Housing and environmental planning

Housing and
Environmental Planning
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Housing
Housing is a basic need of man. In importance, it is third after food and
clothing. Even the Neolithic man who lived between 10,000 and 2000 B.C.
built durable habitation like pit dwellings, lake dwellings and beehive huts.
However, its functions increased manifold over the years.
Housing means provision of comfortable shelter and such surrounding and
basic services as like water, sanitation and social infrastructure like school,
health centers or communication facilities as would keep the occupant fit
and cheerful all the day of the year.
Housing thus has to be defined as ‘Shelter plus service’ and therefore to
be considered within the larger framework of Human Settlements.

History of Housing
From the beginning of civilization, attention has been paid to the form, placement, and
provision of human habitation. The earliest building codes, specifying structural
integrity in housing construction, are found in the Code of the 18th-century BC
Babylonian King Hammurabi. Town planning activities during the Greek and Roman
empires centered almost exclusively on the appropriate placement of urban housing
from the perspectives of defence and water supply. These same concerns continued
throughout the middle Ages. In 13th-century Europe, the city became a centre of
trade, and its walls provided a safe haven from nomadic warriors and looters. People
could find shelter for themselves and their flocks, herds, and harvests while the Rural
housing was being overrun by enemies of superior force. Demand for urban housing
increased. For centuries this demand was filled by unplanned additions to, and
subdivisions of, existing structures. Where climate permitted, squatting (occupying
without title or payment of rent) became commonplace, but provided only temporary
shelter. By the 19th century, with the Industrial Revolution, people were moving to
cities in unprecedented numbers. Workers lived in sheds, railway yards, and factory
cellars, typically without sanitation facilities or water supply.

Shelter as a basic requirement
Shelter is the basic human requirement that needs to be met on priority
basis. Investments in shelter not only improve and expand the available
stock of housing units, but also improve both the working and living
environment. While it may be difficult to prove, there are
impressionistic links between improvements in housing and increased
productivity, health, and other measures of well being. Housing sector is
employment intensive, it generates employment during its construction
period and also during its life for proper maintenance.
The United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) uses a
broader term "Settlement conditions" because it extends to all those
components of the physical environment with which an individual or a
community comes into contact and which are used on a regular basis for
a whole range of human activities - the individual dwelling and its related
services, the dwelling's immediate surroundings, community facilities,
transportation and communications network and so on.

Census(1971) Definition of House &
Household
Census House: as a building or part of a building having a separate main
entrance from the road or common courtyard or stair case etc. Used or
recognised as a separate unit. It may be inhabited or vacant. It may be
used for a residential or non-residential purpose or both.
Family or Household: a group of persons who commonly live together
and would take their meals from a common kitchen unless the
exigencies of work prevented any of them from doing so.
There are three types of households in Census:
Normal Household: A ‘Normal household’ in Census is defined as a group
of persons who normally live together and take their meals from a
common kitchen unless the exigencies of work prevents any of them
from doing so

Census(1971) Definition of House &
Household
The persons in a household may be related or unrelated or a mix of both.
However, if a group of unrelated persons live in a Census house but do not take
their meals from the common kitchen, they are not considered a part of a
common household. Each such person is treated as a separate household.
Institutional Households: A group of unrelated persons who live in an
institution and take their meals from a common kitchen are considered as an
Institutional Household. Boarding houses, messes, hostels, hotels, rescue
homes, observation homes, beggars’ homes, jails, ashrams, old age homes,
children homes, orphanages, etc. are all covered in this type of
household.
Houseless Household: Households which do not live in buildings or Census
houses but live in the open or roadside, pavements, in hume pipes, under fly-
overs and staircases, or in the open in places of worship, mandaps, railway
platforms, etc., are to be treated as Houseless households. Houseless
Households are not to be covered in Houselisting phase.http://www.frontdesk.co.in/forum

Census Definition
Rural and Urban areas
Village or Town is recognised as the basic area of habitation. In all
censuses throughout the world this dishotomy of Rural and Urban areas
is recognised and the data are generally presented for the rural and
urban areas separately. In the rural areas the smallest area of
habitation, viz., the village generally follows the limits of a revenue
village that is recognised by the normal district administration.
The revenue village need not necessarily be a single agglomeration of the
habitations. But the revenue village has a definite surveyed boundary
and each village is a separate administrative unit with separate village
accounts. It may have one or more hamlets. The entire revenue village is
one unit. There may be unsurveyed villages within forests etc., where the
locally recognised boundaries of each habitation area is followed within
the larger unit of say the forest range officers jurisdiction.

