1. Motivation

2. Contents
 Definition of Motivation
 Early Views of Motivation
 The Traditional Model
 The Human Relations Model
 The Human Resource Model
 Contemporary Theories of Motivation
 Content Theories of Motivation
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 ERG Theory
 McClelland’s Theory of Needs
 The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
 Critiques of the Content Theories
 Process Theories of Motivation
 The Expectancy Approach
 The Equity Approach
 Goal-Setting Theory
 Critique of the Process Theories
 Reinforcement Theory
 Behavior Modification
 Critique of Reinforcement Theory

3. Definition of Motivation
 Motivation is the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction,
and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal.
- Stephen P. Robbins
 Motivation is the factors that cause, channel, and sustain an individual’s behavior.
- Stoner & Freeman

4. Early Views of Motivation
 The early theories of motivation were alike in that they tries to construct a
single model of motivation that would apply to every worker in every
situation.
 Three models are presented in early views of motivation
 The traditional model
 The human relations model
 The human resources model

5. The Traditional Model
 This model is associated with Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management.
 Managers determined the most effective way to perform repetitive tasks and
then motivated workers with a system of wage incentives. That is “the more
workers produced, the more they earned”.
 The underlying assumption was that managers understood the work better
than workers, who were essentially lazy and could be motivated only by
money.
 However, managers tended to reduce the size of the wage incentive and
layoffs became common when workers were needed for specific tasks. At that
point, the model began to fail.

6. The Human Relations Model
 Elton Mayo and other human relations researchers found that the boredom
and repetitiveness of many tasks actually reduced motivation, while social
contact helped create and sustain motivation.
 Managers could motivate employees by acknowledging their social needs and
by making them feel useful and important.
 This model urged managers to give employees some freedom to make job
related decisions as well as more information about managers’ intentions
and organizational goals.

7. The Human Resources Model
 Douglas McGregor and other theorists criticized the human relations model as
simply a more sophisticated approach to the manipulation of employees.
 The traditional model and the human relations model oversimplified
motivation by focusing on just one factor, such as money and social
relations.
 McGregor identified two different sets of assumptions that managers have
about their subordinates.
 The traditional view, known as Theory X. That holds that work is distasteful
to employees who must be motivated by force, money, or praise.
 Theory Y is more optimistic. It assumes that work is as natural as play or rest,
people want to work and under the right circumstances, derives a great deal
of satisfaction from work.

8. Contemporary Views of Motivation
 Contemporary views of motivation focus on a number of factors that may
affect motivation.
 Content theories emphasize the “what” of motivation. That is the content of
individual goals and aspirations.
 Process theories emphasize the “how” of motivation. That is thought
processes that go into motivation.
 Reinforcement theories focus on the ways in which behavior is learned.

9. Content theories of Motivation
 Content theories of motivation focus on the inner needs that motivate
behavior. In an effort to reduce or satisfy their needs, people will act in
certain ways.
Need
(Deprivation)
Drive
(Tension or drives
to fulfill a need)
Actions
(Goal-directed
behavior)
Satisfaction
(Reduction of the
drive and
satisfaction of the
original need)

10. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Maslow viewed human motivation as a hierarchy of five needs, ranging from the
most basic physiological needs to the highest needs for self-actualization.
Self-
actualizati
on needs
Esteem needs
Belongingness needs
Safety and security needs
Physiological needs

11. ERG Theory
 Clayton Alderfer agreed with Maslow and he broke needs down into just three categories,
such as Existence needs, Relatedness needs, and Growth needs.
 Alderfer stressed that when higher needs are frustrated, lower needs will return, even
though they were already satisfied.
Self-
actualizati
on needs
Esteem needs
Belongingness needs
Safety and security needs
Physiological needs
Existence needs
Relatedness needs
Growth needs
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Alderfer’s ERG theory

12. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
 It was developed by David McClelland and his associates. The theory focuses on
three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation.
• The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to
a set of standards, to strive to succeed
Need for achievement
• The need to make others behave in away
that they would not have behaved
otherwise
Need for power
• The desire for friendly and close
interpersonal relationships
Need for affiliation

13. The Two Factor Theory of Motivation
 Herzberg’s theory that work dissatisfaction and satisfaction arise from two
different sets of factors.
Job dissatisfaction Job satisfaction
Influenced by
hygiene factors
Working conditions
Co-worker relations
Policies and rules
Supervisor quality
Salary
Influenced by
motivator factors
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Work itself
Advancement
Personal growth

14. Critiques of the Content Theories
 These approach seems simple but in practice, motivation is far more complicated.
 Many managers fail to understand that needs are varying among individuals and
change over time.
 The ways in which needs are translated into behavior also vary widely.
 Even if needs were consistent, behavior is not.
 The way people react to need fulfillment or lack of fulfillment varies.

15. Process Theories of Motivation
 Process theories of motivation that study the thought processes by which people
decide how to act.
 Process theories consider needs as just one element in the process by which
individuals decide how to behave.
 Other elements are the individual’s abilities, his or her role perception, or
understanding of what behaviors are needed to achieve high performance, and his
or her expectations concerning the results of certain behaviors.

16. The Expectancy Approach
 A model of motivation specifying that the effort to achieve high performance is a
function of the perceived likelihood that high performance can be achieved, and
will be rewarded if achieved, and that the reward will be worth the effort
expended.
Effort Performance Rewards

17. The Equity Approach
 A model of motivation specifying that the effort to achieve high performance is a
function of the perceived likelihood that high performance can be achieved, and
will be rewarded if achieved, and that the reward will be worth the effort
expended.
Effort Performance Rewards

18. Goal-Setting Theory
 In 1960’s, Edwin Locke put forward the Goal-setting theory of motivation. This
theory states that goal setting is essentially linked to task performance. It states
that specific and challenging goals along with appropriate feedback contribute to
higher and better task performance.
 According to psychologist Edwin Locke, the natural human inclination to set and
strive for goals is useful only if the individual both understands and accepts a
particular goal.
 When goals are specific and challenging, they function more effectively as
motivating factors in both individual and group performance.
 Employees need accurate feedback on their performance to help them to adjust
their work methods.

19. Critiques of the Process Theories
 The major drawback is that they are only really useful after managers have gotten
to know their subordinates and their individual personalities, and this takes some
time and effort.
 Employees who have experienced inequity in the past or who have unfulfilled
security needs may be slow to trust a manager and reveal what rewards have the
most valence for them.

20. Reinforcement Theory
 An approach to motivation based on the “law of effect”. The idea that behavior
with positive consequences tends to be repeated, while behavior with negative
consequences tends not to be repeated.
Stimulus Response Consequences
Future
Response

21. Behavior modification
 Behavior modification uses reinforcement theory to change human behavior.
 A manager who wishes to change employee behavior must change the
consequences of that behavior.
 There are four methods of behavior modification
 Positive reinforcement: The use of positive consequences to encourage desirable
behavior.
 Avoidance learning: Learning that occurs when individuals change behavior to avoid or
escape unpleasant circumstances.
 Extinction: The absences of reinforcement for undesirable behavior so that the behavior
eventfully stops recurring.
 Punishment: The application of negative consequences to stop or correct improper
behavior.

22. Critiques of Reinforcement Theory
 Reinforcement theory may seem too simple. In fact, if we substitute money or its
lack for positive or negative consequences, reinforcement theory may sound like
the traditional view.
 To many people, the idea of “behavior modification” is disturbing since it implies
that individual behaviors can be predicted form a person’s past experiences and
present environment, which seems to challenge deeply held beliefs that human
beings freely choose how to act.
 Behavior modification techniques can be abused to make people behave in
unethical ways.