This paper aims at considering the development and strengthening of networks in (T)VET systems as a means of improving employability and mobility of workers, through a system where occupational competences, required by the Labour Market, described in terms of Learning Outcomes that can be assessed and validated in all different contexts (formal, non formal and informal) developed following quality standards, will be abreast with changes and innovations of the global context requirements, in order to respond to those shortcomings that limit the potential growth of countries with serious implications for the participation in global markets, job growth, economical and social stability.

1. In-depth
Experience Networking in the TVET System to
Improve Occupational Competencies
Author This paper aims at considering the development and strengthening of networks in (T)
VET systems as a means of improving employability and mobility of workers, through
Manuela Bonacci
a system where occupational competences, required by the Labour Market, described
Institute for the
Development of Vocational in terms of Learning Outcomes that can be assessed and validated in all different con-
Training of Workers – ISFOL, texts (formal, non formal and informal) developed following quality standards, will be
Italy abreast with changes and innovations of the global context requirements, in order to
m.bonacci@isfol.it respond to those shortcomings that limit the potential growth of countries with serious
implications for the participation in global markets, job growth, economical and social
stability.
Tags
vocational education and
training, networking, 1. Introduction
learning outcomes,
validation, quality In order to photograph the reality of training systems and read the dynamics and potential
evolutions, it is essential to enable an activity of “emerging” and exploitation of various ac-
tions and experiences realised in different contexts, to provide the cognitive devices to de-
velop more effective policies and incisiveness on a social and territorial level.
To be prepared for the challenges of a knowledge-based society, some emerging require-
ments, regarding the implementation of technical mechanism within Vocational Education
and Training (VET) and Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) systems, are:
• to base training provision and qualifications descriptions on learning outcomes (shift
from input to output)
• to steer training provision on occupational competences, required by the Labour Market,
towards employability
• to consolidate assessment and validation processes of competences acquired in all
different contexts (formal, non-formal, informal)
• to develop quality and accreditation within (Technical) Vocational Education and Training
Systems
• to strengthen technical networks to extend participation of stakeholders (representatives
of Education, Technical and Vocational Training systems, universities, training centres,
social partners, trade unions representatives and enterprises) in the learning process.
These demanding features may possibly turn into shortcomings that could limit the potential
growth of countries with serious implications for the participation in global markets, job
growth, economical and social stability if they will not be implemented.
In fact the last decade has witnessed an increasing focus, both in research and in the policy
debate on VET and TVET, as an instrument for enhancing productivity, competitiveness, and
economic growth in a knowledge-based society.
Although the increasing interest in these issues, challenges have only, to a limited extent,
been followed by deeper changes in existing practices concerning training and other forms
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of competence development in workplaces, but not pursued by 2. Sharing common concepts: Learning
structural forms of significant modifications. Outcomes (LO)
This paper proposes a conceptual framework that might be used In order to promote a common understanding and thus com-
as a point of departure for theoretical and empirical analyses of mon modelling, it is important to analyse some key concepts,
the role of (T)VET systems in order to provide the opportunity of such as qualification, learning outcomes, competence and skills,
identifying the factors which contribute to the social, economic, to make them operative and, from a technical point of view,
political and cultural change. recognize and identify uncertainties and difficulties in their un-
derstanding and implementation in the national contexts of the
In this framework several practices are encouraged such as: the
Education, VET and TVET systems.
sharing of key concepts (i.e. learning outcomes, qualification,
employability, occupational competences) in order to imple- Learning Outcomes have become prominent and central ele-
ment a common modelling; the support of core processes such ments for defining and guiding education, training and lifelong
as assessment, validation and recognition in order to guarantee learning strategies.
mobility; the development of a quality assurance approach to
implement high training standards; the building of network- In fact, conceptual, political and practical developments (not
oriented structures in order to effectively exploit the potential only in Europe) are increasingly referring to Learning Outcomes
of sharing knowledge and facilitate assessment and validation (LO) when setting overall objectives for their education and
processes. training systems and when defining and describing qualifica-
tions.
The flexibility of this framework aims at improving employabil-
ity and mobility of workers through a system where occupation- Learning Outcomes are defined in terms of the knowledge, skills
al competences, required by the Labour market, described in and competences of what is achieved and assessed in a learning
terms of Learning outcomes that can be assessed and validated context (formal, non formal and informal).
in all different contexts (formal, non formal and informal) devel- The idea has features in common with the move from instruc-
oped following quality standards, will be abreast with changes tional objectives to what the learner will achieve at the end of a
and innovations of the global context requirements. learning pathway. This involves a shift from the more traditional
The structure of this frame is a technical learning network made approach where instruction is determined primarily in terms of
up of stakeholders that have the characteristics of being able what content is taught (mainly in formal contexts) to a more in-
to guarantee the link with the Labour market requirements. All novative approach focused on the results of a learning situation
the participants in the network should work together from the (in all contexts).
beginning (from the identification of needs) to the end of the In fact, the adoption of the Learning Outcomes concept reflects
process (the issuing a qualification). an important and innovative approach of describing, assessing
A best practice of Experiencing Networking in the (T)VET System and validating learning. The attention is no longer on learning
to improve occupational competencies in Italy are the so called inputs typical of the teaching process (contents, length of the
IFTS (Istruzione e Formazione Tecnica Superiore) – Higher Tech- learning experience, type of institution), but on learning out-
nical Education and Training pathways. comes, typical of learning processes.
In this system Technical Education Networks are created in or- The concept of the Learning Outcomes and outcome-based
der to integrate Higher Education and Training Systems with the education is high on today’s Education and Training Systems
objective of developing learning pathways (respond-
ing to quality principles) based on minimal standards
of competences and relative processes of recognition
and validation of working experiences and transfer of
credit (or units).
Figure 1: Shift from learning input to outcome
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3. In-depth
Figure 2: The shift to all contexts validation
programming, actually because there is a great direct impact on and political contexts which can make it more challenging to
how learning is assessed. make the transition.
