallel construction.
☐ My pronouns match the nouns to which they refer.
☐ I omitted needless words.
☐ Homonym check: there, they’re, and their.
☐ Homonym check: your and you’re.
☐ Homonym check: to, too, and two.
________________________________________

Organizing Your Argument
Purdue OWL staff
Brought to you in cooperation with the Purdue Online Writing
Lab
Rationale: Welcome to “Organizing Your Argument.” This
presentation is designed to introduce your students to the
elements of an organized essay, including the introduction, the
thesis, body paragraphs, topic sentences, counterarguments, and
the conclusion. The twenty-one slides presented here are
designed to aid the facilitator in an interactive presentation
about constructing a well-organized argument. This
presentation is ideal for the introduction of argument to a
composition course, the beginning of a research unit, or the
assignment of a written argument.
This presentation may be supplemented with OWL handouts,
including “Developing an Outline” and “The Paragraph”.
Directions: Each slide is activated by a single mouse click,
unless otherwise noted in bold at the bottom of each notes page.
Writer and Designer: Jennifer Liethen Kunka
Contributors: Muriel Harris, Karen Bishop, Bryan Kopp,
Matthew Mooney, David Neyhart, and Andrew Kunka
Updated by H. Allen Brizee, 2007.
Design Contributor and Revising Author: Veronika Maliborska,
2014

Developed with resources courtesy of the Purdue University
Writing Lab
Grant funding courtesy of the Multimedia Instructional
Development Center at Purdue University
© Copyright Purdue University, 2000, 2007.
*
An argument involves the process of…
establishing a claim and then
proving it with the use of logical reasoning, examples, and
research.
What is an Argument?
Activity: This slide offers a definition of the term “argument.”
The facilitator may invite the audience to offer answers to the
title question. Students often assume that building an argument
is simply a confrontational activity designed to denigrate the
opposition’s position. The facilitator may choose to explain to
students that the focus of a strong argument should be upon a
cohesive explanation of claims effectively paired with
correlating evidence.
*
Why is organization important in argument?
Guides an audience through your reasoning process.
Offers a clear explanation of each argued point.
Demonstrates the credibility of the writer.
The Importance of Organization

Key Concept: Organization is an important component in any
argument. Not only does a clear sense of organization guide the
reader through the reasoning process, but it also demonstrates
the credibility of the writer--that the writer has a clear
conception of the issues involved and has the ability to offer a
well-crafted response to the topic. An argument that has a
confusing organization--that jumps from point to point without
establishing connections between topics--is less likely to be
convincing to its audience.
*
Title
IntroductionThesis statement
Body ParagraphsConstructing Topic SentencesBuilding Main
PointsCountering the Opposition
Conclusion
Organizing
Your Argument
Rationale: This slide illustrates the topics covered in this
presentation, as well as the ordering of the introduction, body
paragraphs, and conclusion within an argument.
*
Title: (1) introduces the topic of discussion to the audience and
(2) generates reader interest in the argument.
Tip: Use active verbs in titles

For example:
Reducing Rubbish: Recycling on Campus
Why You Need A Title
Key Concept: The title is often an overlooked component in the
development of arguments. Indeed, the title provides the first
words the audience encounters upon reading the paper. The
title should introduce the topic of the argument as well as
generate interest in reading the argument.
*
Imagine you just wrote a paper offering solutions to the
problem of road rage.
Which do you consider to be the best title?
Road Rage
Can’t Drive 55
Road Rage: Curing Our Highway Epidemic
Considering Titles
Activity: The facilitator may have students consider which title
for a paper on road rage is the most effective. “Road Rage”
provides little to entice the reader, though it does introduce the
topic. “Can’t Drive 55,” while offering an interesting image,
would better fit a paper on the speed limit than on road rage,
which is defined by more than speeding. Also, “Can’t Drive
55” is unoriginal (a title from a popular Sammy Hagar song).
The third choice is the best selection here: it both introduces the

topic and provides an interesting analogy to describe the
seriousness of the problem.
*
Introduction: acquaints the reader with the topic and purpose of
the paper.
An introduction offers a plan for the ensuing argument:
Introduction: Tell them what you’re going to tell them.
Body: Tell them.
Conclusion: Tell them what you told them
What is an Introduction?
Key Concept: The introduction continues upon the tasks of the
title--it both introduces the topic and generates audience
interest in reading the entire paper. The introduction also
indicates the purpose of the paper--to inform, persuade, call to
action, etc.--as well as offers a plan for the ensuing argument.
*
Personal anecdote
Example—real or hypothetical
Question
Quotation
Shocking statistics
Striking image
Methods for Constructing an Introduction

Activity: The facilitator may ask students about effective
methods for beginning an introduction.
Key Concepts: A personal anecdote illustrates the writer’s
involvement within the topic, as well as moves the topic from
the abstract to the real. Examples, both real (have happened)
and hypothetical (have the potential to happen) can also help to
illustrate the problem. Posing an interesting question can also
generate reader interest; however, the question should be
answered within the course of the paper. A quotation can
provide a branch for discussion. Quotations, however, should
be made relevant to the topic of the paper. An explanation of
shocking statistics or the presentation of a striking image can
also invite the audience to continue reading the paper.
*
It is the most important sentence in your paper.
It lets the reader know the main idea of the paper.
It answers the question: “What am I trying to prove?”
It is not a factual statement, but a claim that has to be proven
throughout the paper
What is a
Thesis Statement?
Key Concept: A definition of a thesis statement is offered in
this slide. The facilitator may choose to emphasize to students
the difference between a claim that has to be proven and a
statement of fact.
*

The thesis statement should guide your reader through your
argument.
It is generally located in the introduction of the paper.
A thesis statement may also be located within the body of the
paper or in the conclusion, depending upon the purpose or
argument of the paper.
Role of the
Thesis Statement
Key Concept: This slide discusses the role of the thesis
statement in the paper. Thesis statements are often located in
the introduction, thereby setting up for the reader the claims of
the argument. However, theses may also be located in the body
paragraphs or in the conclusion, depending upon the writer’s
purpose, audience, topic, and mode of argument.
Activity: Additionally, the facilitator may also wish at this
point to discuss strategies for constructing a thesis statement for
a current class assignment.
*
Choose a thesis for an argument about the need for
V-chips in television sets?
Parents, often too busy to watch television shows with their
families, can monitor their children’s viewing habits with the
aid of the V-chip.
To help parents monitor their children’s viewing habits, the V-
chip should be a required feature for television sets sold in the
U.S.
This paper will describe a V-chip and examine the uses of the
V-chip in American-made television sets.

Thesis Practice
Activity: The facilitator may ask students to identify the most
effective thesis statement from the three listed examples. The
first example, while a well-phrased informative sentence, offers
a factual statement rather than an argumentative claim that
needs to be proven. The third example also fails to provide an
effective claim about the value of the V-chip. The second
example is the strongest argumentative thesis; it clearly
articulates the writer’s position on the issue and suggests that
the writer will proceed to prove this claim throughout the rest
of the paper.
*
Body paragraphs: (1) build upon the claims made in the
introductory paragraph(s); (2) are organized with the use of
topic sentences that illustrate the main idea of each paragraph.
Tip: Offering a brief explanation of the history or recent
developments of topic within the early body paragraphs can
help the audience become familiarized with your topic and the
complexity of the issue.
Body Paragraphs and
Topic Sentences
Key Concepts: This slide explains the function of body
paragraphs within an argument-to continue proving the claim
posited in the thesis statement. Clearly stated topic sentences
within each paragraph can help writers to focus their arguments
around their thesis statements. The facilitator may also suggest

that students offer a synopsis of the topic, including the history
of the issue and recent changes in current events that affect the
topic.
*
Paragraphs may be ordered in several ways, depending upon the
topic and purpose of your argument:
Body Paragraphs
Key Concepts: Body paragraphs may be ordered in various
patterns, depending upon the purpose, audience, and topic of the
argument. This slide offers participants options for organizing
their work.
Activity: The facilitator may choose to offer suggestions on
organizing patterns for a current argumentative assignment.
*
Addressing the claims of the opposition is an important
component in building a convincing argument.
It demonstrates your credibility as a writer—you have
researched multiple sides of the argument and have come to an
informed decision.
It shows you have considered other points of view - that other
points of view are valid and reasonable.
Offering a Counterargument

Key Concepts: Concerned with asserting the importance of
their own claims, writers sometimes overlook the importance of
considering the views of the opposition within their own
arguments. Countering oppositional claims demonstrates to the
audience that the writer has carefully considered multiple
components of the issue and has reached an educated decision.
If a writer finds that the opposition cannot be countered
effectively, he or she may need to reevaluate his or her own
opinions and claims about the argument.
*
Counterarguments may be located at various locations within
your body paragraphs. You may choose to:
Build each of your main points as a contrast to oppositional
claims.
Offer a counterargument after you have articulated your main
claims.
Locating a Counterargument
Key Concept: Counterarguments may be located at various
points within a paper. It is important, however, that the writer
offer a convincing response to the claims of the opposition.
Activity: The facilitator may choose to offer specific tips to
students about counterarguing in a current argumentative
assignment.
*
Consider your audience when you offer your counterargument:

