2006 job satisfaction of secondary school teachers-educational management administration & leadership-2006-crossman-29-46

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Job Satisfaction of Secondary School Teachers
Alf Crossman and Penelope Harris
A B S T R A C T
Low job satisfaction has been cited as a possible cause of the current teaching crisis in
the UK. This article reports on a study that examined job satisfaction among secondary
school teachers in different types of secondary school. The results indicate a significant
difference in the overall job satisfaction scores of teachers by type of school. Teachers
in independent and privately-managed schools exhibited the highest satisfaction levels
while those in foundation schools exhibited the lowest. No significant difference in
satisfaction was found when the data were analysed by age, gender and length of
service.
K E Y W O R D S age, gender, job satisfaction, length of service, school teachers
Introduction
For some time low job satisfaction has been cited as a possible cause of the
current poor recruitment and retention of teachers in the UK (Evans, 1998). A
survey of job satisfaction by Gardner and Oswald (1999) indicated that teachers
were less satisfied than any other professional group; similarly a survey of
teachers’ intention to leave (Carvel, 2000) indicates there that up to 20,000
would resign if they had the choice of other employment. More recently a poll
of 70,000 teachers across England revealed that 35 per cent would leave the
profession within the next five years (Personnel Today, 2003). Interestingly, low
job satisfaction among teachers is not a wholly UK phenomenon, with similar
results being reported elsewhere.
The number of vacant teaching positions in the UK has increased signifi-
cantly during recent years (Evans, 1998) as teachers continue to or intend to
leave the profession (Personnel Today, 2003; Voluntary Services Organisation,
2000). Job vacancies have increased significantly as more and more teachers
either retire early (Evans, 1998) or leave the profession to seek employment
elsewhere (Voluntary Services Organisation, 2000). This trend is particularly
acute in the south-east of England where teacher vacancies increased steadily
Educational Management Administration & Leadership
ISSN 1741-1432 DOI: 10.1177/1741143206059538
SAGE Publications (London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi)
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from 0.3 per cent of the total number of teachers in post to a full one percent
in 2000 (Department for Education and Employment, 2000).
Media interest in the teaching ‘crisis’, exemplified by the volume of press
articles and television reports produced in recent years (Dean and Kelly, 2001),
has been amplified by the UK government’s acceptance of offers from private
companies to manage some secondary schools (Kelly, 2001).
Despite the problems of poor teacher retention, there have been relatively
few studies into low teacher job satisfaction in the UK (Evans, 1998). Most
studies undertaken have been organized by teacher organizations, such as the
National Union of Teachers or by a limited number of academics (Evans, 1998)
and examine the relationship between low job satisfaction and occupational
stress (Kinman, 2001; Kinunnen and Leskinen, 1989). Studies of teachers’ job
satisfaction by type of school are relatively rare (Kries and Bockupp, 1986; Scott
et al., 1999).
As well as investigating the demographic factors known to affect teachers’ job
satisfaction, the type of school in which a teacher works was also included to
determine whether this had any effect on teachers’ job satisfaction levels. The
scope of the research was restricted in two ways to the number of types of
secondary school (religious, community, independent) and to the geographic
location of the county of Surrey in the UK, thus generalization of the results
should be treated with caution.
Job Satisfaction in Abstract and Context
The factors affecting job satisfaction can be broadly categorized as environ-
mental (the job itself or the working environment) psychological (personality,
behaviour attitude) or demographic (age, gender). These have been the focus of
numerous studies in the UK and elsewhere over a number of years (Halpin,
2001; Ma and MacMillan, 1999; Oshagbemi, 1998; Rhodes, 1983; Scott and
Dinham, 2003; Spector, 1997).
The effect of environmental constraints on job satisfaction has received
considerable attention. Physical constraints include inadequate equipment
lighting, which may not be relevant to teachers. However, systemic constraints
include the inability to obtain relevant information or advice from colleagues
or superiors, complex or inappropriate company policies (Nicholson and
Miljus, 1972), incomplete or incomprehensible job descriptions (Good et al.,
1988) or varied and, possibly incompatible, work demands from different
managers (Spector, 1997). The job satisfaction of teachers can be affected by a
number of different environmental, psychological and demographic factors.