Census Definition
Rural and Urban areas
It is in defining the Urbans areas that problems generally arise. However
for the 1971 Census the definition adopted for an urban area which
follows the pattern of 1961 was as follows:-
(a) all places with a Municipality, Corporation or Cantonment or Notified
Town Area
(b) all other places which satisfied the following criteria:
(i) a minimum population of 5,000.
(ii) at least 75% of the male working population was non-
agricultural.
(iii) a density of population of at least 400 sq. Km. (i.e. 1000 per
sq. Mile)
The Director of Census of each State/Union Territory was, however,
given some discretion in respect of some marginal cases, in consultation
with the State Govt., to include some places that had other distinct
urban characteristics and to exclude undeserving cases.

Census Definition Standard Urban areas
A new concept that had been developed for the 1971 Census for the
tabulation of certain urban data was the Standard Urban Area. The essential
of a Standard Urban Area are :
(i) It should have a core town of a minimum population size of 50,000.
(ii) The contiguous areas made up of other urban as well as rural
administrative units should have close utual socioeconomic links with the
core town.
(iii) The probabilities are that this entire area will get fully urbanised in a
period of two to three decades.
The idea is that it should be possible to provide comparable data for a
definite area of urbanisation continuously for three decades which would
give a meaningful picture.

INDIAN CENSUS - House-listings
• Building number
• Census house number
• Predominant material of floor, wall and roof
of the census house
• Ascertain use of actual house
• Condition of the census house
• Household number
• Total number of persons in the household
• Name of the head of the household
• Sex of the head
• Caste status (SC or ST or others)
• Ownership status of the house
• Number of dwelling rooms
• Number of married couple the household
• Main source of drinking water
• Availability of drinking water source
• Type of latrine facility
• Waste water outlet connection
• Bathing facility within the premise
• Availability of kitchen
• Fuel used for cooking
• Radio/Transistor
• Television
• Computer/Laptop
• Telephone/Mobile phone
• Bicycle
• Scooter/Motor cycle/Moped
• Car/Jeep/Van
• Availing Banking services.
The House-listing schedule contained 35 questions.

Census Meta Data on
Houselisting & Housing Census
Predominant material of Floor: Seven categories of floor materials have
been specified in Census 2011. Mud :1 , Wood/Bamboo : 2 , Burnt Brick 3 ,
Stone 4 , Cement 5 , Mosaic/Floor Tiles 6 , Any other 7
Predominant material of Wall:
Predominant material of Roof:
Pucca Building: A pucca building was treated as one which has its walls and
roof made of the following materials :
Wall material: Stones(duly packed with lime or cement mortar),
G.I/metal/asbestossheets, Burnt bricks, Cement bricks, Concrete.
Roof material: Machine-made tiles, Cement tiles, Burnt bricks, Cement bricks,
Stones, Slate, G.I./Metal/Asbestos sheets, Concrete.
Kutcha Building: Buildings, the walls and/or roof of which are predominantly
made of materials other than those mentioned above such as unburnt bricks,
bamboos, mud, grass, reeds, thatch, plastic/ polythene, loosely packed stone,
etc., were treated as Kutcha buildings.

Census Meta Data on
Use of Census house : This has two parts - one for recording the code
number for the use to which the Census House is put to and the second
part for actually writing down a description of the use.

Census Meta Data on
Condition of Census house:
The Enumerators were instructed to enquire regarding the condition of the
Census house only if it was used for residential or partly residential purpose
and if a normal household was found occupying the Census house. Based on
the perception of the respondent, condition of the Census houses, was
classified as ‘good’, ‘livable’ or ‘dilapidated’ and code ‘1’, ‘2’ or 3 assigned
respectively.
Good : Such census houses which do not require any repair and are
in fairly good condition.
Livable : Census houses which need minor repairs are recorded in
this category.
Dilapidated : Such census houses which show signs of decay or
those breaking down and required major repairs and are far from being
in condition that can be restored or repaired are considered as
dilapidated.