In fact, the implementation of Learning Outcomes concept is As a result, the individual dimension becomes the core aspect
acquiring more and more value in contributing to modernising to pursue in the learning process.
both Education and VET systems, mainly because it is becoming
Besides the emphasis on the results of learning rather than in-
a bond between formal, non-formal and informal learning vali-
put will involve a description of qualifications and their associ-
dation and recognition.
ated levels using Learning Outcomes descriptors. In this contest
Some of the benefits of using the Learning Outcomes approach LO are prominent in developing National Qualification Frame-
are as follows: works (NQF).
• Learning Outcomes, if set out appropriately, are easy to Within the most recent European documents on EQF1 (The Eu-
compare and transfer. They can be used easily in curriculum
ropean Qualification Framework) and ECVET2 (The European
planning, in teaching and learning and in assessment and
validation processes. Credit system for Vocational Education and Training), the impor-
• Learning outcomes are statements usually designed round tance given to Learning Outcomes and their component parts of
a framework (of standards, qualifications, etc…). knowledge, skills and competences (KSC), requires a completely
• The outcomes recognize the authentic interaction and new consideration.
integration in practice of knowledge, skills and competences.
The implementation of the concept of LO in Europe has had a
• Learning outcomes represent what is achieved and assessed
great incentive within the process of creating a European Quali-
at the end of a learning process and not only the aspirations
(objectives) or what is intended to be achieved. fication Framework (EQF) in which a qualification is defined as
a: «formal outcome of an assessment and validation process
The fact that the focus has shifted to learning across all contexts
which is obtained when a competent body determines that an
it can provide the right opportunities, and motivations to in-
individual has achieved learning outcomes to given standards».
crease awareness of individual in their own learning pathways.
The conceptual framework outlined in this definition is struc-
Figure 2 illustrates the shift from a traditional approach related
tured and complex and can be represented in Figure 3.
to learning achieved mainly in formal contexts to the validation
of learning outcomes achieved in all different contexts.
1 The Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council
of the 23 April 2008 on the establishment of the European Qualifications
This shift is not as direct or straightforward as expected when
Framework for lifelong learning.
implemented into national Education and (T)VET systems. This
2 The Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council
is often either the result of variations in definitions and under-
of the 18 June 2009 on the establishment of a European Credit System for
standing of concepts as well as practice embedded in traditional Vocational Education and Training (ECVET).
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This innovative feature of qualification induces individuals to
be more aware of their learning activities and then to request
and obtain validation and recognition of Learning Outcomes ac-
quired in non-formal and informal contexts and thus promoting
lifelong learning and facilitating the mobility of people within
the labour market in a global context.
The focal point of this process is naturally on Learning Out-
comes, defined (in the same EU Recommendation) as “state-
ments of what a learner knows, understands and is able to do on
completion of a learning process. Results are defined in terms of
knowledge, skills and competences.”
In this definition Learning Outcomes refer to proven, observed
and documented outcomes, not only expected ones, and are
the object of assessment and validation processes.
A short analysis of some key concepts related to LO illustrates,
from a technical perspective, how these rise up uncertainties
Figure 3: Key concepts of the definition of Qualification given in the
EQF Recommendation and difficulties in their understanding and application across
different countries and contexts and therefore poses some
questions for the effective implementation of a common under-
Traditionally the term “qualification” has always been critic
standing and modelling.
among countries, as it means either something a qualified per-
son has in order to do a certain job, or something that he/she The EU Recommendation divides Learning Outcomes into three
has because he/she holds a certificate, but often it has more different categories: knowledge, skills and competences, and
than one meaning and it refers to different outputs. provides a description of them.
The definition provided by the Recommendation is clear enough From a conceptual point of view, there are some uncertainties
not to ingenerate confusion. According to the Recommenda- surrounding the use of the three components described in the
tion, “qualifications” are statements (formal outcomes) issued definition of Learning Outcomes: knowledge, skills and compe-
by public and private institutions, authorized by national or lo- tence.
cal authorities (competent body) to certify that an individual
has achieved specific “results”
(learning outcomes) related to
specific standards (given stand-
ards) and on the basis of a spe-
cific assessment system (assess-
ment and validation process).
It is important to note that, ac-
cording to this definition, the
qualification is independent
from learning pathways, and can
be reached through different
training pathways (school, uni-
versity, VET and TVET systems,
non-formal and informal con-
texts). Figure 4: Learning Outcomes definition given in the EQF Recommendation
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Among these three definitions, ‘competence’ seems to be a Labour market in a global context increasingly requires high
quite complex concept, not only because it is traditionally a cru- technical/occupational competences, but in the description of
cial concept in many systems and countries, but also because the components of labour, all the aspects related to the nature
in the definition given in the EU Recommendation it includes of the individual (competences which have a transversal nature)
the previous two categories quoted (knowledge and skills): usually are not taken into account.
«competence means the proven ability to use knowledge, skills
These latter are considered fundamental for each individual in
and personal, social and/or methodological abilities, in work or
a knowledge-based society and provide added value for the la-
study situations and in professional and personal development».
bour market, employment, social cohesion and active citizen-
But the emphasis in this definition lies on the weight given to ship by offering flexibility and adaptability, satisfaction and mo-
the personal and professional sphere, as in all the present Euro- tivation. This group of competences has been differently named,
pean process of integration. but they all carry common characteristics such as: adaptability,
portability and transferability in the labour market.
The fact that the concept of competence has different mean-
ings and many definitions, related to traditional approaches and It is therefore necessary to include in training provisions the
systems creates many problems in implementing LO into those development of both aspects: the labour market and the indi-
systems that have a long competence-based tradition. vidual components.