The most significant positive environmental factors are those related to the
working environment and the nature of the job (Corwin, 2001; Scott and
Dinham, 2003). For example recognition, support and respect from colleagues
and superiors can also cultivate a feeling of job satisfaction (Evans, 1998;
Dinham and Scott, 1998; van der Doef and Maes, 2002; Voluntary Services
Educational Management Administration & Leadership 34(1)
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Organisation, 2000), as can a teacher’s perception their interaction with pupils
(Shann, 1998) and of his/her ability to contribute to their attainments (Schon-
feld, 1990). The fact that teachers have a substantial amount of autonomy with
regard to the preparation and delivery of lessons might also have a positive
effect (National Centre for Educational Statistics, 1997; Kendall and Kington,
2001), although earlier evidence from the USA suggests that autonomy is
confined to the classroom (Kries and Brockopp, 1986). What appears to be
absent from the literature is whether the type of school, defined by ownership,
funding or religious affiliation, has any effect on the environmental factors
related to job satisfaction.
The causes of low teacher job satisfaction and the resultant poor retention
rates, both in the UK and elsewhere, can be attributed to a number of environ-
mental factors. These include the nature and pace of organizational change
(Dinham and Scott, 2000) concerns over workload, increasing bureaucracy and
poor discipline (Moriarty et al., 2001; Personnel Today, 2003; Sillitoe, 2003); style
of leadership and management (Schultz and Teddlie, 1999) job related
stress/illness (Evans, 1998); lower value placed on teaching as a profession
(Evans, 1997; Halpin, 2001; van der Doef and Maes, 2002); increasing class sizes
(Maclean, 1992); possible conflict between work and family life (Spear et al.,
2000); behavioural difficulties exhibited by some pupils (van der Doef and
Maes, 2002) and the excessive media criticism of teachers working in ‘failing’
schools (National Union of Teachers, 2001; Scott and Dinham, 2003), as well as
pay (Chung et al., 2004). Evans (1997) suggests two overarching satisfying
factors, job comfort, or the extent to which an individual is satisfied with the
conditions of the job, and job fulfilment, derived from the perceived personal
achievement.
A number of studies have been conducted into the relationship between job
satisfaction and an individual’s personality, behaviour and work attitudes, one
of these ‘locus of control’ has a significant correlation to job satisfaction
(Spector, 1997). Locus of control’ (Lawler, 1972; O’Brien, 1983; Spector, 1982)
indicates the extent to which individuals’ believe in their ability to control
aspects of their life (Spector, 1997); ‘externals’ perceive their life is controlled
by outside forces (Kyriacou and Sutcliff, 1979), whereas ‘internals’ see their
life being controlled by their own actions (McKenna, 1999). Studies into the
relationship between locus of control and job satisfaction have produced
evidence which suggests that ‘internals’ experience higher levels of job
satisfaction than ‘externals’ (O’Brien, 1983; Spector and O’Connell, 1994), with
various explanations have been advanced, such as the possibility that
‘internals’ perform better than ‘externals’ and receive greater rewards and job
satisfaction as a consequence (Spector, 1982). There is also evidence of locus
of control being related to organizational climate (Furnham and Drakeley,
1993); this might be particularly relevant for teachers, given the increased
level of government intervention and the prescriptive nature of the National
Curriculum.