2011 Census houses in India
As per Census 2011, there are total of 24,46,41,582 census houses in
India in which
Urban India
In urban India, there is an aggregate of 7,84,84,979 census houses as
per Census 2011.
68.5 % are good,
28.6 % are livable
2.9% are dilapidated.
Rural India
As per Census 2011, there are total of 16,61,56,603 census house
rural India of which
46.0% are good,
47.5 % are livable
6.5% are in dilapidated condition.

Census Meta Data on
Ownership status of Census houses: If a household was self-occupying the
Census house owned by it and not making payments in the form of rent to
anyone, then the household was considered as living in an ‘owned’ house. A
household was treated as living in ‘rented’ house if rent was paid or contracted
for by the household in cash or kind. Accommodation provided by employer like
Government quarters, etc. was also treated as rented. The codes used were,
Owned-1/Rented-2/Any other-3.
Number of dwelling rooms exclusively in possession of the household: The
concept of a dwelling room in Census is any room with walls, a doorway and a
roof having width and length enough for a person to sleep in, i.e., a length of not
less than 2 metres, a breadth of at least 1.5 metres and a height of 2 metres. It
was specifically clarified to the enumerator that a dwelling room includes living
room, bedroom, dining room, drawing room, study room, servant’s room and
other habitable rooms provided it satisfies the criterion of above dimensions.
Kitchen, bathroom, latrine, store room, passageway and verandah which are not
normally used for living were not considered as dwelling rooms.

Dwelling Unit
Dwelling Unit is defined as the accommodation occupied by a household
for its residential purpose. It may be an entire structure or a part thereof
or may consist of more than one structure. On the other hand of more
than one household may be found to occupy a single structure such as
those living in independent flats or sharing a single housing unit, in which
case there will be one or more dwelling units depending upon the
number of households in occupancy of the structure.
“Dwelling Unit" means a structure or the part of a structure that is used
as a home, residence or sleeping place by one person who maintains a
household or by two or more persons who maintain a common
household.

Determinants of housing form
Physical factors
There is no doubt that physical factors are one the most influential
elements in effecting the formation of housing . Considering climate and
weather location of the residential space has a direct impact on choosing
the form of the house. One of the most important functions of a house it to
provide the need of shelter for human. Man has always tried to protect
himself again climate changes, therefore building appropriate houses
according to living climate is inevitable.
Building and construction technology
Over thousands of years human has used materials such as stone, clay,
wood, straw and … to build houses. Though archaeological findings show
that sometimes the materials needed for buildings and especially
ceremonial and ritual buildings, has been transmitted from distant lands, in
most cases the available materials have been used.

Site and location
The meaning of site and location is the place of building. Location can be
considered according to geography and topography of the place or the
purpose of housing is adjacent to other buildings in a bio complex. In this
matter we also cannot only consider ecologic algebra and claim that the
shape of the housing is chosen according to its location in city of village.
Defense
Defense is one the social components which effect on the form of the
buildings, fences, hedges, high walls and … are all to prevent others from
entering the buildings and sometimes even camouflage from the sight of
others, and have shaped the buildings. Housing is specially a building
which must provide the maximum security and also a sense of security.

Economy
There are numerous examples that show economy is one of the most
important determining factors in shaping the housing, and is one of the
most notable of them. But some evidence shows that human has made
houses according to the way of living and economic affordability of
himself. But there were also evidence that brings the shape of the building
out of monopoly of the economy and questions its unconditional effect.
Religion
The most significant non-physical form of coercion is commitment to
religious beliefs. The most extreme view about the role of religion on the
facet of home is that they consider home as a temple and a place for
praying.

Cultural-social factors
Socio-cultural forces have effect on much behaviour in human life:
dreams, dressing, study, lifestyle, interior design, type of eating food and
… they can also be under the influence of these main forces. Given the
breath and diversity of socio-cultural factors and forces affecting the shape
of the building, we can name a number of these factors in this field :
• The need for public and private spaces
• Social interactions
• Family structure and traditions governing them.