In this context the interpretation, the understanding and imple-
mentation of the LO categories can differ from one country to 3. Employability and occupational
the other. competences as a must
There are challenges that labour markets have to face in the
Besides, the central position given to Learning Outcomes in the
future and countries have to increase their efforts if they want
EQF stresses the importance of the adoption of common con-
to meet these challenges and improve employability.
cepts to compare learning on the basis of content and profile
and not on methods and paths. This will provide an opportunity The term “employability” relates to portable competencies and
to consider the validation of learning achieved in non-formal qualifications that enhance an individual’s capacity to make use
and informal contexts at the same level as learning achieved in of the education and training opportunities available in order to
a more formal route. secure and retain decent work, to progress within the enterprise
and between jobs, and to cope with changing technology and
In fact, apart from different traditions and uses, LOs, from the
labour market conditions.3
conceptual point of view, are accepted and they are going to be
implemented in many countries, especially in (T)VET systems. Globalisation, economic integration technological progress and
the sectorial changes taking place, will have significant implica-
It is important to note that there is not a single or better
tions for the level of employability of working people and their
approach to these key concepts, but many understand-
relative occupational competences needed in the future. These
ings that can take into account all the differences and the
will be reinforced by changes in the way work is organised and
experiences among countries.
jobs are performed (within sectors).
This flexible approach towards LO allows an easier dialogue with
Labour markets play a crucial role in realising the potential goals
the labour market in which labour is described in terms of com-
of globalisation. To realise such goals, it is essential to transfer
petences required by the labour market without forgetting the
from declining sectors or occupations to expanding ones.
complete combination of resources (knowledge, skills/compe-
tence and other personal resources) in the referring sector. Economies are experiencing continuing shift in employment
away from primary sector (especially agriculture) and tradition-
In this context it is important to develop a system able to iden-
al manufacturing industries. The main growth areas are project-
tify, monitor and support these particular elements of compe-
tences required by the labour market.
3 ILO Recommendation No. 195 concerning human resources development,
2004
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6. In-depth
ed to be in services (tertiary sector) and the digital knowledge In recent years European projects and pilot actions (mainly
economy in general. within the Leonardo da Vinci Programmes) have promoted
transnational exchanges and intense national initiatives on this
Globalisation requires mobility to ensure that workers will not
issue. Through all these actions and despite all the differences
be trapped in jobs which have no future. Policies are needed
that reflect the specific characteristics of different cultural, edu-
to ensure sufficient job opportunities as well as employability.
cation and training systems, methods of defining and describing
Unqualified workers are particularly disadvantaged by globali-
labour and labour requirements have been defined with similar
sation. Free trade, combined with skill-biased technological
contents and modes of representation, in different countries.
progress, tends to reduce the demand for unqualified labour.
These similarities have facilitated the comparison, translation
Improving competences and qualification is strongly needed.
and / or dialogue among systems and countries, even in those
Workers with competences required by the labour markets are
countries where occupational standards4 are not integrated into
more mobile across occupations, industries and regions than
a national system.
their counterparts. They face a lower risk of layoff and, when
they lose their job, they have a relative good chance of obtain- Starting from the representation of the labour market, it is pos-
ing new employment. sible to loose some elements in general related to the personal
dimension of individuals. In fact, the effort to standardize se-
This would signify that the growth in demand for many occupa-
lected components of labour and describe “occupational stand-
tions where high-level competences are required (such as man-
ards” usually involve a lost, not all the aspects could be repre-
agement, professional and technical jobs), but also for some
sented.
jobs where lower-level competences are needed, will continue.
In contrast, jobs involving competences traditionally linked to But it is a monitored lost that can be recovered in the descrip-
agricultural, craft and clerical sectors will decline in number. tion of standards of occupational competences which describe
There will, probably, be significant expansion in the numbers of (at national, regional ... level) measurable outcomes (a group of
jobs for many service workers, also for some elementary occu- competences) an individual is expected to complete in a given
pations requiring little or no formal qualification. occupation.
Considering the situation, even those occupations where em- The classification of competences required is of course filled
ployment levels are projected to fall will remain sources of em- with a variety of differentiations and adaptations to the distinc-
ployment and crucial elements of the economy for many years tiveness of different systems, but common and fundamental
to come. But of course the nature and requirements of these categories can be traced. Such components can be distinguished
jobs will not remain unchanged and it is important to under- into two main categories: the ones more related to the labour
stand the way in which they are evolving. market requirements (technical work and its area of compe-
tency) and components associated to the individual, considered
These rapid changes in the structure of employment and in the
key competences for employability.
organisation of work are drastically altering the form and the
content of jobs. In this sense it is possible to refer to this range of competenc-
es as “Occupational Competences” as they help the worker to
In order to meet the demand for qualified labour expressed by
cope with the new demands of the labour market and facilitate
sectors with high technology and organizational transformation
their employability.
and to maintain high employability, it is necessary to assume
the concept of competence considered as both: the connect-
ing element with the labour market and the heritage of the in-
dividual. This should be the basic articulation of the design of
Learning Outcomes in learning/training pathways.
In a global perspective this choice fully correspond to the guide- 4 “occupational standards” refers to statements of the activities and tasks
related to a specific job and to its practice, while “competence standard” refers
lines and principles expressed in the innovations and changes
to the knowledge, skills and/or competences linked to the practice of a job.
involving learning and training systems. Definitions of CEDEFOP Terminology of European education and training policy
(2008)
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come to light because they contribute
to performance in a large group of oc-
cupations, and are portable from one
to another. These competences are
defined Key Competences6.
There have been many works real-
ized on key competences within OECD
studies7 and at European level within
lifelong learning8 development and
also a Recommendation on key com-
petences9.
Figure 5: Occupational Competences
There is no one universal definition of
this notion, but there has been many
The name that better define this group of competencies is conceptual contributions. It is com-
“competencies for employability5”, since they are necessary for mon to find references to this concept through the utilisation of
obtaining employment, remaining in it, and for finding new em- attributes such as “generic’, “portable”, “key”, “transversal”, or
ployment. “essential” . They all carry the idea that these competencies lie
at the core of the individual’s capacities, and they enable him to
Regarding technical competences related to labour market
successfully integrate into labour and social life, which is benefi-
technical needs, it is very important to develop and maintain
cial not only for the individual but also for society as a whole.
strong anchorage to the labour contest as they apply directly to
In addition, this set of competencies includes the capacity to
job roles or occupations, they cover the key activities undertak-
continually update knowledge and skills in order to keep abreast
en within that particular occupation under all the circumstances
of constant and rapid changes. They are closely linked to char-
the job holder is likely to encounter.
acteristics of a personal and social kind, and they have to do, for
In particular, technical competences, from the more general to example, with skills in communication, the capacity to work in
the specific ones, are strictly linked with changes and innovation a team, and understanding systems and methodologies of work
of global market needs and can be divided into two types: the that involve information and communication technologies (ITC)
more stable and the more flexible ones. or the competencies concerned in knowing a second language.