Conceding to some of your opposition’s concerns can
demonstrate respect for their opinions.
Using rude or deprecating language can cause your audience to
reject your position. Remain tactful yet firm.
Effective Counterarguments
Key Concepts: This slide suggests the importance of
considering the audience in offering a counterargument. If a
writer is trying to argue about the dangers of second-hand
smoke to a group of smokers, the writer needs to offer his or her
opinion in such a way that the opposition can see the rationality
of his or her claims. If the writer instead chooses to rant about
how much he or she dislikes smokers, it is doubtful that the
audience will feel any sympathy with the argued position and
will reject the argument. The facilitator may choose to
emphasize that tact and audience consideration are very
important elements of effective counterarguments.
*
Researched material can aid you in proving the claims of your
argument and disproving oppositional claims.
Be sure to use your research to support the claims made in your
topic sentences—make your research work to prove your
argument.
Research in
Body Paragraphs
Key Concepts: Writers sometimes fall into the trap of letting

research material overwhelm the paper, rather than using
sources to prove their own argumentative claims. It is
important to be selective when using source material; just
because a source may relate to your topic does not mean it will
necessarily be useful or relevant to proving your claims.
Offering clear topic sentences that articulate claims relating to
the thesis can be a useful strategy for offering a frame to
researched material. Sources can then be used to back the claim
provided in the topic sentence.
*
Conclusion: Reemphasizes the main points made in your paper.
You may choose to reiterate a call to action or speculate on the
future of your topic, when appropriate.Avoid raising new claims
in your conclusion.
The Conclusion
Key Concepts: The conclusion is also an important paragraph
in a paper--it provides the last words that a writer will present
to his or her audience. Therefore, it should have a lasting
impact. The conclusion should work to reemphasize the main
claims of the argument, articulating the importance of the
argued position and, when appropriate, the reader’s need to take
action on the issue. Writers should also avoid raising new
claims in concluding paragraphs--there is no more room to
argue points comprehensively or convincingly. Such new points
would be better repositioned within the body paragraphs.
*
Purdue University Writing Lab, Heavilon 226

Check our web site: http://owl.english.purdue.edu
Email brief questions to OWL Mail:
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/contact/owlmailtutors
Where to Go
for More Help
Notes:
The Writing Lab is located on the West Lafayette Campus in
room 226 of Heavilon Hall. The lab is open 9:00am-6:00 pm.
OWL, Online Writing Lab, is a reach resource of information.
Its address is http://owl.english.purdue.edu. And finally, you
can email your questions to OWL Mail at [email protected] and
our tutors will get back to you promptly.
*
The End
ORGANIZING YOUR ARGUMENT
Purdue OWL staff
Brought to you in cooperation with the Purdue Online Writing
Lab
Volume 16, 2017
Accepted by Editor Tian Luo │Received: October 25, 2016│
Revised: March 7, 2017 │ Accepted: March 19,
2017.

Cite as: Reweti, S., Gilbey, A., & Jeffrey, L. (2017). Efficacy of
low-cost pc-based aviation training devices. Jour-
nal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 127-
142. Retrieved from
http://www.informingscience.org/Publications/3682
(CC BY-NC 4.0) This article is licensed to you under a Creative
Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International
License. When you copy and redistribute this paper in full or in
part, you need to provide proper attribution to it to ensure
that others can later locate this work (and to ensure that others
do not accuse you of plagiarism). You may (and we encour-
age you to) adapt, remix, transform, and build upon the material
for any non-commercial purposes. This license does not
permit you to use this material for commercial purposes.
EFFICACY OF LOW-COST PC-BASED AVIATION
TRAINING DEVICES
Savern Reweti * School Of Aviation, Massey University,
Palmerston North, New Zealand
[email protected]
Andrew Gilbey School Of Aviation, Massey University,
[email protected]
Lynn Jeffrey School Of Management, Massey University,
[email protected]
* Corresponding author
ABSTRACT
Aim/Purpose The aim of this study was to explore whether a
full cost flight training device

(FTD) was significantly better for simulator training than a low
cost PC-Based
Aviation Training Device (PCATD).
Background A quasi-transfer study was undertaken to ascertain
whether a Civil Aviation Au-
thority certified Flight Training Device (FTD) was more
effective at improving
pilot proficiency in the performance of a standard VFR traffic
pattern (Over-
head Rejoin Procedure) than a customised low cost PCATD.
Methodology In this quasi-transfer study, a high fidelity FTD
rather than an aircraft was used
to test both training and transfer tasks. Ninety-three pilots were
recruited to
participate in the study.
Contribution The use of PCATDs is now well established for
pilot training, especially for
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) skills training. However, little
substantive research
has been undertaken to examine their efficacy for VFR training.
Findings There was no evidence of a pre-test/post-test
difference in VFR task perfor-
mance between participants trained on the PCATD and the FTD,
when post
tested on the FTD. The use of both PCATD and FTD
demonstrated signifi-
cant improvements in VFR task performance compared to a
control group that
received no PCATD or FTD training.
Recommendations

for Practitioners
We discuss the possibility that low cost PCATDs may be a
viable alternative for
flight schools wishing to use a flight simulator but not able to
afford a FTD.
http://www.informingscience.org/Publications/3682
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
mailto:[email protected]
Efficacy of Low-Cost PC-Based Aviation Training Devices
128
Recommendation
for Researchers
We discuss the introduction of improved low cost technologies
that allow
PCATDs to be used more effectively for training in VFR
procedures. The de-
velopment and testing of new technologies requires more
research.
Impact on Society Flight training schools operate in a difficult
economic environment with contin-
ued increases in the cost of aircraft maintenance, compliance
costs, and aviation
fuel. The increased utilisation of low cost PCATD’s especially
for VFR instruc-
tion could significantly reduce the overall cost of pilot training
Future Research A new study is being undertaken to compare

the effectiveness of a PCATD and
a FTD at training transfer of other VFR task procedures such as
forced landing
training, forced landing after take-off, and low-level navigation
exercises.
Keywords PC-based aviation training device, flight training
device, visual flight rules, qua-
si-transfer, simulator, pilot training
INTRODUCTION
Rapid advances in computer technology have enabled flight
simulator manufacturers to develop
efficient and realistic fixed-base Flight Training Devices
(FTDs) (Elite, 2016). The cost of ‘flying’ an
hour in a simulator is significantly less than in a real aircraft
(particularly if it is multi-engine). Several
well established flight training organisations (FTOs) in New
Zealand own and operate FTDs as an
integral part of their flight training programmes (Eagle Flight
Training, 2015; Massey News, 2007),
but, even though the cost of certified FTDs has fallen
considerably in the last decade (Frasca, 2015),
they are still beyond the financial reach of most flight training
schools in NZ. For many years, FTOs
have investigated the possibility of more cost effective ways of
being able to provide flight simu-
lation devices (Dennis & Harris, 1998; Redbird, 2016) for flight
schools that operate in a difficult
economic environment with continued increases in the cost of
aircraft maintenance, compliance
costs, and imported aviation fuel. An alternative strategy to the
use of FTDs is to use PC-Based Avi-
ation Training Devices (PCATDs) for some aspects of ab-initio
training; indeed, such devices could
be critical to a flight school’s continued operation (Koonce &

Bramble, 1998; Wu & Sun, 2014), as
they may offer a low cost but effective training tool for flight
instruction, classroom demonstrations
and procedural training tasks, and instrument training in
particular (EASA, 2016; Massey News,
2008).
The primary goal of this research was to determine whether
PCATDs could be developed with im-
proved visual fidelity to be effective in VFR task skills training
with a particular focus on VFR proce-
dures and navigation. Traditionally, flight instructors tend to be
conservative and favour high fidelity
FTDs which they had mostly trained on (Williams, 2006). They
are, in many cases, reluctant to accept
new technology such as PCATDs because they lack experience
in using these devices and have lim-
ited knowledge of their training potential (Alessandro, 2008).
The hypothesis to be tested was, there-
fore, that FTDs would perform better than PCATDs. If no
evidence is found to support this hy-
pothesis, it will imply that efficacy is no reason to prefer FTDs
to PCATDs.
LITERATURE REVIEW
As their name suggests, some desktop PCATDs can fit on a
large table (or desk); furthermore, they
also have flight controls and instrumentation similar to real
aircraft or FTDs and can emulate many
of the features found in sophisticated FTDs. For these reasons,
the integration of PCATDs into a
flight training school’s syllabus has the potential to result in
significant cost savings, if some aircraft
training is substituted with PCATD training. Indeed, studies
have indicated that even although the
fidelity of PCATDs is relatively low when compared to high-