Housing demand refers to the willingness and ability to purchase a house.
Housing need refers to the number of houses required, given growth in
households, itself derived from household size and population grow in that
particular Area.
Essentially housing need is a number, derived from population and household size
projections, that makes no allowance for affordability. If those who need
houses are unable to afford houses, they don’t buy or demand them
Housing demand & Housing need

A deficiency or lack in the number of houses needed to accommodate the
population of an area is called as Housing Shortage of that particular Area.
Housing Shortage
The new needs for housing units get generated by the rate of growth and the
size of the future population as well as the rate of family household formation.
Besides, that portion of housing stock which becomes deterioration and obsolete
needs replacement over and above the needs arising out of the growth of
population and households.
Components of Housing Shortage : Households residing in unacceptable conditions
Obsolescence Factor
• Non Serviceable Katcha (temporary) Houses
• All bad houses excluding those less than 40 years old
• 80 years old houses(Old structurally week)
Congestion Factor (Unacceptable as per social norms)
• Households with one or more married couples
sharing room with a person aged 12 years or more
Houselessness
Households living without any house(open, pavements)

Distribution of estimated urban housing shortage in
India (million)
Factors As at end-2012
Households living in non-serviceable katcha houses 0.99
Households living in obsolescent houses 2.27
Households living in congested houses 14.99
Households in homeless condition 0.53
Total Urban Housing shortage 18.78
I. Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) 10.55 (56%)
II. Low Income Group (LIG) 7.41 (40%)
III. Medium and High income group (MIG+HIG) 0.82 (4%)
Note: Values in parentheses are percentage shares.
Source: Report of Technical Group (TG-12) on Estimation of Urban Housing Shortage
2012, Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation.
Housing Shortage

No. Component Rural Urban Total
I Number of Households x1 x2 x1+x2=x3
II Number of Occupied Houses y1 y2 y1+y2=y3
III Shortage( Over Crowding) (x1-y1)=z1 (x2-y2)=z2 z1+z2=z3
IV Houseless Families ( estimated) a1 a2 a1+a2=a3
V Total Quantitative Shortage z1+a1=a4 z2+a2=a5 a4+a5=a6
Estimation of Housing Shortage
The methodology to find out housing shortage is illustrated in
given table below. The data is to be taken from census for
particular area. Quantitative housing shortage for a given
period and for a particular area can be derived from census.
The cumulative housing shortage is given by a4 for rural and a5 for urban. The summation
a6 gives the total housing shortage.

The total shortage both quantitative and Qualitative is arrived by ‘α’ for rural ‘β’ for urban and ‘γ’ as
total.
No. Component Rural Urban Total
I Houseless families a1 a2 a3
II Overcrowding Families z1 z2 z3
III Houses below minimal Standards c1 c2 c3
IV Total Shortage both Quantitative and
Qualitative.
a1+z1+c1= α a2+z2+c2=β a3+z3+c3=γ
For calculating quantitative and qualitative housing shortage we need to
classify, and to estimate the number of houses, which are below minimal ,
accepted standards.
Assessment of shortage of Housing
both by Quantity and Quality

The Housing Age is defined as the timeframe of a building/house till it remains
livable for the households or till its demolition from the time of its construction
and demolition have different aspects like Socio-economic condition of a region
and household, Natural Disasters etc.
The Housing Age depends on various factors:
Housing Age
• Type of Construction
• Material & Techniques Used in Construction
• Social- Economic conditions of a Region and Household

 Type of Construction:
 Pucca:
 Semi-pucca:
 Katcha structure:
 Material & Techniques Used in Construction: Advancement in Material &
Techniques used in construction has considerably increased the present Housing Age.
But Historical buildings have more Housing Age compared to the present Housing
age due to their unique building Techniques and Materials used in construction which
is not possible in present context due to many constraints like Construction time,
Finances included etc.
 Social- Economic conditions of a Region and Household: Housing Age also
depends on Social-Economic condition of a Region and Household, it defines the
type of construction, material and technique to be used e.g. economically weaker
section cannot afford advance technique and material use in construction.
Housing Age

Occupancy Rate is defined as the total number of occupants usually
resident in private dwellings divided by the total number of occupied
private dwellings. This gives the average number of people per dwelling
or simply average household size.
Crowding
Crowding in households relates to situations where the number of people
residing in a household exceeds the capacity of the household to provide
adequate shelter and services to its members.
Occupancy Rate

