2. SPJ Code of Ethics
“Always question sources’ motives before
promising anonymity. Clarify conditions
attached to any promise made in exchange
for information. Keep promises.”
3. Three flavors of anonymity
• Background
– Also called not for attribution
4. Three flavors of anonymity
• Background
• Deep background
– Better for reporting than for publication
5. Three flavors of anonymity
• Background
• Deep background
• Off the record
6. Three flavors of anonymity
•
•
•
•
Background
Deep background
Off the record
Always negotiate
7. Three flavors of anonymity
•
•
•
•
•
Background
Deep background
Off the record
Always negotiate
After-the-fact requests
8. Three flavors of anonymity
•
•
•
•
•
Background
Deep background
Off the record
Always negotiate
After-the-fact requests
– Importance of information versus future access
9. Three flavors of anonymity
•
•
•
•
•
Background
Deep background
Off the record
Always negotiate
After-the-fact requests
– Importance of information versus future access
– How savvy is the subject of your interview?
11. Three don’ts
• Don’t use anonymous sources to attack
someone’s reputation
• Don’t use anonymous sources if you could
get the same information on the record
12. Three don’ts
• Don’t use anonymous sources to attack
someone’s reputation
• Don’t use anonymous sources if you could
get the same information on the record
• Don’t use anonymous sources unless you
are prepared to go to jail
14. Questions
• Are readers right to distrust journalism that
relies on anonymous sources?
• Should news organizations reduce or
eliminate use of anonymous sources?
15. Questions
• Are readers right to distrust journalism that
relies on anonymous sources?
• Should news organizations reduce or
eliminate use of anonymous sources?
• Is freedom of the press threatened by
recent court decisions that reporters may
not protect their sources?
17. Legal considerations
• Branzburg v. Hayes (1972) found no right to
protect sources
• First Amendment protects all of us, not just
journalists
18. Legal considerations
• Branzburg v. Hayes (1972) found no right to
protect sources
• First Amendment protects all of us, not just
journalists
• Three-part balancing test:
– Relevant
19. Legal considerations
• Branzburg v. Hayes (1972) found no right to
protect sources
• First Amendment protects all of us, not just
journalists
• Three-part balancing test:
– Relevant
– No alternative
20. Legal considerations
• Branzburg v. Hayes (1972) found no right to
protect sources
• First Amendment protects all of us, not just
journalists
• Three-part balancing test:
– Relevant
– No alternative
– Public interest
21. The tide has shifted
• Branzburg decision came during the heroic
age of journalism
22. The tide has shifted
• Branzburg decision came during the heroic
age of journalism
• Public came to distrust the media, and that
attitude affected the courts
23. The tide has shifted
• Branzburg decision came during the heroic
age of journalism
• Public came to distrust the media, and that
attitude affected the courts
• An absolute shield for journalists would
probably be unconstitutional
30. Overriding themes
• First Amendment protects all of us, not just
professional journalists
• Protections are strongest for publishing or
broadcasting
31. Overriding themes
• First Amendment protects all of us, not just
professional journalists
• Protections are strongest for publishing or
broadcasting
• Protections weakest for news gathering
– Open-meeting and public-record laws
– Obligation to testify
– Prohibition on intrusion