end FTDs or to real aircraft, especially
in flight control loading and flight dynamics, importantly, there
is evidence of a positive transfer of
training from PCATD to the aircraft (Flight1 Aviation
Technologies, 2016; Koonce & Bramble, 1998;
Taylor et al., 1999; Taylor et al., 2003). However, studies have
also indicated that the introduction of
PCATDs into the training environment should be treated with
some caution. PCATD’s can offer a
Reweti, Gilbey, & Jeffrey
129
better learning environment than the aircraft (e.g., a ‘flight’
may be paused to discuss some aspect of
control), however, they do have some limitations; for example,
they may be detrimental when used
solely to teach psychomotor skills for basic flight manoeuvers
(Dennis & Harris, 1998). If PCATDs
have the potential to create poor flying techniques, then for
some students this may mean extensive
(and expensive) re-training in the air. While they may be
efficient and cost effective training tools for
the rehearsal of procedures, their training effectiveness may
decrease rapidly with overuse
(Alessandro, 2008).
PCATD training sessions are now well established in many pilot
training programs, especially for
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) skills training (Stewart II,
Dohme, & Nullmeyer, 2002; Yeo, 2016).
Although, the fidelity of PCATD software and hardware has
improved significantly in recent years,

little research has been undertaken to establish whether
PCATDs are equally as effective for VFR
procedures training (Leland, Rogers, Boquet, & Glaser, 2009).
Problems with limited field of view,
lack of visual fidelity, and fixation on instrument displays by
student trainees have caused flight in-
structors to question their effectiveness for VFR procedures
training (Williams, 2006). Despite their
limitations, the potential benefits of using PCATDs for VFR
pilot training has grown steadily due to
the emergence of innovative and cost effective PCATD
technologies, such as super wide-view high
resolution projection (Zahradka, 2017), artificially intelligent
aircraft traffic (Vatsim, 2015), and high
definition terrain with animated ground vehicles (VLC, 2016).
In 2006, a new pilot qualification was established by the
International Civil Aviation Organisation
(ICAO, 1993). The Multi Crew Licence (MPL) was a new
initiative adopted by the Joint Aviation Au-
thority (JAA) and the European Aviation safety Authority
(EASA). The establishment of the MPL
was the result of pressure from the aviation industry for better
ways to train airline co-pilots and
mounting evidence that deficiencies in aircrew teamwork were
major contributors to airline accidents
(Sheck, 2006). The MPL is designed to develop and enhance the
abilities of pilots to fly multi-crew
aircraft. In addition, the main philosophy of MPL is to limit
trainee exposure to actual flight in non-
relevant light aircraft and the bulk of instructional time is
transferred to multi-crew flight simulation
(ECA, 2014). Using PCATDs for multi-crew flight simulation
reduces overall training time and low-
ers costs for pilot trainees, and flight schools. Under MPL rules,
students can also increase the level

of self-guided practice of most flight tasks and manoeuvers in
PCATDs, thereby improving their
skills and proficiency in a cost effective manner (Kozuba &
Bondaruk, 2014).
At the commencement of this study, virtually all FTDs used by
NZ flight training schools were de-
veloped by commercial companies based overseas (Elite, 2016;
Frasca, 2015) Local PCATD develop-
ers commonly use untested hardware technologies combined
with software and hardware interfaces
that were developed in-house as there were no commercially
available equivalents (Zahradka, 2017).
In addition, the production of training documentation for
inclusion into the training curriculum is
also a challenging task for the PCATD developer (KiwiFlyer,
2012). Although the development and
certification of a customised PCATD is a difficult challenge
(CAANZ, 2011), flight training can be
significantly enhanced with the development and adoption of
such cost effective technologies into
the flight-training curriculum.
METHOD
DESIGN
Quasi-transfer studies have been used successfully in a number
of experiments to test augmented
information as an instructional variable for landing (Lintern,
Koonce, Kaiser, Morrison, & Taylor,
1997) and for air-to-ground attack (Lintern, Sheppard, Parker,
Yates, & Nolan, 1989). They have
been used to examine scene detail for out-of-cockpit visual
scenes (Lintern & Koonce, 1992), the
effect of simulator platform motion (Go et al., 2003) and
transfer of training on a vertical motion

simulator (Zaal, Schroeder, & Chung, 2015). The advantage of
quasi transfer design is that when
used with ab-initio pilot trainees it can determine the level of
training transfer with minimal interfer-
130
ence from the effects of prior flight experience (Taylor,
Lintern, & Koonce, 1993). Quasi-transfer of
training studies differ from traditional transfer of training
studies in that a high fidelity flight simula-
tor rather than an aircraft is used to test both training and
transfer tasks. For example, one group
would train on a high fidelity flight simulator and the other
group would train on an experimental
flight simulator. Both groups would then transfer to the high
fidelity flight simulator that is a close
representation of the real aircraft (McDermott, 2005) for final
evaluation. In the current study, par-
ticipants were first randomly assigned to one of three groups
(two experimental groups, and the con-
trol group), at which point a pre-test was administered to each
group. In the pre-test scenario, the
participants completed a standard VFR rejoin procedure on the
Frasca TruFlite Flight & Navigation-
al Procedures Trainer (Frasca FNTP), commonly referred to as
the Frasca FTD, at a specified aero-
drome with a designated aircraft (Figure 1). The accuracy of
their performance across a number of
flight variables was measured using assessment software
installed in the training simulator. Then the
independent variable was implemented; that is, group 1 received

training on a PCATD (Figure 2) and
group 2 received training on the Frasca FTD (the experimental
groups), and group 3 received no
additional training (control group). Finally, each group of
participants was given a post-test, which
was identical to the pre-test procedure using the Frasca FTD.
The primary comparisons of interest for each of the eight
outcome variables were whether pre-
test/post-test difference scores differed by condition, which was
assessed by examining the interac-
tion term of a factorial ANOVA. A lack of evidence that FTDs
performed better than PCATDs
would be taken as evidence that PCATDs provide a useful low
cost alternative to the use of FTDs
for the procedures tested in this study.
Figure 1. Frasca FTD (Single Engine PA-28) Figure 2. PCATD
(Single Engine PA-28)
PART ICIPAN TS
Ninety-three pilots participated in this study. �ey were
recruited from the following organisa-
tions: a university aviation-training organisation (n = 35); a
private sector aviation-training organisa-
tion (n = 35); two small aviation training organisations within
the local geographic area (n = 10); oth-
er aviation organisations (e.g., Air Training Corps) (n = 8); and
local educational institutions (n =

5). Participants’ flight experience ranged from airline and
military trainee pilots (n = 3), pilots who
had just completed CPL or PPL certification, ab-initio pilots
with less than ten hours of single en-
gine flight time, and potential aviators who had only flown a
few trial flights. The mean age of partic-
ipants was 23.1 years (SD = 8.7, range 16–40). Eighty per cent
were aged between 19–25 years old.
Fifteen of the participants in the study were female and
seventy-eight were male. Of those employed
as pilots, participants’ occupations in the study included one
experienced Boeing 737-800 pilot; two
helicopter pilots, two military pilots, and one glider pilot. Sixty
percent of participants were ab-initio
pilot trainees who had completed less than sixty hours of flight
training and had minimal training
hours on either the PCATD and/or the Frasca FTD. Thirty
percent of participants had completed
sixty to two hundred and fifty hours of training up to and
including PPL level but also minimal train-
131
ing hours on either the PCATD and/or the Frasca FTD. In
addition to undertaking flight training,
the flight trainees had completed a wide variety of aviation
related subjects that included meteorolo-
gy, principles of flight, navigation, human factors, and aviation
law. The overhead rejoin manoeuver
the participants were required to practice and complete on the

PCATD and FTD is a reasonably dif-
ficult flight control task and requires some flight experience to
perform accurately. The pilots pur-
posively chosen for this study had a relatively wide range of
flight experience to establish whether
transfer of training on the PCATD or FTD was unduly
influenced by previous flight experience.
Trainee pilots that belonged to relatively large aviation training
organisations (Group 1 & 2) were
selected for the study because their FTO has operated a similar
model of a Frasca TruFlite FTD. In
addition, their practical flight training programs were very
similar and their student populations had
similar demographics. Candidates from small aviation training
organisations Group 3-5 did not have
ready access to a PCATD or FTD for training purposes.
Therefore, they were invited to travel to a
flight-training centre closest to them, where the appropriate
simulation devices were located, to par-
ticipate in the comparative study.
M ATERIALS
The primary flight-training device (FTD) used in this study was
the Frasca TruFlite Flight & Naviga-
tional Procedures Trainer (Frasca, 2015). This device is
certified for assessing pilot competency in
IFR and VFR flight rules. IFR is defined as flying by reference
to instruments in the flight-deck, and
navigation is accomplished by reference to electronic signals
(FAA, 2008b). VFR procedures is a set
of regulations under which a pilot operates an aircraft in
weather conditions generally clear enough
to allow the pilot to see where the aircraft is going .
The TruFlite FTD was configured as a single-engine PA-28