Crossman & Harris: Job Satisfaction of Secondary School Teachers
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There have been many studies to investigate the relationship between job
satisfaction and demographic variables such as age, gender and length of
service (Oshagbemi, 1997) and into the interaction effect of age and length of
service; long service and young age are not feasible (Sarker et al., 2004). While
the majority of these studies concentrate on age and its effect on job satis-
faction, the relationship between these remains uncertain (Spector, 1997). Early
studies have revealed a U-shaped or curvilinear relationship (Handyside, 1967;
Herzberg et al., 1957), implying that employees experience high levels of job
satisfaction at the start of their careers, a mid-career decrease and an increase
towards the end. Research by Griva and Joekes (2003) found older teachers to
be more satisfied. Explanations are varied with some (Herzberg et al., 1957)
attributing this to young employees being enthusiastic and enjoying the chal-
lenge of work whereas older workers have accepted their position in the
organization and see limited career prospects; while others (Clark et al., 1996)
argue that that employees’ expectations alter with age or that older workers are
better able or have developed strategies to cope with work-related issues
(Oshagbemi, 1999). There is likewise evidence to the contrary; that a negative
linear relationship exists between age and job satisfaction (Hickson and
Oshagbemi, 1999). Explanations include older workers’ inability to adapt to new
working conditions (Hickson and Oshagbemi, 1999) or that older workers’
expectations and aspirations are more limited than those of younger colleagues
(Luthans and Thomas, 1989). Studies by Chaplain (1995) and the National
Union of Teachers (2001) have provided contradictory evidence regarding the
relationships between teachers’ age and job satisfaction. Chaplain’s (1995) study
indicates that teachers between the ages of 35 and 45 are the least satisfied,
whereas the National Union of Teachers (2001) survey identifies higher dis-
satisfaction among those aged 25 to 29. Interestingly, Australian research into
job-related stress (Kinman, 2001) found mid-career academics to be most at risk
from stress and early-career staff least at risk, thus there may be a relationship
between the stress and job satisfaction.
Similar contradictory evidence exists regarding the relationship between
gender and job satisfaction. Some studies have suggested that men and women
exhibit similar levels of satisfaction (Brush et al., 1987; Clark et al., 1996), while
others, in the UK and elsewhere, indicate higher levels of satisfaction among
women (Hickson and Oshagbemi, 1999), despite them occupying lower status
positions (Greenhaus et al., 1990). This might indicate that women have lower
expectations and are more easily satisfied at work (Witt and Nye, 1992).
According to a number of studies female teachers exhibit higher levels of job
satisfaction than male teachers (Chaplain, 1995; Klecker and Loadman, 1999;
Poppleton and Riseborough, 1991). This might be explained by the possibility
that men who, according to Kremer-Hayton and Goldstein (1990), attach more
importance to career than women are disappointed by the low status of the
teaching profession in the UK. However, these findings are somewhat contra-
dicted by those of the National Union of Teachers (2001) which revealed that
32

71 per cent of teachers planning to leave the profession are women, but this
might be explained by ‘career interruptions for family reasons’ (Chung et al.,
2004: 8).
There have been a limited number of studies into the relationship between
length of service and job satisfaction. The results of Oshagbemi’s (1997) study
suggest that length of service has a positive effect on job satisfaction and later
results by Oshagbemi (2000) indicate higher levels of satisfaction among
workers with 10 years length of service and that this increases with each
additional decade of service. Explanations might be that job security increases
with length of service and employees may derive satisfaction from this
(Abraham and Medoff, 1984) or that promotion is associated with length of
service and satisfaction might arise from this (Hickson and Oshagbemi, 1999).
As far as teachers are concerned, there is evidence to suggest that those with
less than five years service are the most satisfied while those who have been
teaching for between 15 and 20 years are the least satisfied (Poppleton and
Risborough, 1991). This might be explained by the enthusiasm of newer
teachers, in line with Herzberg et al.’s (1957) thesis, or by changes in the expec-
tations of more experienced teachers (Luthans and Thomas, 1989).
Methodology
The aim of this research was to investigate job satisfaction among teachers and
to discover whether the ‘type’ of school as defined by ownership, funding or
religious affiliation, has any effect on teachers’ job satisfaction. Given the
absence of this factor in the existing literature the principal null hypothesis was
formulated:
H1: The ‘type’ of school has no effect on teacher job satisfaction
As the research included an examination of the relationship between job
satisfaction and demographic variables (age, gender and length of service),
three further null hypotheses related to these were formulated:
H2: Teachers’ age has no effect on teacher job satisfaction
H3: Teachers’ gender has no effect on teacher job satisfaction
H4: Teachers’ length of service has no effect on teacher job satisfaction
The instrument adopted in the research was the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS)
(Spector, 1997). However, as the JSS was developed in the USA, it was amended
slightly and some words/phrases anglicized (see the Appendix). A section was
also added to capture demographic data. A pilot study was conducted with ten
individuals to assess the reliability of the amended instrument. The Cronbach
alpha for the pilot study was .86, which indicated a satisfactory reliability.