It is important to safeguard both of them and monitor the evo- It is important to underline that these competencies make it
lution of those very flexible. Only a strict link with enterprises easier for a worker to adapt to changes in the technologies used
can guarantee this constant link with the labour market require- and in the organization of work, or to achieve new responsibili-
ments. It is important to monitor the evolution of both of them, ties which require the acquisition of specific competences.
as technical competences remain a key element of defining
The OECD Studies on key competencies started in 1997 when
qualifications in order to face rapid changes and update their
member countries launched the Programme for International
positions in a global context.
Student Assessment (PISA), with the aim of monitoring the ex-
An important role in this strict link with the labour market re-
6 The literature about this subject employs different names and conceptual
quirements is played by a series of stakeholders representative
approximations.
of this dimension, i.e. social partners, trade unions, enterprises
7 D.S. Rychen and L.H. Salganik, Defining and selecting key competencies
and enterprises’ representatives, centres for employability.
(2001) eds.
Regarding the development of the dimension related to the 8 The Commission Communication and the Council Resolution of 27 June
individual, in recent years a collection of “competencies” have 2002 on lifelong learning
9 Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council, of 18
5 Mertens, Leonard, Labour competence: emergence, analytical frameworks December 2006, on key competences for lifelong learning [Official Journal L
and institutional models, Montevideo, Cinterfor/ILO, 1999 394 of 30.12.2006].
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8. In-depth
tent to which students near the end of compulsory schooling and that a specific attention is paid to disadvantaged learners.
have acquired the knowledge and skills essential for full partici- In order to enable all adults to learn, maintain and update their
pation in society. key competences, the Recommendation calls for comprehen-
sive infrastructures and coherent strategies, developed in col-
PISA assessments began with comparing students’ knowledge
laboration with social partners and other stakeholders.
and skills in the areas of reading, mathematics, science and
problem solving. The OECD’s Definition and Selection of Compe- The Key Competences Framework, prepared by experts from
tencies (DeSeCo) Project, provides a framework that can guide 31 countries and European level stakeholders, will help policy
the longer-term extension of assessments into new competency makers, education and training providers, employers and learn-
domains. ers themselves in reforming education and training systems to
respond to these challenges.
The DeSeCo Project’s conceptual framework for key competen-
cies classifies such competencies in three broad categories: The eight Key competences for lifelong learning in Europe are:
1 – Using tools interactively 1) communication in the mother tongue;
1.1: The ability to use language, symbols and text interac- 2) communication in foreign languages;
tively 3) competences in maths, science and technology;
1.2: The ability to use knowledge and information interac- 4) digital competence;
tively
5) learning to learn;
1.3: The ability to use technology interactively
6) interpersonal, intercultural and social competences, and
2 – Interacting in Heterogeneous Groups civic competence;
2.1: The ability to relate well to others 7) entrepreneurship;
2.2: The ability to cooperate 8) cultural expression.
2.3: The ability to manage and resolve conflicts In synthesis there are many taxonomies and differences of this
competency area and this create some problems in sharing
3 – Acting Autonomously
common modelling of training provision.
3.1: The ability to act within the big picture
3.2: The ability to form and conduct life plans and personal But whatever these competencies are or are classified, it is be-
projects coming increasingly clear that there are certain competencies
which are related to the development individuals and easily
3.3: The ability to assert rights, interests, limits and needs
adapt to the changing demands of the labour market (“adapt-
In this context the European Commission has adopted in 2006 ability”). Other common characteristics of these competences
a Recommendation on key competences for lifelong learning are their strong “portability” (they easily contextualise their
reference tool for the Member States to ensure that these key content) and “transferability” (they can easily be transferred
competences are fully integrated into their strategies and infra- from one context/system to another).
structures, particularly in the context of lifelong learning.
In most cases, it is noted that these competencies are acquired
The Recommendation is one of the concrete outcomes of the in work contexts (non formal) or in personal/social situations
Education and Training 2010 work programme and aims at en- (informal).
couraging and facilitating national reforms by providing, for the
In this conception it is important to steer (within VET and TVET
first time at European level, a reference tool on key competenc-
systems) Learning Outcomes (in terms of knowledge, skills and
es that all citizens should have for a successful life in a knowl-
competences) in relation to the occupational competences for
edge society.
lifelong learning and to translate the identified learning and
The Recommendation calls for Member States to ensure that all training outputs into practical training and learning pathways.
young people are given the possibility to develop the package of At the same time the development of processes of validation
8 key competences by the end of initial education and training and recognition of non formal and informal learning play a big
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role in developing these competencies, thus facilitate mobility Currently, at EU level, the lifelong learning approach studies if
and employability of people. the relationship between various types of learning would help
in the implementation of lifelong learning policies. The issue is
4. Improve mobility through Assessment that as long as learning, skills and competences acquired out-
side formal education and training remain invisible and poorly
and Validation processes transparency
valued, the ambition of lifelong learning cannot be achieved.
The importance of the processes of assessment and validation
of Learning Outcomes has assumed particular importance when Validation of non-formal and informal learning aims at making
learning policies shifted their focus from the systems to the in- visible knowledge and experience, held by an individual, with-
dividual. out considering the context where the learning originally took
place.