Piper Warrior, as this was the most
common aircraft used by the participants in the study, and
networked to a PC Based Graphical In-
structor Station (GISt). The Frasca TruFlite also had a FAA
Level 6 Qualification which requires the
simulator to be built to a high level of fidelity (FAA, 2008a).
Requirements include an authentic air-
craft cockpit, electric flight control loading, and high fidelity
visual display system. In this case, Frasca
developed their TruVision visual display system with a field of
view of 170 degrees for this FTD
model (Frasca, 2015).
Virtually all previous transfer of training studies that examined
low-fidelity/PC-based simulation
used subjective flight instructor ratings to measure flight
performance (Talleur, Taylor, Emanuel,
Rantanen, & Bradshaw, 2003; Taylor, et al., 1999). Despite
well-defined rating criteria and standards,
it has been difficult to prevent personal bias or unreliable flight
instructor ratings (Roessingh, 2005).
The Graphical Instructor Station GISt is a computer-based
interface that uses Graphical User Inter-
face (GUI) software to control the Frasca FTD. One of its main
functions is data collection and it
was developed to assist flight instructors in reviewing a flight
student’s performance in the FTD.
GISt can be used to record and analyse over one hundred flight
performance variables. The analysis
of flight data generated by GISt is a more objective and
accurate measure of VFR task performance.
GISt contains a core group of functions and the most important
function for this study was the USA
National Intercollegiate Flying Association (NIFA) Score
Editor. The NIFA Score Editor originated
as a program used to measure and compare the performance of

pilots as they attempted to fly an
established flight pattern. This module records the performance
of different pilots—and that of the
same pilot at different stages training—with more objectivity
than an appraisal by a flight instructor.
The program can record the number of errors committed by
participants across a number of select-
ed flight variables.
For example, the actual NIFA formula to calculate the number
of penalty points for each variable is
NIFA Score = Absolute Value (ABS) - (Actual Value-Pattern
Value) x Weights per second. A high
score (e.g., 20 penalty points per second) represented a high
number of errors and a poor perfor-
mance, and vice versa.
132
A low cost PCATD system ($NZ 20,000) was developed from
off-the-shelf commercial software
and hardware (the Frasca FTD used for this comparative study
cost approximately $NZ 500,000).
The PCATD hardware system included a PC with an Intel Core
I7 2.66 GHZ processor as the flight
simulation engine, an additional PC with a Core I5-750
processor as the instructor station, coupled
with NVIDIA GeForce video cards. Specialised hardware
included Precision Flight Controls (Yoke,
Throttle Quadrant, and Rudder Pedals) and Go-Flight Radio &
Navigation Modules. Software in-
cluded Windows 7 (32 Bit), Microsoft Flight Simulator Version

9.0 and 10.0, a customised PA-28
(Piper Warrior) Flight Model & Digital Instrument Panel, and
customised terrain modules represent-
ing local geographic features in the flight training areas.
Multiple screens were used for the out-of-
cockpit-view. A 35-inch Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) main
view screen was combined with two 19-
inch LCD side-views. A total horizontal base of 61.72 inches
with a 20 inch height (53 pixels per
inch) on the main screen, and 9 inch height on the side screens
(93 pixels per inch). The display reso-
lution of all three screens was set at 1280x1024 pixels. An
additional screen 19-inch LCD was used
for the instrument display. Finally, a 19-inch LCD screen was
connected to the networked instructor
station PC. The utilisation of third party software (Active
Camera) provided scan capabilities and
snap views, which increased the field of view to 220 degrees
(Middleton, 2006). Activation of the
software was initiated by a push button situated on the yoke
controls. The software allows a number
of pre-set views so that moving to different cockpit viewpoints
is automated with the push button.
Another button on the yoke was programmed to provide a zoom
function for the cockpit view. The
display system with one front screen and two smaller side
screens was designed to replicate the large
front view and limited side views of the PA-28 Piper Warrior
training aircraft.
The PCATD instructor station used two flight variable recording
software packages. The first pack-
age, Flight Data Recorder 8.0 (Fltrec) was used to play back
recorded flights in Flight Simulator Ver-
sion 9.0 in real time and rescan flight variables if necessary
(Hernandez-Ros, 2012). The second

software package was Visor 2000. This software was capable of
recording flight variables such as
altitude, track, pitch, approach path, and vertical speed, and
angle of bank. It could also display these
flight variables in a graphical form (Pardo, 2012). The software
was flexible and was capable of dis-
playing a binary file produced by the Fltrec utility (Hernandez-
Ros, 2012).
PROCEDURE
The current study was designed to establish whether a CAANZ
certified FTD was more effective
than a low cost PCATD at improving pilot proficiency in the
performance of a standard VFR traffic
pattern operation (Figure 3). The VFR overhead rejoin
procedure evaluated in this study required the
utilisation of a FTD or PCATD that could provide a minimum
of 120 degrees FOV, (to provide the
participants with adequate peripheral views) so that correct
entry points and correct spacing could be
applied during the procedure. Each participant was then given a
briefing on the experimental proce-
dure. In the first stage of the procedure, the participant entered
the traffic pattern at a height of no
less or no more than 1500 feet AGL (1600 feet AMSL) and a
magnetic heading of 160°-170°. The
learning transfer that took place was measured to ascertain the
effects on task performance by meas-
uring eight dependent flight performance variables while
executing the traffic pattern operation.
These variables were maintaining correct altitude; maintaining
correct attitude; maintaining correct
airspeed; overall performance; maintaining correct magnetic
heading; implementing procedural turns;
intercept and maintain Glide Slope; and implementing an
accurate Overhead Rejoin pattern. For the

purposes of this study the airfield was deemed to be
serviceable, there was no wind, and standard
temperature and atmospheric pressure had been set in
accordance with ICAO standards (ICAO,
1993). The runway in use was 070°, the circuit was left hand,
and there was no traffic on the circuit.
The circuit area was defined as the area within a radius of three
nautical miles from the airfield refer-
ence point.
All participants were pre-tested and post-tested on the Frasca
FTD. Participants were randomly allo-
cated to each of the three groups. The participants randomly
selected for the PCATD group received
training on the PCATD and the remaining participants received
training on the FTD. The study pro-
133
tocol is shown in Table 1. The VFR Overhead Rejoin Procedure
is used by the pilot to safely join the
circuit of controlled and uncontrolled aerodromes (CAANZ,
2014). All participants were given an
individual 10-15 minute briefing on the VFR overhead rejoin
procedure and a demonstration by a
flight instructor on how it was to be completed. This was
followed by a 10-15 minute familiarisation
period on the TruFlite FTD. The participants were given a
demonstration of the various flight con-
trols on the FTD and were shown how the flight performance
variables would be recorded on the
computer. Then all participants completed the VFR standard

overhead rejoin procedure on the FTD.
This was the designated pre-test procedure.
Figure 3. Diagram of Standard Overhead Rejoin
Table 1. Experimental Procedure
Group Assignments Pre Test Training Post Test
1
n = 31
Familiarisation Lesson /
Flight Test in Frasca Familiarisation Les-
son /Three Practice
Sessions in PCATD
Flight Test
in Frasca
TruFlite
2

n = 31
Familiarisation Lesson
/Flight Test in Frasca Three Practice Ses-
sions in Frasca
TruFlite
Flight Test
in Frasca
TruFlite
3
n = 31
Familiarisation Lesson
/Flight Test in Frasca No Practice Ses-
sions
Flight Test
in Frasca
TruFlite
The flight was recorded on the GISt and scored using the NIFA
module. After the pre-test proce-
dure was completed on the Frasca, Group 1 participants were
given a 10-15 minute briefing on the
operation of the PCATD followed by a 10-15 minute

familiarisation session. Then Group 1 partici-
pants practiced the VFR standard overhead rejoin procedure
with three 10-15 minute training ses-
sions. Group 2 participants, after completing the Frasca pretest
procedure, completed three 10-15
minute training sessions on the Frasca TruFlite FTD. Group 3
(Control Group) participants were
pre-tested on the Frasca but did not have any practice sessions
on either the PCATD or the FTD.
Finally, all the participants were given a short 10-15 minute rest
before completing a post-test
evaluation of the VFR procedure on the Frasca TruFlite FTD.
The experimental procedure was
Standard Overhead Rejoin Procedures Diagram Key
1. Radio call
2. Track to keep aerodrome on your left (no less than
1500 feet)
3. Determine runway in use: Make all turns in the direc-
tion of the circuit
4. Descend on the non-traffic side
5. Cross upwind threshold at circuit altitude
6. Join downwind leg
134
similar to that used in a comparative study of an IFR procedure