There are three methodologies adopted internationally to
estimate housing affordability:
(i) Expenditure Method or Housing Cost Burden: The ratio of
housing expenditure to household income is used to measure affordability.
Housing expenditure covers all the costs related to housing including rentals,
mortgage repayments, utilities and maintenance costs. Housing units can be
classified as affordable if the ratio is less than some cut-off value. The
choice of this cut-off is judgemental; however, as a thumb rule, it is taken to
be 30 per cent.
(ii) Median Multiple Indicator: Under this approach, the median
house price is divided by median household annual income to derive
housing affordability.
Demographia International, an organisation which conducts survey across
countries for affordable housing, considers price to income ratio below 3 to
classify housing units as affordable
Income and Housing affordability

(iii) Housing and Transport (H+T): In this method, transport costs are also
included with housing costs to measure affordability.
The underlying idea is that congestion in cities has led to rise in human
settlements at long distances from the city centre, which has resulted in
increase in costs and time spent in commuting.
Need for Affordable Urban Housing in India
As per the Report of the Technical Group (TG-12) on Estimation of Urban
Housing Shortage (2012), there has been a huge gap in demand and supply
of urban housing in India.
The economically weaker sections (EWS) 56 % housing shortage
low income group (LIG) 40% housing shortage
Total = 96% of the total housing shortage in India are of EWS & LIG
Income and Housing affordability

There are various factors affecting the pace of affordable housing
development in India and restricting private sector participation:
(i) lack of suitable low cost land within the city limits;
(ii) lengthy statutory clearance and approval process;
(iii) shortcomings in development norms, planning and project
design;
(iv) lack of participation of large organised real estate players due to
low profit margins;
(v) high cost of funds for construction finance making the projects
unviable;
(vi) lack of suitable mechanism for maintenance;
(vii) challenges in beneficiary selection;
(viii) capacity constraint or inadequate capacity of the implementing
agencies
Challenges in Affordable housing
development in INDIA

Poverty can be defined as a social phenomenon in which a section of the
society is unable to fulfill even its basic necessities of life. In India the
generally accepted definition of poverty emphasizes minimum level of living
rather than a reasonable level of living.
Poverty is defined as a lack of income to acquire minimum necessities of life;
per capita income, per capita consumption expenditure, per capita calorie
intake and availability of the size of land holding are the main indicators of
poverty in different definitions
An absolute poverty line is fixed in terms of the standard indicator being
used and fixed over the entire domain of the poverty comparison. An
absolute poverty line is essential if one is trying to judge the effect of anti-
poverty policies over time or to estimate impact of a project (for example,
microcredit) on poverty.
Relative Poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on
social context, hence relative poverty is a measure of income inequality.
Usually, relative poverty is measured as the percentage of population with
income less than some fixed proportion of median income
Poverty

To determine the poverty line various committees have been formed
after independence in India .
Poverty Line
Author / Agency Year Criterion of Poverty line Income per day
Planning
commission
Expert Group
1993 Monthly per capita
Consumption
Expenditure
Rs. 49 (Rural)
Rs. 57 (Urban)
Suresh
Tendulkar
committee
2009 Consumption
Expenditure
Rs. 122 (Rural)
Rs. 158 (Urban)
NSSO (55th
round)
1999-2000 Consumption
Expenditure
Rs. 211 (Rural)
Rs. 454 (Urban)
Source: Yojana, August 2012, Pg.no. 18-19

 As per census 2011 India is home to 4.5 lakh houseless families which
has total population of 17.73 Lakh living without any support roof
cover.
 The highest being living in state of Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra.
 Rural Houseless population is 8.3 Lakh in India which is 47.1%
 Urban Houseless population is 9.4 lakh in India which is 52.9%
 In Rajasthan State Houseless population is 1.8 lakh in which
 Rural Houseless population is 59.7% (1.08 Lakh)
 Urban Houseless population is 40.3% (73 thousand)
Houseless population
Source : https://data.gov.in/resources/state-ut-wise-houseless-population-india-census-2011-10-08-2017-
ministry-housing-and-urban

Housing can be divided under following category
Housing Typologies
A. Occupancy type
Owned dwelling Units
Quarters ( dwelling units allotted/provided by
employer private/public for specific period of time)
Other rented /hired accommodations
B. Type of Construction
Single Detached House
Semi Detached House
Row House
Tenements - Group Housing, Apartments/Flats- Low rise,
Mid rise and High rise, Skyscrapers
Slums, Chawls, Bastees