In fact, the concept of validation is closely related to both: the
concepts of lifelong learning (in all aspects of life) and the tri- Gradually, validation of non-formal and informal learning is be-
partite division of learning in formal and non formal and infor- coming a key aspect of lifelong learning policies. Lifelong learn-
mal. Validation will be specifically related to the processes of ing, it is asserted, requires that Learning Outcomes from differ-
recognition of the value of non-formal and informal learning, ent settings and contexts can be linked together.
while the certification process i.e. the process of issuing certifi-
In Europe the debate on validation has grown up with the defi-
cates or diplomas, which formally recognise the achievements
nition elaborated in 2002 by the Commission of the concept of
of an individual, following an assessment procedure (definition
lifelong learning10, defined as all learning activity undertaken
given in the Communication of the European Commission 2001)
throughout life, with the aim of improving knowledge, skills
remains strictly linked to formal learning.
In past years, learn-
ing processes corre-
sponded to explicitly
promoted pathways in
education and training
“official” situations. But
the new prospective has
changed the focus from
training activities to in-
dividual activities that
will be realized, during
the entire life, in other
contexts less formalized
and institutionalized, Figure 6: Validation and learning contexts
but equally important
and crucial for the growth and qualification of citizens. The con- and competences within a personal, civic, social and/or employ-
cept of lifelong learning is traditionally and originally identified ment-related perspective.
in continuous educational opportunities implemented within
The Communication of the European Commission (2001) on
Education, (T)VET systems and aimed at training adults (em-
Lifelong Learning defines validation11 as the process of identify-
ployed or unemployed) and it is now acquiring a broader and
ing, assessing and recognising a wider range of skills and com-
complex connotation with the evolution of this issue.
petences which people develop through their lives and in differ-
In fact, lifelong learning does not occur only in the Education,
10 Council Resolution of 27 June 2002 on lifelong learning
VET and TVET systems or in its identifiable networks, but it ex-
11 Colardyn Danielle, Bjornavold Jens, Validation of Formal, Non-Formal and
tends its influence to other systems which become sources and informal Learning: policy and practices in EU Member States, European Journal
environments of learning. of Education, Vol. 39, No.1, 2004
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10. In-depth
ent contexts, e.g. through education, work and leisure activities. The practical implementation of policies on validation of non-
In lifelong and life-wide learning, ‘validation’ is a crucial element formal and informal learning involves very different competent
to ensure the visibility and to indicate the appropriate value of bodies; the relevant range of actors in fact is broader than in
the learning that took place anywhere and at any time in the life the certification process which is more standardized. Stakehold-
of the individual. ers concerned are numerous and diverse: ministries and pub-
lic agencies, education and training providers, social partners,
The Cedefop glossary (2008)12, gives the following definition of
Trade Unions, councils and experts.
formal, non-formal and informal learning:
Usually involved in formal education and training, social part-
Formal learning consists of learning that occurs in an organised
ners are also involved in the validation process of non-formal
and structured environment (e.g. in an education or training in-
and informal learning.
stitution or on the job), and is explicitly designed as learning
(in terms of objectives, time or resources). Formal learning is Today the issue of validation is a stable component of the Eu-
intentional from the learner’s point of view. It typically leads to ropean strategy and above all is an integral part of the “EQF
validation and certification. Recommendation”13. This document reaffirms the validity of the
results of this long process that has been sustained in 2004 with
Non-formal learning consists of learning embedded in planned
the paper on “Common European Principles for the identifica-
activities that are not explicitly designated as learning, (in terms
tion and validation of non-formal and informal learning”14. This
of learning objectives, learning time or learning support). Non-
document also provides some key criteria that Member States
formal learning is intentional from the learner’s point of view.
are invited to consider on a voluntary basis to enable the pro-
Non-formal learning outcomes may be validated and lead to cesses of recognition and validation, thereby facilitating the
certification. Non-formal learning is sometimes described as transferability of learning and mobility of workers.
semi-structured learning
Besides, it is important to note that the validation process of
Informal learning is defined as learning resulting from daily non-formal and informal learning suits more with the existing
activities related to work, family, or leisure. It is not organized descriptions of learning (output-oriented) used for T(VET) sys-
or structured in terms of objectives, time or learning support. tems than those used for general and higher education (input-
Informal learning may is in most cases, unintentional from the oriented), so more related to the description of labour in de-
learner’s perspective. fined occupational standards (written as competences).
Informal learning outcomes do not usually lead to certification, In fact, a successful introduction of validation across Europe very
but may be validated and certified in the framework of recogni- much depends on how standards develop and to which extent
tion of prior learning schemes. Informal learning is also referred they are defined and described through learning outcomes and
to as experiential or incidental/random learning competences (Cedefop 2007).
Note that the definitions of Formal, Non Formal and Informal It is on the basis of common principles, shared languages and
learning insist on the intention to learn and the structure in transparent and legible frameworks that EU intends to promote
which learning takes place. The intention to learn explains the and facilitate the mobility of individuals who may see recog-
centrality of the learner in the learning process and the struc- nized in different contexts/systems/countries:
ture refers to the context in which learning takes place. • their qualifications (even partially);
A further feature to be considered in the validation process is
the participation and involvement of different bodies in the pro-
13 A qualification is the formal outcome of an assessment and validation
cess (competent bodies and stakeholders).
process obtained when a competent body determines that an individual has
achieved learning outcomes to given standards
14 The Conclusions of the Council and of the representatives of the
12 CEDEFOP (European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training) Governments of the Member States meeting within the Council on Common
Terminology of European education and training policy - Luxemburg – Official European Principles for the identification and validation of non-formal and
Publications of the European Communities, 2008 informal learning (May 2004)
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11. In-depth
• their learning and training pathways (more or less ships with low basic competences, the provision of quality and
formalized); appropriate learning opportunities in the (T)VET system become
• their mobility paths. an essential aspect of a knowledge-based economy.