conducted by McDermott (2005)
and Beckman (1998).
A priori power analysis, using the software G*Power (Buchner,
Erdfelder, & Lang, 2013), was used to
determine that with α = .05, a total sample size of n = 42 (split
between conditions) would be suffi-
cient for experimental power of at least .80, assuming a
medium effect size of f = .25 for a mixed
model ANOVA for the main analysis (i.e., the 3 x 2 ANOVA).
RESULTS
The flight experience variables Total Flight Time, VFR Flight
Time, FTD Time, PCATD Time, and
Recent Flight Time Mean scores may be inspected in Table 2.
Table 2. Mean Scores (and SDs) for Flight Experience Variables
Experience Mean Hours SD
PCATD Time 3.3 21.5
FTD Time 5.4 18.7
Total Flight Time 165 521
VFR Flight Time 151 498
Recent Flight Time 7 10.7
A series of five one-way between subjects ANOVA were used
to explore if there were any significant
differences in the aviation experience of the participants to
suggest that the three groups were not
homogenous in terms of aviation experience, which implies that

previous aviation flight experience
should not confound VFR task performance between the groups
on the FTD. The test statistics are
shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Tests of Aviation Experience, by Group
Experience Df F Sig.
PCATD Time 2, 90 .173 .84
FTD Time 2, 90 .785 .46
Total Flight Time 2, 90 .568 .57
VFR Flight Time 2, 90 .673 .51
Recent Flight Time 2, 90 .242 .71
The interaction term of a series of eight 3 x 2 mixed model
ANOVAs were used to explore if there
were statistically significant differences between the Pre-test
score and the Post-test score perfor-
mance between the three groups for each of the eight
performance variables.. Analyses were Pitch,
Bank, Altitude, Indicated Air Speed, Heading, Total Variable
Score (the sum of Pitch, Bank, Alt, IAS,
Hdg errors), Glideslope, and Overhead Rejoin Pattern. No
significant differences were found be-
tween the FTD and the PCATD across all the flight performance
variables.

135
Pitch va riable
There was evidence of a statistically significant interaction
between training group and pitch perfor-
mance, F(2, 90) = 4.191, p = .018, η2 = .09, which indicates
that the groups did have significantly
different changes from Pre-test to Post-test scores. Post hoc
analysis (LSD) (Figure 4) indicated that
there was significantly less improvement (p < .05) in the Pre-
test vs. Post-test change score for pitch
performance in the control group (M = -0.15, SD = 1.96),
compared to the FTD group (M = 1.03,
SD = 1.78) or the PCATD group (M = 1.12, SD = 2.05). There
was no significant difference in
change score for pitch performance between the PCATD group
and the FTD group.
Figure 4. Post Hoc Pitch Change Scores Means Plot
Figure 5. Post Hoc Bank Change Scores Means Plot
Bank variable
There was evidence of a statistically significant interaction
between group training and bank perfor-
mance, F(2, 90) = 4.814, p = .010, η2 = .10, which indicates
that the groups did have significantly
different changes from Pre to Post-test scores. Post hoc analyses
(Figure 5) (LSD) indicated that
1.124 1.029

-0.152 -0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
PCATD FTD CONTROL
Pr
et
es
t/
Po
st
-t
es
t
Ch
an
ge

in
P
it
ch
Condition
3.641
2.576
0.144
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
PCATD FTD CONTROL

Pr
et
es
t/
Po
st
-t
es
t C
ha
ng
e
in
B
an
k
Condition
136
there was significantly less improvement (p < .05) in change
score for Bank performance in the con-
trol group (M = 0.14, SD = 4.59) when compared to the FTD

group (M = 2.58, SD = 4.48) and the
PCATD group (M = 3.64, SD = 4.57). There was no significant
difference in change score for Bank
performance between the PCATD group and the FTD group.
Total variable score
A mixed model ANOVA was conducted to compare three groups
of participants on Total Variable
Score (combined score of Pitch, Bank, Altitude, IAS, and
Heading) performance while completing a
VFR Overhead Rejoin Manoeuvre. There was evidence of a
statistically significant interaction be-
tween group training and Total Variable Score, F(2, 90) = 3.36,
p = .039, η2 = .07, which indicates
that the groups did have significantly different changes from
Pre-test to Post-test scores. Post hoc
analyses (LSD) (Figure 6) indicated that there was significantly
less improvement (p < .05) in Total
Variable gain score performance in the control group (M = -
5.33, SD = 23.29) when compared to
the FTD group (M = 18.77, SD = 19.71) and the PCATD group
(M = 16.40, SD = 22.23). There
was no significant difference in Total Variable gain score
performance between the PCATD group
and the FTD group.
Figure 6: Post Hoc Total Variable Score Means Plot
Altitude variable
There was no evidence of a statistically significant interaction
between group training and altitude
performance, F(2, 90) = 1.11, p = .333; that is, there was no
significant difference in change score for
altitude performance between the PCATD group, FTD group or
control group. The interaction plot

for this and the following four outcome variables are shown in
Figure 7.
Indicated air speed (IAS) variable
between group training and IAS per-
formance, F(2, 90) = 1.52, p = .224; that is, there was no
IAS performance between the PCATD group, FTD group or
control group.
Heading variable
between group training and IAS per-
formance, F(2, 90) = 1.30, p = .277; that is, there was no
Heading performance between the PCATD group, FTD group or
control group.
16.4
18.767
5.335
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16

18
20
PCATD FTD CONTROL
Pr
et
es
t/
Po
st
-t
es
t V
ar
ia
bl
e
Sc
or
es
Condition

137
Figure 7. Interaction plots of mean performance scores of
condition
(PCATD, FTD, Control) by Pretest/Posttest Plots.
10
11
12
13
14

15
16
Pre-test Post-test
M
ea
n
pe
rf
or
m
an
c
Sc
or
es
Altitude
3.7
3.8
3.9
4

4.1
4.2
Pre-test Post-test
M
ea
n
Pe
rf
om
an
ce
S
co
re
s
Glide Slope
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

18
19
20
21
Pre-test Post-test
M
ea
n
Pe
rf
or
m
an
ce
S
co
re
s
Indicated Air Speed
2
2.1
2.2

2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Pre-test Post-test
M
ea
n
Pe
rf
or
m
an
ce
S
co
re
s
Overhead Rejoin
10

12
14
16
18
20
22
Pre-test Post-test
M
ea
n
Pe
rf
ro
m
an
ce
S
co
re
s

Heading
138
Glide slope score
There was no evidence of an interaction between group training
and Glide Slope score performance,
F(2, 90) = .297, p = .744; that is there was no significant
difference in Glide Slope score performance
between the PCATD group and the FTD group.
Overhead rejoin pattern score
There was no evidence of a significant interaction between
group training and Glide Slope score per-
formance, F(2, 90) = .585, p = .559; that is, there was no
significant difference in Overhead Rejoin
score performance between the PCATD group and the FTD
group
DISCUSSION
No overall evidence was found that an FTD performed better
than PCATD when used to train pi-
lots to perform a VFR re-join procedure; there was no evidence
of a significant difference in Pre-
test/post-test change scores across all of the eight variables
between the FTD group and the
PCATD group. Specifically, while there was strong evidence of
the effectiveness of training com-
pared to no training on three variables, there was no evidence of
a difference in efficacy of FTD vs.

PCATC training. This implies that VFR task training (e.g.,
Overhead Rejoin Procedure) was just as
effective when completed on the low cost PCATD as it was on
the certified FTD.
Interestingly, there was no evidence of omnibus differences in
performance between the three
groups on the variables Heading, Altitude, IAS, Glide slope
(GS), and Overhead Rejoin Pattern
(ORP). At face value, this suggests that training per se on these
five outcome variables is ineffective.
However, an alternative explanation is that these tasks were
simply easier than the three that did show
improvement after training (on PCATD and FTD) and that a
lack of significant improvement after
training was indicative of a ceiling effect. Furthermore, for the
variable, Overhead Rejoin Pattern, it
is possible that failure to observe an effect may have been due,
at least in part, to a lack of sensitivity
of the measure; that is, ORP was measured on a five point
Likert scale, which may have been insensi-
tive to small differences between groups.
The findings of the current study add to earlier evidence
reported by McDermott (2005), who com-
pleted a similar quasi transfer study that compared the
instrument landing approach performance of
63 pilots randomly assigned to either a PCATD or FTD for
training. The FTD trained group was
designated as the control group and the PCATD group the
treatment group. A pre-test and post-test
was conducted on the FTD before and after the training. The
results of McDermott’s (2005) study
found no significant difference in instrument landing approach
performance between the group
trained on the PCATD and the control group.