33

Five ‘types’ of school were identified using definition in the School Stan-
dards and Framework Act 1998. These were community, foundation, indepen-
dent, Roman Catholic and Church of England. The privately-managed school,
which did not exist at the time the Act was passed, was also included. Eleven
schools in Surrey were selected at random and invited to participate in June
2001. The choice of location was partly driven by geographic convenience and
partly due to a privately-managed contract being awarded to a school in the
region. The fact that the teacher shortage is particularly acute in the South-
east was also a consideration. However, as the area is well known for its afflu-
ence and high housing and living costs, this research need to be seen in this
environmental context which might effect on the results. From the schools
approached seven agreed to take, one from each school ‘type’ except
community where two positive responses were received. Copies of the JSS
were distributed to each school either by hand or by post and returned in the
same way.
Results
Of the 395 questionnaires distributed 233 usable responses were received, a
response rate of 58 per cent. The response rates for each type were:
community 85 per cent (n = 102), privately-managed 60 per cent (n = 18),
Church of England 53 per cent (n = 42), Roman Catholic 46 per cent (n =
30), independent 45 per cent (n = 18) and foundation 38 per cent (n = 23).
The Cronbach alpha score of .88 for the 233 questionnaires was similar to both
the pilot (.86) and the original JSS (.91) and indicated the instrument was
reliable.
Descriptive Statistics
Of the 233 respondents, 31 per cent were aged between 22 and 30 years and 26
per cent were aged over 50 (see Table 1). Sixty-four per cent of respondents
were female, similar to the gender split found by Scott and Dinham (2003). This
seems to reinforce suggestion that the teaching profession is female-dominated
(Chung et al., 2004) as men who according to Kremer-Hayton and Goldstein
(1990), attach greater importance to their career than women, have rejected a
teaching career because of its low status. Alternatively male teachers in the
sample may have decided not to participate.
Seventy-two teachers (30.9%) were new to the teaching profession with 0–5
years length of service. This implies that a significant number of participants
had recently joined the profession, either as new graduates, which would
explain the high number of young teachers, or as late career-changers. The rela-
tively low number of teachers with over 30 year length of service in teaching
may be due to teachers with this service having retired early.
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Statistical Tests
The aim of this research was to investigate teachers’ job satisfaction and, in
particular, to identify if the type of school had any effect on this. The mean job
satisfaction scores by type of school were: independent (M = 149.9), privately-
managed (M = 147.4), community (M = 130.9), Roman Catholic (M = 128.0),
Church of England (M = 123.0) and foundation (M = 110.5). As there is a differ-
ence between the job satisfaction scores of teachers working in the different
type of school, the first null hypothesis (H1) can be rejected. However, further
analysis is required as the statistical significance of these differences is
unknown. Consequently a one-way ANOVA test was performed. The results
reveal a significance score less than .05 (.000), indicating a significant differ-
ence somewhere between the mean scores of the different types of school
(Table 2).
A Tukey HSD test was performed to identify where these differences
occurred (Table 3). The significance values for this test ranged between .999
indicating no difference between the mean scores, and .000, indicating a signifi-
cant difference. The most significant differences were between the mean scores
of the independent/privately-managed schools and the foundation school and
35
Table 1 Sample profile characteristics
Characteristic No. Percentage
Age (years)
22–30 73 31.3
31–40 47 20.2
41–50 52 22.3
51+ 61 26.2
Gender
Male 84 36.5
Female 148 63.5
Teaching length of service (years)
0–5 72 30.9
6–10 43 18.5
11–20 48 20.6
21–30 50 21.5
30+ 20 8.6
School type
Foundation 18 7.7
Church of England 42 18.0
Roman Catholic 23 9.9
Community 18 7.7
Privately-managed 30 12.9
Independent 102 43.8
Note: sample N = 233.