In this sense learning and training environments become broad Traditionally the selectivity of general education has been seen
and sharable; working opportunities increase; employability as a sign of quality, while vocational paths are a synonymous
improves and there is less misunderstanding between different of low-quality second-choice prospective, often linked to aca-
systems and countries as they communicate with shared lan- demic failure.
guages of similar items which are readable, recognizable and
thus transferable to different frameworks and contexts. It is recognized that the interest in quality grew in the education
and training world firstly among providers of continuing educa-
Moreover, in the new European and global context, it is ex- tion and training (because the awareness was high) as well as,
tremely important to overcome some common beliefs typical of to a lesser extent, in vocationally oriented school, and second-
education and training systems. One of them regards validation. ly in general schools and higher education institutions even if
This latter is only regarded as a formal and necessary duty and stakeholders and competent bodies policy makers have always
not as a real added value for the individual who has completed been concerned with quality.
a learning path (or part of it). It is undervalued the importance
of learning outcomes in the validation process and it is under- This suggests the need for a significant shift of (T)VET systems,
estimate the weight of a “validated” qualification through an from its current emphasis on lower quality learning opportuni-
effective and controlled process for people mobility in different ties, to a contributing role for the development of competenc-
working and learning contexts, both European and global. es necessary for the employability of citizens in a continuous
changing labour market. This approach should be taken into
account when programming and designing learning provision.
5. Develop quality and accreditation
within Vocational Education and Besides, the development of Quality Assurance (QA) principles
Training Systems may help to ensure:
The current education and training systems have been shaped 0 Relevance to the policy and priorities on Educational and (T)
by many and different social, cultural pedagogical, economical VET systems;
end employment factors. The external demand (from govern- 0 Transparency in the learning and training processes;
ments, learners, labour market…) is increasing. This suggests 0 Accountability towards competent bodies, stakeholders and
that the education and training world has lost much of its participants in learning/training actions;
special status and it is more and more considered like an ordi- 0 Reproducibility of good practices.
nary economic sector. It also implies that schools, universities
A system based on quality principles and criteria is an instru-
and training providers are increasingly expected to perform at
ment of organization and continuous improvement of the sys-
high level, behave professionally and provide quality services
tem itself in terms of innovation and competitiveness.
throughout. In the current global competitive environment any
inefficiency and lack of flexibility will be penalized by lower eco- It can be argued that Quality Assurance principles applied to
nomic growth. learning and training activities can:
In this context the need to qualify training provision is spreading • facilitate the innovation of the system through its precise
in all areas, in schools and universities, enterprises and public orientation on quality standards which facilitate the delivery
of harmonized outputs, transferable and decontextualized;
administration. The purpose is to ensure that the education and
training activities can benefit from the best conditions possible • intervene in the educational process as the heart of the
difficulty and not just the final output, which means giving a
and are developed according to the most efficient and effective
new emphasis on mechanisms and methods of the system,
usage of educational, financial and technical resources. seen as a process where objectives and characteristics of
learning processes are defined and achieved;
Especially in countries where a large number of school-age chil-
• adopt a global and systemic vision of the variables, which
dren leave schools and enter the labour force and apprentice-
means in particular to operate at a global level in the
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12. In-depth
reference system, but also take into account correlations In this respect, one of the central aims of the European agenda
and coherence necessary in relation to other reference is to make European education and training systems a “world
systems; quality reference” by 2010. Pursuing this policy, quality assur-
• involve in the process of implementation and Quality ance is a key element to make European education more com-
Assurance all the stakeholders of the process itself
petitive and more attractive for European citizens and citizens
(competent bodies, policy makers, learners, teachers). Note
that quality is, by definition, a system of shared rules and as from other countries alike. Beyond that, quality assurance is
such it involves the participation of all actors. an instrument to establish synergies between vocational and
higher education and to link the Copenhagen and the Bologna
Quality in training and education is about minimum standards process.
and definitions related to the essence or type of activities. It
refers to what should be in certain activities and also relates to Regarding the higher education sector, substantial progress has
how they are prepared, delivered and evaluated. been made in developing quality assurance since 1999. The
communiqués of the ministerial summits in Berlin (2003) and
Moreover it is necessary to consider that adopting quality pro- Bergen (2005) were setting landmarks, such as the European
cedures implies operative and monitoring activities related to Standards and Guidelines and the European Register. The de-
all key variables of the process. This means essentially a theo- velopment of quality assurance in higher education has been
retical and procedural guide able to operate an in-depth review essentially based on the work of the different networks co-
of the system. All this to ensure the absence of non-conformity operating in this field (ENQA, EUA, EURASHE, and ESIB among
at all stages through the understanding, implementation and others), and these networks will also play a key role in further
support of the principles and objectives established. implementing the Bergen goals.
In this context, training bodies play a major role in the improve- European co-operation on quality assurance in vocational edu-
ment of (T)VET system. It is therefore necessary that they give cation and training through the Copenhagen Process was ini-
the maximum to guarantee their capacity to provide services tiated in 2002. A set of common principles and references for
with consistent level of high quality standard. quality assurance has been developed and agreed at the Eu-
ropean level, e.g. the Common Quality Assurance Framework.
Through the accreditation process, in which quality standards,
Its implementation seems broadly to be reflected as a national
based on objective parameters, are introduced for those in-
priority in many of the Member States. Currently, the quality
volved in the vocational and training system, competent bodies
process in vocational education and training has reached a new
(often funding bodies) are guaranteed for the quality of training
developmental stage: the European Network on Quality Assur-
provision.
ance in Vocational Education and Training (ENQA-VET) was es-
The accreditation of training centres, carried out by competent tablished by the Commission in June 2005 and was inaugurated
bodies (Regions in Italy), sets minimum criteria of premises at the Dublin Quality Conference in October 2005.
based on logistics and management features, economic status,
In the European Qualifications Framework Recommendation
availability of competences (in active management, administra-
“common quality assurance framework for the vocational edu-
tion, teaching, coordination, analysis and design, training needs
cation and training” (follow-up to the Copenhagen Declaration)
assessment, guidance), levels of effectiveness and efficiency in
and the “development of an agreed set of standards, proce-
previous activities, relations with the social system and local
dures and guidelines for quality assurance” (conjunction with
production.
the Bologna process) are considered top priorities for Europe.