C. Type of structure :
The structures have been classified into three distinctcategories,
on the basis of the materials used in construction thereof.
 Pucca,
 Semi-pucca
 Katcha,
Housing Typologies

Owned dwelling Units - A household has owner-like possession
of the occupied dwelling constructed on a plot of land taken under
long-term lease (usually 30 years or more) then it is treated as
“owned”. Likewise, the dwelling unit possessed under a long-term
lease by the household has also been treated as under owner-like
possession i.e. “owned”.
Quarters - The accommodation occupied is provided or allotted
by the employer, Public or Private, to any member of the
household on lease or on rent for a short term then the dwelling
has been treated as “quarter”.
Other rented /hired accommodations - The dwelling is leased
or rented in by the household on its own for which payment is
made periodically then the occupancy is treated as hired and
classified under “other hired accommodation”.
Housing classifications
Based on the Occupancy

The structures have been classified into three distinct categories, on
the basis of the materials used in construction thereof.
 Pucca - structure whose walls are made of permanent materials
like burnt bricks, stone, cement, concrete, jack board(cement -
plastered reeds), mosaic, tiles or timber. RCC, Tiles, galvanized
tin or asbestos cement sheets used in construction of roofs.
 Semi-pucca - structure whose either the roof or the walls, but not
both, is made like that of a pucca structure
 Katcha - structure whose walls and roofs are made up with
perishable materials like mud, bamboo, grass, leaves, reeds,
thatch or unburnt bricks.
Based on the Structural Conditions

Single-Detached House – A single dwelling not attached to
any other dwelling or structure (except its own garage or
shed.) A single-detached house has open space on all sides,
and has no dwellings either above it or below it.
Based on the type of construction

Semi-Detached House – One of the two dwellings attached side by
side (or back to back) to each other, but not attached to any other
dwelling or structure (except its own garage or shed.) A semi-
detached dwelling has no dwellings either above it or below it and
the two units, together, have open space on all sides.

Row House – One of three or more dwellings joined side by side
(or occasionally side to back), such as a town house or garden
home, but not having any other dwellings either above it or
below.

Apartment or Flat – An apartment or a flat consists of 3-15 storey
and each floor or storey may accommodate 2-4 tenements. The Land
and other common amenities appurtenant to flats are shared by all
the occupants. The individual flat owner has no future scope either
vertical or horizontal expansion.

Skyscrapers – The growing need of land and consequently sudden
shooting rise in price of land in big and metro cities further led the
concept of multi-storeyed buildings, popularly known as
skyscrapers.
A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building of
many floors, usually designed for office, commercial and
residential use. There is no official definition or height above
which a building may be classified as a skyscraper and at which
height it may not be considered a high-rise anymore.
The Frank Lloyd Wright Skyscrapers

Group Housing – A housing society or apartment associations is a
situation popular in India with a group of house owners within a
residential complex, usually one consisting of buildings that each
have flats. A housing society's apartments or premises are formed as
per relevant laws for smooth functioning of utilities and other
amenities provided to them. The housing society formed must be
formally registered with registrar of co-operatives. In India,
each state has its own rules in this regard. Each building in same
premise may have separate housing society or one. Many housing
societies form one federation. Housing societies run on the service
charges levied by them on house or flat owners. Some of the
housing societies in Mumbai are cash rich, having millions of
rupees in their bank account.

The Managing Committee takes care of the affairs of the Housing
Society like appointment of service providers, maintenance of
Society premises, solving member's grievances, maintenance of
books of accounts and taking care of safety and security.
It can also be defined as a third type of domestic architecture which
accommodates the group rather than the unit and is therefore public
as well as private. It is familiar through the widespread development
of mass housing in the modern world, in which individuals or
families find living space either in multiple dwellings or in single
units produced in quantity.