the Church of England and independent schools. There was no significant
difference between the independent and privately-managed schools’ mean
scores.
These significance values and mean scores were also used to categorise the
types of school into homogenous subsets. Table 3 shows the four subsets gener-
ated, all with significance values of over .05. This suggests that the indepen-
dent and privately-managed schools (.998) are the most homogenous followed
by Church of England, Roman Catholic and community schools (.765). The
remaining two subsets (foundation/Church of England and community/
privately-managed) are still considered as homogenous with significance vales
of .273 and .058, respectively, but to a lesser extent.
A one-way ANOVA was performed on the data to pursue the secondary aims
of the research, to examine the relationship between teacher job satisfaction
and the age, gender and length of service variables. The tests produced signifi-
cance values (p < .05) of .389 for age, .402 for gender and .546 for length of
service. As the significance values for the three tests are all above .05, it was
concluded that any differences between the mean overall job satisfaction scores
of teachers when categorised by age, gender and length of service group are
not statistically significant. However, closer examination of the mean scores for
the three variables is required before accepting the three null hypotheses and
to determine the nature of the relationships.
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Table 2 One-way ANOVA results for overall job satisfaction by school type
Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
Between groups 23524.399 5 4704.880 10.013 .000
Within groups 106664.0 227 469.886
Total 130188.4
Table 3 Tukey HSD results for homogenous subsets for mean overall job satisfaction (Tukey HSD(a, b))
Type of school n Subset for alpha = .05
1 2 3 4
Foundation 23 110.5217
Church of England 42 123.0476 123.0476
Roman Catholic 30 127.9667
Community 102 130.9216 130.9216
Privately-managed 18 147.3889 147.3889
Independent 18 149.8889
Sig. .273 .765 .058 .998
Notes: Means for homogenous subsets are displayed.
a. Uses harmonic mean sample size = 27.084.
b.The group sizes are unequal.The harmonic mean of the group size is used.Type 1 error levels are not guaranteed.

As far as age is concerned, there is a difference between the job satisfaction
scores of teachers; consequently the second null hypotheses (H2) can be
rejected. However, the figure suggests the relationship between age and job
satisfaction is neither linear nor curvilinear. Instead, the job satisfaction levels
of teachers appear to fluctuate (see Figure 1), starting high with the 22–30 age
group (M = 133.6), decreasing for the 31–40 group (M = 126.4), rising again for
the 41–50 group (M = 129.4) and declining slightly for the 50+ group (M =
128.4). The exact explanation for this is unclear, but the results may imply that
certain work-related of life events, which occur when a teacher is aged between
31 and 40 and then again after 50, have a negative effect on teachers’ job
satisfaction.
The results for the relationship between overall job satisfaction and gender
indicate that male teachers (M = 131.5) are slightly more satisfied than females
(M = 128.8), thus the third null hypothesis (H3) can be rejected. However,
whilst the result of a one-way ANOVA (Sig. .402) indicate difference between
the two scores is not statistically significant at the .05 level. It is possible the
difference in these scores may be due to the relatively small number of male
respondents (n = 85) compared to females (n = 148).
The tests for overall job satisfaction and length of service indicate a curvi-
linear relationship (Figure 2) with differences in scores of teachers with differ-
ent years of length of service. Satisfaction is high at the beginning of the
teacher’s career, decreasing at the mid point and increasing again at the end.
The highest satisfaction score being 30+ years length of service (M = 136) and
the lowest 11–20 years (M = 126.5). The score for 0–5 years (M = 131.9) was
relatively high and those for 6 = 10 years (M = 129) and 21–30 (M = 128.4)
37
134
132
130
128
126
50+41–5031–40
Age (years)
Meanofoveralljobsatisfaction
22–30
Figure 1 Mean overall job satisfaction by age group

were broadly similar. Although the results allow the rejection of the fourth null
hypothesis (H4), the difference between these means (.546) is not significant
at the .05 level.