The literature regarding practices where quality principles are
At this point most Member States are involved, in varying de-
implemented in educational and training activities is now ex-
grees in bilateral, multilateral, European and global co-operation
tensive. The constant that characterizes all these experiences
on QA and accreditation. These transnational initiatives have
is the awareness of the innovative potential that this approach
similar objectives: identifying comparable criteria and method-
can provide to learning processes in terms of the overall effec-
ologies and fostering the well-functioning of quality agencies in
tiveness of the system and in adapting to European or global
order to achieve more transparency and, ultimately, the mutual
standards.
recognition of QA systems and assessments.
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In the field of VET, Member States were called on in 2002, in Complex systems are usually characterized by structures that
addition to achieving the key objective of “supporting the devel- are interdependent and linked in a reticular line in which it is no
opment of compatible QA systems respecting diversity across more important the single element, but the whole organization.
Europe” (cf. Official Journal of the EU 2002), to implement QA
Specific structural features of complex networks also includes:
systems based primarily on “learning outcomes that will enable
community structure, reciprocity, power-law degree distribu-
qualifications and competencies achieved in vocational educa-
tions and high clustering. The effectiveness and efficiency of dif-
tion and training to be compared and that could form the basis
ferent interrelated systems (between and within), their innova-
of a European currency in Vocational Education and Training
tion, productivity and satisfaction, hinge on the strength of the
qualifications” (cf. European Commission 2003, 24).
relationships of its components.
In this contest it is important to underline the effective use of
Considering these peculiarities, in order to build a network sys-
quality principles. In fact as stated before, common mecha-
tem, you must have a policy based on networks It is possible to
nisms and shared concepts make a common modelling easier if
achieve changes only if they go along with the relative change
based on common given standards, thus encouraging processes
of policy. You can not search for cooperation and networking
of mobility through the adaptability and transfer of qualifica-
between different actors, in the absence of a policy based itself
tions, Learning Outcomes, or even part of them (units).
on a similar logic.
Moreover, the implementation of quality assurance principles
The basic idea is to build policies based on networks where it is
and standards in education and training activities managed by
not only important to give professional and competent answers
network frames should serve as an assurance to all partners in-
to technical problems, but it is more essential to reach participa-
volved (competent bodies, stakeholders, authorized/certified
tion and shared knowledge.
bodies …), that the stated aims and objectives of a given activity
are adequately defined and will be fully achieved. The development of policies based on networks involves the
development of an inter-organizational system based on coop-
It should be noted that the notion of quality is socially, institu-
eration agreements closely interrelated which is the result of a
tionally and culturally marked and, therefore, not always under-
strategic path.
stood by all partners in the same way, thus a minimum common
understanding of what it entails has to be secured. The reference is on networks in which the composing organiza-
tions maintain, from a legal point of view, their own autonomy,
The issue of quality is a fundamental element for any economic
but at the same time they create a new actor to which they del-
sector, but it is even more important for activities such as train-
egate powers.
ing that is characterized as “service of intangible nature”, for
which it will contribute to deepening and widening the trans- The development of this type of network provides the design
parency, reproducibility, transferability and innovation of activi- and development of:
ties.
0 a cognitive component: where the exchange of information,
knowledge, shared languages and cultures are shared;
6. Technical Learning Networks as a 0 an organizational element: through the co-shared work and
response the definition of multipartnerships and projects;
0 a political aspect: through the development of decision-
Networks are emerging as an important mechanism for sustain-
making, deliberations and agreements among competent
able development in complex systems such as, for example, the
bodies;
system of Vocational Education and Training.
0 a technical component: to be a referring actor of their
Complexity is a characteristic of those systems (human, social, specialization for learning issues.
economic, cultural, etc ....) that are not referable to simple com-
In this context, Politics should match with Technics in the sense
ponents. Networking is a method that could facilitate connec-
that the paths of policy development (on training, social and
tions and could be a response to complex needs that distinguish
labour fields) should be co-made (instead of being only part of
complex systems.
a joint consultation), as policy makers are not able to determine
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14. In-depth
by themselves the outcome of a political and technical choice, 7. The Italian IFTS as an example of
failing the necessary technical expertise. Thus it is necessary experiencing networking in the TVET
to develop dynamic governance actions towards the crea- System to improve occupational
tion, maintenance and innovation of technical networks with a
competencies
strong emphasis on their capacity to be operative in the specific
technical field. The focus is not in its more technical or political A best practice of experiencing networking in the TVET System
nature, or inherent its construction, but in its shared and par- to improve occupational competencies in Italy is the so called
ticipated character. IFTS (Istruzione e Formazione Tecnica Superiore) - Higher Tech-
nical Education and Training pathways.
Learning networks are composed by different entities in terms
of legal, institutional and organizational mission but, despite The system of IFTS was founded in 1999 to meet the demand for
their diversity of intents, they are characterized by a potential qualified labour expressed by the sectors with high technologi-
sharing of common objectives and are concretely oriented to be cal and organizational transformation with the aim of integrat-
a referring actor of their specialization for learning issues. ing higher education and training systems.
As a synthesis, the structure of this frame is a technical learning The characteristics of this peculiar type of Technical Vocational
network made up of stakeholders and competent bodies which training pathway are:
should work together from the beginning (from the identifica- • integration of Higher Education, Education, Training Systems
tion of needs) to the end of the process of issuing a qualifica- and Labour Market through the development of Technical
tion. Learning Networks;
• integration of quality principles and standards among
Objectives of these networks in the Education and (Technical) systems;
Vocational Training field are: • definition of minimal standards of competences described
• assist the dissemination of trust, information and knowledge, in terms of basic transversal and technical competences
otherwise locked in the logic of specific organizations; (anticipating the concept of Learning Outcomes);
• guarantee the link with the Labour market requirements; • testing processes of assessment, recognition and validation
of experience and of (unit of) credit transfer.