Community housing is social housing assistance delivered by community
organisations and local governments. Example of community housing in India
are
1. Chawls , Mumbai : Many chawls were built during the nineteenth
century and twentieth century. They were built by government or
private landlords to accommodate the migrants coming from
villages due to the rising employment opportunities in early Mumbai.
Chawls are buildings with one room or two room units of not more
than two hundred square feet attached by a common corridor with
shared toilets on each floor.
2. Aranya Low Cost Housing, Indore : A fully serviced plot is
allocated to each EWS household together with the basic building
core (i.e. W.C., wash and kitchen) which can be extended by the
occupants at their own pace and with their own resources
Community Housing

Definition: Informal settlements are:
1. areas where groups of housing units have been constructed on land that
the occupants have no legal claim to, or occupy illegally;
2. unplanned settlements and areas where housing is not in compliance with
current planning and building regulations (unauthorized housing).
Informal settlements

Squatter housing is built on land squatted on or bought in violation of the
subdivision and building laws. Generally speaking, rough construction is
finished in one or two nights. The low development costs are due to free or
very nominal land rent, low quality materials, no or nominal labour costs, low
standards, and a small house size (number of rooms). However, the house
improves with time as the family can afford it. The construction process is
gradual rather than instant. Such a building process requires a minimum
building investment.
There are various reasons for the existence of squatter housing in the
developing countries. Among these, we can cite very rapid rate of urbanization
amidst very scarce resources and a low level of formal employment;
industrialization, and modernization, rapid demographic growth; a slow and
inflexible process of a land use planning and a low supply of urban land; the
gap existing between the norms and priorities of the planning regulations and
the priorities and means of the people; demand for central locations by the
middle and higher income groups and the resultant inadequate supply of old
depleted formal housing near the central business district, etc.
Squatter housing

Most serious problems of all the cities and town is
Slums and squatter settlements
It is byproduct of industrialization , rapid urbanization and lack of
planning.
Migrated people are forced to live in slums encroach upon unused /
undeveloped govt. land or disputed land.
Slums / squatter settlement are usually occupied by
Slums and squatter settlements
1. Industrial workers with low
salaries
2. Scavengers
3. Petty Hawkers
4. Casual Labourers

For the purpose of Census, slums have been categorized and defined as of the
following three types:
1. Notified Slums : All notified areas in a town or city notified as ‘Slum’ by
State, UT Administration or Local Government under any Act including a
‘Slum Act’
2. Recognized Slums : All areas recognised as ‘Slum’ by State, UT
Administration or Local Government, Housing and Slum Boards, which
may have not been formally notified as slum under any act
3. Identified Slums : A compact area of at least 300 population or about 60-
70 households of poorly built congested tenements, in unhygienic
environment usually with inadequate infrastructure and lacking in proper
sanitary and drinking water facilities (Identified).
Slums category as par census

Slum upgrading is a process through which informal areas are gradually
improved, formalized and incorporated into the city itself, through extending
land, services and citizenship to slum dwellers
common issues addressed by slum upgrading programs are :
a) Legalization of tenure status for sites and houses, including regularization
of rental agreements to ensure improved tenure.
b) Provision or improvement of technical services e.g., water, waste and
waste water management, sanitation, electricity, road pavement, street
lighting, etc.
c) Provision or improvement of social infrastructure such as schools, clinics,
community centers, playgrounds, green areas, etc.
d) Physical improvement of the built environment, including
rehabilitation/improvement of existing housing stock.
Slum up-gradation

e) Construction of new housing units (Housing construction can but doesn’t
necessarily form part of upgrading schemes. Often enhancing and
rehabilitating the existing housing stock is much more sensible and effective
and can be achieved at little cost through legalization of tenure status or
regularization of rental agreements.)
f) Changes in regulatory framework to better suit the needs and opportunities
available to the poor, as far as possible keeping to existing settlement
patterns.
Slum up-gradation

Slum Housing scheme in India
1 Indira Awas Yojana (1990)
2 EWS Housing Scheme for Beedi workers and Hamals (1991)
2 National Slum Development Programme (1996)
3 A two million Housing Programme for EWS (1998)
4 PM Gramin Awas Yojana (2000)
5 Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojana (VAMBAY) (2001)
6 Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission JNNURM(2005)
 Basic Services to Urban Poor (BSUP)
 Integrated Housing & Slum Development Programme (IHSDP)
7 PMAY-U (2017)
Slum up-gradation

Sites and services schemes were the first widespread, controlled, formal, and
comprehensive planned progressive development strategy. These projects
centered their attention in the provision of land and basic infrastructure. They
relied on the potential of low-income group's self-help efforts for the
provision of the individual dwelling as demonstrated in informal housing such
as squatter settlements and slums.
The housing agencies retained the tasks of preparing the land, laying out the
streets, blocks and plots, and providing services and facilities in several
fashions. Households were responsible for the incremental construction of
the dwelling and, in some cases, for participating in works related to the
general improvement of the community.
Slum up-gradation : Sites and services schemes