Although the one-way ANOVA tests confirmed no significant difference
between the mean overall job satisfaction scores of teachers working in the six
different types of school, the differences when divided by age, gender and
length of service are not significant. The data were subjected to a series of two-
way ANOVA tests to investigate if there was any interaction effect between the
type of school and the demographic variables (Table 4).
The values indicate that although there may be an interaction between any
two of the four independent variables, the effect of these interactions on overall
teacher job satisfaction is not significant at the .05 level. It should be noted
however, that the significance value closest to .05 relates to the interaction
effect of age and gender on teacher job satisfaction (.614). Further statistical
analysis is required to establish if the combines effect of three or more of these
variables on teacher job satisfaction is significant. Consequently a standard
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Table 4 Two-way ANOVA significance values
Variables Sig.
Type of school/age .955
Type of schoo/gender .856
Type of school/length of service .884
Age/gender .614
Age/length of service .846
Gender/length of service .673
138
134
130
136
132
128
126
124
30+21–3011–206–10
Length of service (years)
Meanofoveralljobsatisfaction
0–5
Figure 2 Mean overall job satisfaction by length of service group

multiple regression test to identify the variables that are the best predictors of
job satisfaction was also performed. The resultant low R2 value (.016) indicates
that variables other than those examined in this research (type of school, age,
gender and length of service) may be better predictors of job satisfaction.
A brief examination of the standardized coefficient beta values for the
independent variables in this research may also be of interest. As large beta
values indicate which variables make the strongest contribution to overall job
satisfaction, age (–.202) and length of service (.154) are the biggest contribu-
tors, whereas type of school (.035) and length of service (.005) are the weakest.
However, the significance values for age (.89) and length of service (.189)
indicate their contribution to job satisfaction is not significant at the .05 level.
Discussion
The findings indicate differences in job satisfaction scores between the age and
length of service groups and between male and female teachers, but these were
not statistically significant. Furthermore, there was no interaction effect
between the three demographic variables, type of school and teacher job
satisfaction.
The results indicate differences in mean satisfaction levels for each of the
four age groups. However, in contrast to the literature, which suggests a typi-
cally linear (Hickson and Oshagbemi, 1999) or curvilinear relationship
(Herzberg et al., 1957), the results showed fluctuating job satisfaction by age
group. To some extent these results support those of Luthans and Thomas
(1989), who noted a decrease in the satisfaction of older employees, and of
Chaplain (1995); that employees aged 35–45 years are the least satisfied, which
may be due to changes in working condition (Hickson and Oshagbemi, 1999).
Whilst the findings that the most satisfied teachers are aged 22–30 contradict
those of the National Union of Teachers (2001), which suggested teachers aged
25–29 are the most dissatisfied, this might be explained by dissatisfied young
teachers exiting the schools in the study and not able to participate, while
young teachers with higher satisfaction levels remained and were included.
The mean satisfaction levels by gender group indicated that male teachers
were slightly more satisfied than females, but this was not statistically signifi-
cant. While these results are similar to those of Clark et al. (1996) and Brush
et al. (1987), they contradict those of Chaplain (1995) and Poppleton and Rise-
borough (1991), who found women teachers to be more satisfied than males.
However, as the scores are so similar, there appears to be little point in pursuing
this further.
Contrary to some previous studies which identify a positive linear relation-
ship between job satisfaction and length of service (Hickson and Oshagbemi,
1999; Oshagbemi, 1997, 2000), the results of this study indicate a curvilinear
relationship with least satisfaction being reported by the 11–20 years of service
group, which is in line with the findings of Poppleton and Riseborough (1991)
39

where least satisfaction was found in the 15–20 years length of service group.
This may be the result of career progression and the consequent increase in
satisfaction for those with higher length of service, whereas those in the 15–20
years band may be experiencing mid-career stress (Kinman, 2001). A further
explanation might be the combined effect of age and length of service; those
in the longer length of service band are likely to be older and perhaps more
able to cope with the changing demands of them, as suggested by Oshagbemi
(1999).