A strength of the current study was its use of objective
measurement by analysing flight-recording
data of FTD and PCATD flight variables, rather than the
somewhat more subjective evaluations of
flight examiners or instructors. This method provided an
unbiased precise measurement of VFR task
performance and produced normally distributed data. Only one
measurement, the Overhead Rejoin
Pattern, was too complex for mathematical analysis and
required a categorical assessment by flight
instructors.
Few studies were found that used objective measurement in an
aircraft or flight simulator instead of
subjective evaluation by Subject Matter Experts (SMEs).
Roessingh (2005) used objective measure-
ment in the form of special recording equipment installed on
the aircraft that recorded twelve flight
variables including altitude, IAS, and rates of turn. Only one
study was found that combined objec-
tive measurement with flight task performance in a PCATD.
Smith and Caldwell (2004) used a fixed
base F-117 simulator to record flight performance parameters of
F-117A pilots undergoing training.
Combining flight simulation and objective measurement has
only occurred in the last decade as this
type of recording technology has only become available on the
relatively new models of commercial-
ly produced FTDs and PCATDs. New general aviation aircraft
with glass cockpits also have flight

139
data recording capability, and flight data for a particular sortie
can be easily downloaded from the
glass cockpit (i.e., Primary Flight Display or Multi-Function
Display). It is hoped that flight data re-
cording, flight data retrieval, and flight data analysis, will
become more popular data retrieval tools
for research purposes. An objective method that uses simulator-
recording technology is cost effec-
tive, accurate and can be operated in a strictly controlled
environment.
One advantage of the PCATD was that some task procedures
were easier to accomplish than in the
real aircraft. For example, most participants believed that
maintaining airspeed in the FTD and
PCATD was easier to do than in the real aircraft. This was due
to a number of environmental factors
that are strictly controlled in PCATDs, such as lack of low-
level turbulence, perfectly performing
engines, and stabilised flight instruments. In the aircraft, low-
level turbulence, slight surges in engine
power, vibration and shake in flight instruments are always
omnipresent and can affect pilot perfor-
mance. In addition, the flight models used in the FTD and
PCATD provided a fast response to
throttle control and flight control inputs. This enabled the
participants to adjust power settings fre-
quently and get rapid feedback as to the effect on flight
performance. The participants agreed that
this responsive feedback provided effective training, and they
thought that the acquired skills would
easily transfer effectively to the aircraft. The Intercept and
Maintain Glide Slope skill was more prob-
lematic. In both the FTD and the PCATD the simulated airport

did not have an Instrument Landing
System and because it was a VFR exercise the glide slope had to
be estimated visually and with refer-
ence only to basic flight instruments. Both the PCATD and FTD
visual display systems have limita-
tions in terms of depth of field (DOF) and field of view
(FOV) compared to aircraft in flight. Both
groups of participants struggled to improve this VFR skill and
fly consistent approaches in the
PCATD and FTD. They indicated that this skill would be the
least likely to transfer effectively to the
aircraft.
CONCLUSIONS
There were at least three potential limitations to the study
reported here. First, although participants
were in principle blinded to the experimental manipulation,
NZ’s aviation industry is small and close-
knit; it is therefore possible that participants became aware of
the experimental manipulation from
meetings outside of the study, and were subsequently affected
by their own expectations of the bene-
fit of training. However, these expectations would be mitigated
by the objective nature of the meas-
urement. Second, it is possible that there were differences
between the two experimental groups on
one or more outcome variables, but they were not detected
(Type II error). Third, the experiment
was implemented over a short period and differences in
performance may emerge at some later
point.
Two further studies are planned. First, to investigate the
effectiveness of a low cost PCATD at im-
proving pilot proficiency in the performance of a standard VFR
traffic pattern operation between

two pilot trainee groups with different aviation experience
levels, training environment, and in differ-
ent geographical locations. Second, is to compare the
effectiveness of a low cost PCATD and a
CAANZ certified FTD at training transfer of other VFR task
procedures such as forced landing
training, forced landing after take-off, and low-level navigation
exercises.
This study involved the development and evaluation of a low
cost PCATD that could be as effective
as a CAANZ certified FTD at training transfer of a VFR task
procedure (Overhead Rejoin Manoeu-
ver). The results have added to the limited body of research
examining the effectiveness of PCATDs
for VFR training. There was no significant difference in
performance of a VFR Overhead Rejoin
Manoeuver between those participants who trained on a PCATD
and those trained on the FTD. In
addition, the use of objective measurement tools has
contributed to the limited research on how
PCATDs with the installation of suitable software can be
utilised for the objective evaluation of pilot
performance.
140
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BIOGRAPHIES
Dr. Savern Reweti is a senior lecturer in Aviation Management
at Mas-
sey University’s School of Aviation. During his previous
service in the
Royal New Zealand Air Force he developed a PC based
IFR/VFR proce-
dural simulator and an Air Traffic Control Module for the ab-
initio pilot
training programme. This led to further research into the
development of
low cost PC based Aviation training devices (PCATD’s). This
culminated
in the development of customised PCATD system for the
Massey Uni-
versity School of Aviation and the Auckland Rescue Helicopter

Trust.
His current research focuses on the development of low cost
twin-engine
flight simulation devices and the development of IPAD apps for
automating the calculation of
Takeoff &Landing Charts for pilot training.
Dr. Andrew Gilbey is a senior lecturer at Massey University’s
School of
Aviation. His primary area of interest is in aviation decision
making and
training of pilots.
Associate Professor Lynn M Jeffrey is an Associate Head of
School
(Management) at Massey University. The focus of her research
is im-
proving learning and teaching, and understanding the role that
technolo-
gy might play in achieving that end. Technology that she has
developed
includes a computer-based, examination-on-demand system
(CALES)
which was used by the New Zealand Civil Aviation Authority
for pilot
theory examinations; a learning style website used by tertiary
students to
get advice on improving their learning and by their teachers for
develop-

ing more relevant teaching methods; a learning style evaluation
website
for workplace training; and a web-based simulation game for
teaching
equity in the workplace. Her current research focuses on student
en-
gagement in blended learning environments, mobile learning,
integral learning and teaching interna-
tional students. Lynn has supervised about 20 PhD students and
20 Masters students.
http://www.simpit.co.nz/index.php/features-2/projection-
display-solutions/simpit-270-centurion
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International Journal of Instruction January 2019 ● Vol.12,
No.1
e-ISSN: 1308-1470 ● www.e-iji.net p-
ISSN: 1694-609X
pp. 751-766
Citation: Karimi, P., Lotfi, A. R., & Biria, R. (2019). Enhancing
Pilot’s Aviation English Learning,

Attitude and Motivation through the Application of Content and
Language Integrated Learning.
International Journal of Instruction, 12(1), 751-766.
https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2019.12148a
Received: 29/07/2018
Revision: 17/11/2018
Accepted: 20/11/2018
OnlineFirst: 23/11/2018
Enhancing Pilot’s Aviation English Learning, Attitude and
Motivation
through the Application of Content and Language Integrated
Learning
Parvin Karimi
Faculty of English Language Department, Islamic Azad
University Isfahan (Khorasgan
Branch). Isfahan, Iran, [email protected]
Ahmad Reza Lotfi
Asst. Prof., Faculty of English Language Department, Islamic
Azad University Isfahan
(Khorasgan Branch). Isfahan, Iran, [email protected]
Reza Biria
Assoc. Prof., Faculty of English Language Department, Islamic
Azad University Isfahan
(Khorasgan Branch). Isfahan, Iran, [email protected]

The present study sought to investigate the effectiveness of
Content and Language
Integrated Learning (CLIL) in enhancing Iranian aviation
students' attitude and
motivation in dealing with the highly specialized features of
aviation English. To
this end, 40 pilots studying at Mahan air in Tehran were
randomly placed in the
experimental (n = 20) and control (n = 20) groups. The study
followed a pretest-
posttest experimental design. The experimental group received
instruction through
CLIL. The control group were taught by a traditional approach.
The analysis
revealed that the experimental group performed better than the
control group on
the posttest. Interestingly the experimental group were highly
motivated and had a
positive perception about the effectiveness of CLIL activities
that led them to be
experienced in higher achievement of the language learning
outcomes. Notably, the
findings of the study suggest some important implications for
course designers, and
teachers who work in the area of teaching English for
Occupational Purposes
(EOP).
Keywords: aviation English, CLIL, EOP, motivation, perception
INTRODUCTION
From the number of languages spoken worldwide, English has
been selected as the

language of technology and science. This thus motivates non-
native scientists and
researchers to learn the language to have access to different
references and documents
http://www.e-iji.net/
https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2019.12148a
752 Enhancing Pilot’s Aviation English
Learning, Attitude and …
International Journal of Instruction, January 2019 ● Vol.12,
No.1
influencing their careers. Consequently, attempts to design the
most efficient ways of
learning and teaching English to different groups of learners
have gained a considerable
momentum in recent years. In particular, teaching English for
specialized purposes at
higher educational levels plays a pivotal role in tertiary levels
of education. The need for
a wide variety of professional language programs categorized
under the umbrella term
“English for specific purposes” is being felt more than ever
before. ESP relates to a
wide range of areas such as industry, vocational training, and
commercial sectors. It is
goal- oriented and based on English needs and needs analysis in
the profession. ESP
pays attention to the language skills and vocabulary in certain
areas (Gavrilova &
Trostina, 2014).