• increase the multiplier effect of shared quality principles;
• facilitate processes of validation (of formal, non formal and The innovative approach focuses on the need to provide a sound
informal learning) within and between systems; basic education, consistent with the requirements of qualifica-
• foster the adoption of common principles and practices tion of Higher figures in the (Technical) Education and Vocation-
(learning outcome approach, qualification description, al Training system, and based on modular and flexible standards
occupational standards, …);
of competences in a system where there is not a frame of na-
• disseminate a common language which means the
tional occupational standards.
“translation” of shared concepts into specific contexts.
Regarding IFTS Networks it is important to note that it is manda-
For collaboration to be successful in networks, participants in
tory to have a minimum of four actors for each pathway: a Pub-
the process have to adopt a shared language, a joint vision and
lic Secondary School Institution; a University; a Training centre
common goals. A systemic approach to use common concepts
and enterprises (or enterprises representatives).
requires the active participation and genuine collaboration of all
stakeholders and there must be congruence between key objec-
tives and interventions.
Within VET systems Europe is making an effort in this direction
by creating networks of specific matter, for instance on Qualifi-
cation (EQF Coordination Points) on ECVET (project networks),
on quality assurance (ENQA-VET) and their cooperation is based
on common shared principles (qualification descriptors, learn-
ing outcomes, …). Figure 7: IFTS Network
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15. In-depth
The system is intended to put into strict relation all the compo-
nents and involve all of them from the beginning (the identifi-
cation of needs) to the end of the process (the qualification) in
order to bring to an end the traditional confinement that each
system has towards the activities of the others.
The labour market presence through the participation of enter-
prises (or their representatives) assure the right and necessary
link with the labour market requirements in terms of qualifica-
tions and competences to be taken into account in the develop-
ment of learning pathways.
Figure 8: Sectorial Training Poles Network
This network is intended to guarantee on one hand high quality
standards (assimilated from the more formal systems such as In the IFTS system the conception of “standards”, especially
schools and university), on the other the link with the Labour standards relating to basic and key competences fully respond
market requirements through enterprises, their representatives to the need to promote integration between the subsystems, to
and training centres involved in (Technical) Vocational Training. facilitate the dialogue between training and labour, to promote
transparency and recognition of certification and qualifications,
In this kind of networks high quality standards are guarantee
to promote the flexibility of training paths and their personaliza-
from Schools, Universities and from the accreditation of Train-
tion with a clear attention to individual needs.
ing centres.
The minimum standards of competences identify the common
In this context learners can profit from the competences ex-
minimal basis of competences to be acquired as a result of a
pressed by all the participants in the Network and training
learning process that an individual must demonstrate. It consti-
provisions can be planned following criteria coming from the
tutes the meeting point between the demand of qualification
academic system, from the system of schools, from vocational
of the labour system and the construction of a coherent cur-
training experts and the experience of enterprises.
riculum, ensuring wider “employability” of individuals as well as
The system has then evolved from “temporary” networks cre- its cultural and professional development, also in relation with
ated for the purpose of single projects/pathways (spontaneous previous and / or subsequent cycles of learning.
and spot aggregations) to the stabilization of those networks,
It was therefore decided to classify the standards of compe-
with the creation of more articulated networks, called Training
tence into three groups:
Poles15 (Poli Fomativi).
Training Poles are stable networks regarding Occupational competencies
a specific sector defined regionally and inter- the fundamental resources necessary
Basic competences to a person for access training and
regionally; they represent the referring point
work
for that specific sector, for that definite system,
Transversal Competences or Key (communicative, relational, problem
in a particular Italian Region, at national level. Competences solving, ...)
related to the tasks required by the
These networks are more complex and are
operative work activities required by
participated permanently with stakeholders Technical / Vocational competences
working processes referred in the
of each specific sector in a particular Italian specific professional fields
Region. In fact there are further organizations
involved such as research institutions, sectorial associations, It has subsequently adopted a standard of representation
trade unions and other public/private bodies. through the unit, which consists of a group of competences
with an autonomous meaning, self-consistent, recognizable
from the workplace as part of specific professional competenc-
15 For furter information regarding “Poli Formativi” visit the INDIRE’s Web site
(http://www.bdp.it/ifts/politec/)
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16. In-depth
es and identified (by enterprises and training system) as a result outcomes linked to a set of knowledge, skills and competences
of a learning process. required for a qualification or a unit.
In the IFTS credit system represents the recognition of the value
A unit is defined as “the primary or the smallest part” of
attributed to individual competences and the ability to spend
a curriculum or a course of education and training and is
them in training paths either as input or output of the process.
oriented to learning results. Each unit corresponds to a
Competences assessed and certified as credits are competences
specific combination of knowledge, skills and competence
acquired by individuals either through structured training paths
(descriptors) and may be differently wide, according to the
or through non-formal and informal experiences.
reference system. It corresponds to a particular result in
terms of Learning Outcomes at the individual level. In this sense credits system and its recognition have opened a
new perspective (consistent with developments at European
level) within which all the reform processes of work and educa-
tion and training systems lie.
There is an ongoing reform regarding the whole Higher Tech-
nical Education and Training system with the objective of im-
proving the Higher Technical Education and Training provision
through a re-organisation of IFTS and the development of a new
subsystem, called ITS (Higher Technical Institutes), in which the
networking aspect is encouraged.
Figure 9: IFTS units of LO
Higher Technical Institutes (ITS) are foundations made up of the
following participants:
A unit is anchored to a standard of competences which is re-
lated to a qualification at regional or national level. • a Higher Technical/Vocational Secondary Education
Institute;
The use of transparent and recog-
nized standards on a regional/na-
tional basis makes it significantly
easier to establish, previously,
credits usable in subsequent aca-
demic courses, vocational train-
ing paths as well as envisage
other forms of validation and rec-
ognition of experience achieved
in different contexts.
The unit is the smallest part of a
learning pathways built around
the referring standard of com-
petences linked to the specific
qualification. To each unit it is
possible to allocate credits.
Credits do not replace learning
outcomes and generally are not
the direct translation of them.
Credits are allocated to learning Figure 10: IFTS pathways IFTS pathways
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