The results indicate differences in job satisfaction levels according to type of
school and suggest that teachers in the privately-managed and independent
schools are more satisfied than those in foundation and Church of England
schools. There are a number of environmental factors to which this might be
attributed (Corvin, 2001; Scott and Dinham, 2003), such as larger financial and
non-financial resources being available, less state-driven bureaucracy, greater
freedom within the curriculum (Kendall and Kington, 2001) or, in the case of
the independent school, the satisfaction derived from the perceived higher
status generally accorded this type of institution by society and which might
lead to a higher self-perception of job fulfilment (Evans, 1997). Differences in
the way in which the schools are funded may also be a critical factor; indepen-
dent schools are funded pupils’ fees, whereas foundation schools are funded
directly by the government and managed by a governing body. While on the
surface this might suggest that independent and privately-managed schools
have access to greater financial and non-financial resources, which can be
allocated to school-based needs without the organizational and administrative
constraints experienced by other types of schools and which are known to
affect job satisfaction (Sillitoe, 2004), it could equally be due to other variables,
such as organizational climate (Furnham and Drakeley, 1993), which were not
controlled for and thus require further scrutiny.
The processes for recruiting, selecting and retaining secondary school
teachers may also require revision. Although this research has identified the
age and gender groups of secondary school teachers with the highest job satis-
faction levels, recruitment and selection based on these variables would
undoubtedly contravene equal opportunities legislation and school policies.
Consequently, programmes to increase/maintain the job satisfaction levels of
all teachers, by focusing on job comfort or job fulfilment (Evans, 1997), regard-
less of age, length of service or gender are of paramount importance. The large
number of new teachers (with 0–5 years length of service) may be a combi-
nation of young teachers (aged between 22- and 30-years old) and older
teachers, who have changed career. The job satisfaction levels of these two
groups may be related to a number of different factors; young teachers begin-
ning their career may enthusiastic, ambitious and concerned with career
progression (Herzberg et al., 1957) and older teachers being more able to cope
with work-related issues (Oshagbemi, 1999). However, to tackle the lower
satisfaction levels of the 6–10 years of service group, support mechanisms or
40

recognition programmes might be appropriate (Dinham and Scott, 1998) to
reduce early retirements identified by Evans (1998).
Conclusion
The results of this research indicate that the type of school does have a statis-
tically significant effect on satisfaction levels. Although the results indicate that
teachers working in independent and privately-managed schools are most
satisfied and those in foundation and Church of England schools least satisfied,
these should be viewed with a degree of caution. The research did not investi-
gate the effect of other variables associated with ‘kind’ of school, as defined by
its organization, ethos, management style or pupil population and level of
achievement. These environmental factors might well have considerable
influence on job satisfaction.
The findings lead to a number of implications for the management and
leadership of secondary schools in the UK. Given the differences in funding
arrangements, it is possible that a change of school status, such as foundation
to privately-managed, might increase teacher job satisfaction levels. However,
as the transition would be a complex and controversial process, this option
would have to be reviewed carefully. Furthermore, the change process might
in itself be a destabilizing factor (Dinham and Scott, 2000) and as such have a
negative effect. The potential heterogeneity of teachers’ needs, desires and
motives should also be moved up the management agenda, with a view to
building higher job satisfaction through the creation of an improved environ-
ment. At a time when bureaucracy and poor pupil behaviour appears to be on
the increase, effective two-way communication between school managers/
leaders and teachers is crucial; first, to establish the general level of teacher
satisfaction and, second, to identify causes teacher job dissatisfaction and to
initiate remedial action.
This study, in common with many others, is not without its limitations. The
first being in the area of research methodology, the small sample size and the
limited geographic scope; further research in a national scale with a larger
sample is recommended. More importantly there are a number of environ-
mental/organizational factors which were not included in this study, such as
leadership and management style (Schultz and Teddlie, 1999), school ethos, and
pupil population and levels of achievement which have been related to self-
perceptions of contribution (Schonfeld, 1990). These factors should be included
in future research to investigate if there is any relationship between the ‘type’
of school defined in this research and the ‘kind’ of school in terms of manage-
ment style and the organizational climate created with a view to identifying if
these are more significant determinants of teachers’ job satisfaction. The
overall conclusion is that factors other than those examined in this research
might be better predictors of teacher job satisfaction and are worthy of further
research.