Notably, the integration of subject- matter content and language
learning (CLIL) has
been regarded as one of the most significant views concerning
the appropriate
methodology required for teaching English for specific
purposes. The evidential bases
offered by various studies reflect that both content and language
receive attention
simultaneously by using CLIL because the learning of the
content is integrated with that
of the language. Such integration can significantly improve
language performance
without resorting to additional teaching efforts. According to
Marsh (2000), the
pedagogical effectiveness of CLIL depends largely on the
exploitation of both content
and language learning at the same time. The main reason is that
CLIL activates different
crucial factors such as learner engagement, motivation, and
active participation which
ultimately result in language learning. As Al-Hoorie (2016)
stated, learners are rational
individuals whose progress depends on the powerful influence
of motivational factors in
modern language teaching contexts.
Globally, the academic aviation programs implemented around
the world choose the
English language as it is the official and standardized language
of aviation
communication because most aircraft and airlines manuals,
pilot’s documentation, flight
plans, and airports traffic controls are written in the English
language. As a result, the
main objective of the present study was to investigate how
implementing CLIL increases

learners’ language proficiency, perception, and motivation in
their learning of the
prespecified outcomes compared to other traditional, non- CLIL
approaches.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Inspired by the Canadian immersion program and the United
States content-based
instruction, CLIL has been used as an educational approach to
foreign language teaching
whereby linguistic forms are learnt indirectly through non-
linguistic content (Eurydice,
2006; Marsh, 2002). In other words, CLIL is an umbrella term
refers to any activity in
learning of non-language subject in which a particular subject
content serves as a
medium for the learning of foreign language items. Nikula
(2017) expressed that CLIL
is used especially in Europe for bilingual education where a
foreign language, in most
cases English, is used as the language of instruction in non-
language school subjects.
CLIL class provides a context for meaningful language use and
leads to language
learning besides content learning, CLIL is an important
instrument to make European
citizens’ bi- and multilingualism, to be offered and create
alongside with subject matter
learning, and regular foreign language teaching for students in
mainstream education.
Karimi, Lotfi & Biria 753

International Journal of Instruction, January2019 ● Vol.12,
No.1
Based on Wolff (2009), CLIL is widely accepted in Europe and
commonly used for
teaching the content subject through a foreign language. CLIL
allows pupils to use
language in a different way, and in complex ways; therefore, the
pupils will have a better
comprehension of the subject matter. Lorenzo, Casal, and
Moore (2009) declared that
CLIL learners have higher linguistic competence, which shows
an obvious benefit of
CLIL due to a higher exposure to a foreign language. CLIL
promotes meaningful
interaction and creativity. It is a more successful way of second
language acquisition as
it is learned for immediate use and for a real purpose. Goris
(2009) stated that CLIL is
different from the communicative approach because learners use
language in content as
an authentic setting, and does not have to simulate real-life
situations, however, this
reality will increase learners’ interaction and motivation during
the class time.
Interaction is a fundamental need for learning to take place.
Through communication
and interaction, students practice their language skills and
discuss the content to which
they are exposed. Thus it makes the students be so active and
motivated to work harder.
Ruiz de Zarob (2008) compared the speaking skills of non-
CLIL and CLIL students in
Spain. After the speech production test, the results showed that
CLIL students’
performance showed higher linguistic level and greater lexical

richness. Dalton-Puffer,
Huttner, Schindelegger, and Smit (2009) conducted a research
in Austrian vocational
colleges and investigated CLIL students’ perception about the
teaching approach. They
found the course useful and the teacher allowed them for more
equally and diversity in
the teacher-student relationship in the classroom. Both teacher
and students were
responsible for the learning process.
Alternatively, motivation is a driving force determining why
someone chooses to do
something. Moreover, Motivation is one of the most important
factors in learning.
Motivation is a basic component of human performance and
learning. Accordingly,
Gardner (2010) stated that motivation is difficult to explain. He
expressed that
motivation is a factor that motivated individuals display. There
are different kinds of
motivation ranging from internal and external factors which
influence learning. As an
illustration, learners’ curiosity and interest are related to the
internal factor while
environmental factors are regarded as an external factor of
motivation. Stansfield and
Winke (2008) noted that high motivation causes a person to
spend much time and to use
more strategies on task which relates to the learner‘s aptitude
and increases his potential.
Moreover, Gardner and Lambert (1972) defined instrumental
and integrative motivation.
There are different factors that influence second language (L2)
learning. However,
learner’s motivation and desire to learn a particular language is

often singled out as the
most significant factor in the overall process for language
acquisition. Being motivated
is one of the most important factors in learning a foreign
language (Abdelrahim &
Humaida, 2012). Furthermore, based on Gardner (2010),
instrumental motivation in
language learning is related to the time when an individual tries
to learn another
language for some practical gain not for the social implications.
It can be stated that
when a person learns a language with non-interpersonal
purposes such as to pass an
exam or just to have a career, it is related to instrumental
motivation. Therefore, students
with an instrumental motivation are going to learn a language
because of a practical
reason such as getting a job or getting into college. On the other
hand, the integrative
No.1
motivation is a key factor in assisting the learners to improve
some level of proficiency
in the language learning, when he becomes a resident in a new
place/society and
environment that uses the target language in its social
interaction. As Finegan (1999,
p.568) posited, students as one of the members of the learning

community are naturally
under the influence of integrative motivation which “typically
provides successful
acquisition of a native-like pronunciation and a wide range of
registers”. Another
classification of motivation consists of intrinsic and extrinsic.
Intrinsic motivation is in
the inner of the learners. A student who is intrinsically
motivated wants to study and
learn because he finds the material interesting, they thus receive
some kind of
satisfaction from their learning. On the other hand, if a person
places the responsibility
on others and on circumstances outside self, he has an external
locus of control
(Dornyei, 2000), which relates to extrinsic motivation. Indeed,
extrinsic motivation
relates to motivation that comes from outside of an individual;
its factors are outsider or
external rewards such as money or grads which provides
pleasure and satisfaction that
the task itself may not provide (Dornyei, 2000). More generally,
if an L2 student
engages with the L2 culture, the intrinsic motivation can turn
out to be an integrative
motivation. If the L2 student wishes to gain aims using L2, the
intrinsic motivation can
also turn out to be the instrumental motivation. These two forms
of motivation, extrinsic
and intrinsic are pertinent to instrumental and integrative
motivation related to L2
learning (Brown, 2000).
In a study, Bernaus and Gardner (2008) investigated the effects
of teacher’s strategies
on the learners’ perceptions in Catalonia, Spain. The result

indicated that positive
students’ attitudes and their integrative motivation toward the
learning situation were
positive factors of English achievement that enhance learning.
Researchers have expressed different views toward different
kinds of motivation.
According to Lucas (2010), learners are intrinsically motivated
to learn speaking and
reading skills and are also intrinsically motivated by knowledge
and achievement. Tuan
(2012) studied the effect of EFL learner's motivation on their
English learning. She used
a questionnaire as an instrument for collecting data. Both
teachers and students were
involved in this survey. The findings of the research showed
that the learners had
positive motivation toward learning of foreign language. In
another study, Mao (2011)
carried out a research on L2 motivation and application in
reading class in senior high
school to examine the effect of motivation on learning. In his
study, the instrument was a
questionnaire to collect the data. The results showed that
combination of integrative
motivation and instrumental motivation can influence reading
improvement.
Furthermore, teachers should take some effective application to
increase student's
motivation during the class and help them develop integrative
motivation towards
English learning.
Due to the significance of affective filter, the optimum learning
occurs in an
environment of high stimulation and low anxiety. Therefore, the

emotional state of the
learner acting as a filter may pass or impede input needed for
L2 acquisition. Many ESL
learners come to class with uncertainty because they often feel
that they are separated
from their native cultures and fight to adapt to certain
disturbances evoked by the new
No.1
situation. Surprisingly, such disturbances can be monitored and
even overcome with the
help of CLIL. In a study, Doiz, Lasagabaster and Sierra (2014)
expressed in their
analyses that students in CLIL setting were more motivated than
the control group in the
study.
On this basis, the present study investigated how CLIL can
enhance the Iranian aviation
students' attitude and motivation and L2 learning and thus
answer the following research
question:
RQ: Does the implementation of CLIL have an effect on
aviation students’ attitude and
motivation towards English language learning?
METHOD
Design and Context of the Study