41

Appendix A—Amended Job Satisfaction Survey
Section A: Demographic details
Please tick one box in each of the sections below:
1. Age 2. Gender
22–30 ■■ Male ■■
31–40 ■■ Female ■■
41–50 ■■
50+ ■■
3. Number of years service in teaching 4. Type of School
0–5 ■■ Privately-managed ■■
6–10 ■■ Church of England ■■
11–20 ■■ Foundation ■■
21–30 ■■ Independent ■■
30+ ■■ Roman Catholic ■■
Community ■■
Section B: Job Satisfaction
Please circle the one number for each question that comes closest to reflect-
ing your opinion about it:
1 = Disagree very much
2 = Disagree moderately
3 = Disagree slightly
4 = Agree slightly
5 = Agree moderately
6 = Agree very much
1 I feel I am being paid a fair amount for the work I do. 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 There is little chance for job promotion. 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 My line manager is competent in doing his/her job. 1 2 3 4 5 6
4 I am not satisfied with the benefits I receive. 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 When I do as good job, I receive the recognition for it 1 2 3 4 5 6
that I should receive.
6 Many of our rules and procedures make doing a good job 1 2 3 4 5 6
difficult.
7 I like the people I work with. 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 I sometimes feel my job is meaningless. 1 2 3 4 5 6
42

9 Communications seem good within this organisation. 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 Salary rises are too few and far between. 1 2 3 4 5 6
11 Those who do well in the job stand a fair chance of being 1 2 3 4 5 6
promoted.
12 My line manager is unfair to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6
13 The benefits we receive are as good as most other 1 2 3 4 5 6
organisations offer.
14 I do not feel that the work I do is appreciated. 1 2 3 4 5 6
15 My efforts to do a good job are seldom blocked by red tape. 1 2 3 4 5 6
16 I find I have to work harder at my job because of the 1 2 3 4 5 6
incompetence of people I work with.
17 I like doing the things I do at work. 1 2 3 4 5 6
18 The goals of this organisation are not clear to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6
19 I feel unappreciated by the organisation when I think 1 2 3 4 5 6
about what they pay me.
20 People get ahead as fast here as they do in other places. 1 2 3 4 5 6
21 My line manager shows too little interest in the feelings 1 2 3 4 5 6
of subordinates.
22 The benefit package we have is equitable. 1 2 3 4 5 6
23 There are few rewards for those who work here. 1 2 3 4 5 6
24 I have too much to do at work. 1 2 3 4 5 6
25 My department is friendly and sociable. 1 2 3 4 5 6
26 I often feel that I do not know what is going on with the 1 2 3 4 5 6
organisation.
27 I feel a sense of pride in doing my job. 1 2 3 4 5 6
28 I feel satisfied with my chances for salary increases. 1 2 3 4 5 6
29 There are benefits we do not have which we should have. 1 2 3 4 5 6
30 I like my line manager. 1 2 3 4 5 6
31 I have too much paperwork. 1 2 3 4 5 6
32 I don’t feel my efforts are rewarded the way they should be. 1 2 3 4 5 6
33 I am satisfied with my chances for promotion. 1 2 3 4 5 6
34 There is too much bickering and fighting at work. 1 2 3 4 5 6
35 My job is enjoyable. 1 2 3 4 5 6
36 Work assignments are not fully explained. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Source: Adapted from Spector (1997).
43

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their thanks to Professor Tony Bush and the two
anonymous referees for their detailed, highly constructive and courteous comments on
earlier drafts of this article.
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Biographical notes
ALF CROSSMAN is a senior lecturer in Industrial Relations and Human Resource
Management in the School of Management, University of Surrey.
PENELOPE HARRIS is a programmes administrator in the School of Political,
International and Policy Studies, University of Surrey.
Correspondence to:
ALF CROSSMAN, School of Management, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey
GU2 7XH, UK. [email: a.crossman@surrey.ac.uk]
46

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