This study employed a pretest-posttest experimental design. The
researcher selected two
classes that were subsequently assigned to two groups
randomly: experimental and
control. The research was conducted at Mahan Airlines
headquarters training center in
winter of 2016, in Tehran, Iran.
Pilot students were studying the international book named
Private Pilot Manual (PPM)
as their reference book. The PPM was written in English. The
PPM included different
parts such as aircraft weight and balance (W&B), meteorology
for pilots, interpreting
weather data, and radio navigation systems. All were in English
and contained aviation
special concepts and terminology.
Aircraft W&B course instructs delegates in the principles of
aircraft weight and balance
according to the industry standard IATA design manual and
automated load sheet.
During this class, the learners learn about the maximum landing
weight, aircraft central
gravity, basic empty weight, standard weight of fuel, and
maximum take-off weight. The
course would be implemented in 30 hours, six sessions, and
every session 5 hours.
Population and Sample
Forty male pilots (20 to 30 years old) were randomly placed in
the experimental (n = 20)
and control (n = 20) groups. Regarding their English language
proficiency according to

the ICAO regulations, students attending the private pilot
license (PPL) should pass an
entrance exam before attending the course which was based on
Oxford Placemat Test
(OPT). To select the PPL applicants, the training department
had administered the OPT
test to them before starting the course. Those who score more
than 75 could register for
the class. Therefore, the participants of the study were
homogenous in terms of English
language proficiency. The attending instructors in CLIL served
as the subject matter
teacher for the first 45 minutes of the class and the EFL teacher
for the second 45
minutes whereas in the non-CLIL class, only a subject matter
teacher was presented
during the course.
Instruments
In this study 3 instruments were employed for data collection.
The required data would
be collected through, pretest, questionnaire, and posttest.
No.1
The first instrument, pretest, was related to their language and
content knowledge of the
learners under the study. It should be stated that the researcher

adopted the pretest as the
posttest in order to evaluate language and content knowledge
before and after the
treatment. For the second data collection, researcher utilized
questionnaire to reveal the
findings of participants' attitude and motivation for English
leaning during the course.
The structures of the questionnaires were as follows:
The questionnaire consisted of 30 items which was developed
based on Gardner
Attitude & Motivation Test Battery. Item 1 to 15 were designed
to elicit information and
responses dealing with students’ attitudes toward language
learning and situation, and
item 16 to 30 were related to their motivation in language
learning during the course.
Questionnaire, including five-point Likert scale, ranging from
“strongly disagree = 1” to
“strongly agree = 5”.
The third instrument, posttest, was related to their language and
content learning
outcomes due to motivation in CLIL and non-CLIL classes
under the study. It should be
stated that the researcher adopted the posttest as an instrument
in order to evaluate
language and content learning; in view of the fact that all the
questions were about the
content matter and in English. The pretest and posttest was
based on the ICAO standard
question booklet which contained 30 multiple choice questions
with the total scores of
60 to measure content learning, and also an oral exam with a
score of 40 to evaluate
language knowledge, those who scored 70 and above would pass

the course.
Data Collection Procedure
The researcher started to collect data after the participants
began their W&B course. On
the first session of the class, the pretest was administered to the
participants to examine
their knowledge on understanding the questions and content in
the English language.
The second step for data collection in this study was designing
and piloting a
questionnaire. The respondents were required to rate each item
on the basis of 5point
Likert Scale. To design the questionnaire, the items were
carefully selected and the
opinion of a senior researcher was also considered. The initial
version of the
questionnaire was subjected to a pilot study in order to detect
shortcomings,
redundancy, remove irrelevant items, and check the reliability.
Cronbach’s alpha
reliability of the questionnaire was 0.82 that indicated an
acceptable level of
consistency. The final version of the questionnaire was given to
the participants to
examine their attitudes and motivation. In the last week of the
course all 40 participants
completed the questionnaire in 30 minutes. The Likert-scale
questionnaire was analyzed
using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
Two days after the last session of the W&B course, the posttest
was administered. The
written part (multiple choice items) of the posttest for both
groups was administered by

the training staff without the teachers being present at the
session. In addition, an oral
exam was performed in the same day afternoon by 3 teachers
based on ICAO booklet
materials. This exam was performed in English to test language
learning outcome. The
teachers graded the students’ oral performance on different
aspects: grammar,
No.1
vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency. They gave 1 to 10 score
for each aspect. The
scores obtained from oral exam were used to measure posttest
result.
Two days after the exams, the teachers reported the students’
scores to the training
department. The participants who scored 70 or above would
attend the next course in
the following week. The participants’ scores provided important
information about their
progress and improvement during that special course.
FINDINGS
The data collected through this study were analyzed using
independent-samples t-test
which has two main assumptions; normality of the data and
homogeneity of variances
of the groups. As displayed in Table 1, the absolute values of
the ratios of skewness and

kurtosis over their standard errors were lower than 1.96, which
shows normality of the
data.
Table 1
Descriptive statistics; testing normality of data
Group n Skewness Kurtosis
Statistic Statistic Std. Error Ratio Statistic Std. Error Ratio
CLIL Pretest 20 .002 .512 .003 -.974 .992 -0.98
Posttest 20 -.419 .512 -0.82 -.250 .992 -0.25
Attitude 20 -.041 .512 -0.08 .116 .992 0.12
Motivation 20 .805 .512 1.57 .730 .992 0.74
Non-CLIL Pretest 20 -.175 .512 -0.34 -.769 .992 -0.77
Posttest 20 .718 .512 1.40 -.469 .992 -0.47
Attitude 20 .514 .512 1.00 .699 .992 0.70
Motivation 20 .142 .512 0.28 -.105 .992 -0.11
Reliability of Instruments
Table 2 and Table 3 display the reliability indices for the
pretest and posttest, and
attitude and motivation questionnaires. The KR-21 reliability
index for the pretest and
posttest of CLIL test were .74 and .87, respectively.
Table 2

Descriptive statistics and KR-21 reliability of test
N Minimum Maximum M SD Variance KR-21
CLIL 40 45 80 64.35 9.234 85.259 .74
Posttest 40 70 100 87.18 9.052 81.943 .87
The Cronbach’s alpha for the questionnaire are displayed in
Table 3. The reliability
indices for the attitude and motivation sub-sections were .71
and .78. The overall
questionnaire had a reliability of .82.
Table 3
Cronbach’s alpha reliability of attitude and motivation
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
Attitude .715 15
Motivation .787 15
Total .825 30
No.1
Criterion Referenced Validity
The correlation coefficients between the OPT and pretest and

posttest were computed as
the criterion referenced validity of the latter two tests. The
results displayed in Table 4
indicated that the pretest (r (38) = .611 representing a large
effect size, p = .000) and
posttest (r (38) = .628 representing a large effect size, p = .000)
enjoyed significant
criterion referenced validity indices.
Table 4
Pearson Correlations; Criterion Referenced Validity
OPT
Pretest
Pearson Correlation .611
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 40
posttest
Pearson Correlation .628
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 40
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-
tailed).

Homogenizing Groups on Pretest
An independent t-test was run to compare the CLIL and non-
CLIL groups’ means on the
pretest. Based on the results displayed in Table 5, the CLIL (M
= 64.85, SD = 9.31) and
non-CLIL (M = 63.85, SD = 9.36) groups had fairly close means
on the pretest.
Table 5
Descriptive statistics; pretest
Group n M SD Std. Error Mean
Pret
est
CLIL 20 64.85 9.315 2.083
Non-CLIL 20 63.85 9.366 2.094
The results of the independent t-test (t (29) = .339, 95 % CI [-
4.97, 6.97], p = .737, r =
.055 representing a weak effect size) (Table 6) indicated that
the groups were
homogenous in terms of their language and content knowledge
as measured through the
pretest.
It should be noted that the assumption of homogeneity of
variances was met (Levene’s F
= .001, p = 1.00). That is why the first row of Table 6, i.e.
“Equal variances not
assumed” was reported.

No.1
Table 6
Independent samples t-test; Pretest by groups
Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper

Equal variances
assumed
.001 1.000 .339 38 .737 1.000 2.954 -4.979 6.979
Equal variances
not assumed
.339 37.999 .737 1.000 2.954 -4.979 6.979
Figure 1
Means on pretest by groups
Comparing Groups’ Means on Posttest
CLIL groups’ means on the
posttest. Based on the results displayed in Table 7, the CLIL
group (M = 94, SD = 3.97)
had a higher mean than the non-CLIL group (M = 80.35, SD =
7.37) on the posttest.
Table7
Descriptive statistics; posttest by groups
Group n M SD Std. Error Mean
CLIL
CLIL 20 94.00 3.974 .889
Non-CLIL 20 80.35 7.372 1.648

The results of the independent t-test (t (29) = 7.28, 95 % CI
[9.82, 17.47], p = .000, r =
.804 representing a large effect size) (Table 7) indicated that
the CLIL significantly
outperformed the non-CLIL group on the posttest. Thus the
null-hypothesis was
rejected. The CLIL method significantly enhanced the Aviation
English learning of
Iranian pilots through the application of content and language
integrated learning.
It should be noted that the assumption of homogeneity of
variances was not met
(Levene’s F = 5.33, p = .026). That is why the second row of
Table 8, i.e. “Equal
variances not assumed” was reported.
No.1
Table 8
Independent samples t-test; posttest
Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df

Sig. (2-
tailed)
M
Std. Error
Difference
95% Confidence Interval
of the Difference
Lower Upper
Equal variances
assumed
5.331 .026 7.289 38 .000 13.650 1.873 9.859 17.441
Equal variances
not assumed
7.289 29.181 .000 13.650 1.873 9.821 17.479
Figure 2
Means on posttest by groups
Comparing Groups’ Attitude towards Language Learning
CLIL groups’ attitude
towards language learning. Based on the results displayed in
Table 9 it can be claimed

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