An Night shelter is designed to offer refuge to homeless people and access to
basic services like drinking water, sanitation and safety. The homeless people
at cities are a result of migration from different states to cities majorly in
search of livelihood. Obviously, they are from different social, cultural,
religious and ethnic backgrounds.
In Eighth-Five Year plan (1992-97), the Footpath Dwellers Night Shelter
Scheme (NSS) was created and funds of INR 2.27 crores were allocated for
two years.
NGO’s involved in campaign to fight for the rights of the homeless people in
India and make the State accountable towards their rights are:
 Humana People to People India (HPPI)
 Aashray Adhikar Abhiyan (AAA) AAA has been working in collaboration
with Delhi Government through Delhi Urban Shelter Improvement Board
(DUSIB) to manage shelters across Delhi.
 Urja Trust
Night shelters
रैन बसेरा

Priority-wise amenities that needed in Night shelters are
1. Psycho-social counselling,
2. Facility of referral and transport,
3. Utensils for cooking,
4. Childcare facilities,
5. Waste management,
6. Adequate fire safety measures,
7. Recreation space,
8. Pest and mosquito control,
9. First aid
10. Kitchen/cooking space and equipment needed for cooking
Amenities in Night shelters (रैन बसेरा)
Night shelter of Bagru, Jaipur . A
Victim of municipality and contractor

Poorly planned or unplanned housing represent a major public health
challenge.
Overcrowded, substandard housing facilitates the spread of infectious
diseases, such as tuberculosis, hepatitis, dengue fever, pneumonia, cholera
and malaria.
Poor sanitation and lack of access to safe food and water contribute to high
prevalence of diarrhoea within slums.
The lack of structurally sound, climate-adapted and ventilated homes further
puts the health of slum dwellers at risk of climate change-related extreme
weather – including heat waves, cold or storms.
There are six million known cases of Alzheimer’s or dementia gives
importance to dementia-friendly Retirement housing in India .
Public health Issues

In particular, low-income families are affected by the lack of housing and sub-
standard housing. Currently, about 828 million individuals live in sub-standard
housing (UNDP, 2018). Moreover, the urban poor primarily live in cramped
conditions, often in dangerous neighborhoods. Living in sub-standard housing
leads to a variety of health issues including respiratory and neurological
disorders and psychological and neurological illnesses.
Deteriorating conditions in housing often have harmful chemical
contaminants that affect vulnerable individuals. Moreover, mold, bugs, mice
and rats, and environmental toxins tend to be more commonly found in these
homes. These domiciles are also often situated near highways and other
major traffic intersections resulting in ambient particulate matter and diesel
fumes pervading living quarters with high levels of contamination .
Public health Issues

Housing plays an important role in development of a
Region/Nation:
 Housing constitutes the major investment in contributing to the up
gradation of the level of living of the people. It has both direct and indirect
impact on the economy of the Nation in general and families in particular.
 Good Housing improves the living standard, especially of the low and
lower income groups, whose living conditions are generally poor.
 It plays multiple role of creating employment facilities, accelerating
economic growth, maintaining health and social stability and preserving
values of a descent family life.
 Good Housing brings down unsocial activities, crimes, which breed and
grow in slums and squatter settlements and also discourages their
development.
Housing : Important component of
Development

The increase in housing activity needs more building materials like bricks, tiles,
timber products, sand metal, electrical and sanitary equipments, plumbing
materials etc. Most of them produced by small scale industries, thus leading to
development of more industries and thereby more job opportunities.
Housing brings considerable income to the Central, State and Local Governments
by ways of
• Stamp Duty and registration charges
• Building License fees
• Property tax
• Building tax
• Sales tax on materials purchased
• Service Tax etc
Thus any amount invested in Housing has multiplier effect and therefore it is a
productive and developmental activity. In general, it can be stated that the housing
has potentiality to a great extent in promoting human welfare, social life,
economic growth, health of community and various other related aspects of human
life.
Housing : Important component of
Development

The National Urban Housing & Habitat Policy 2007
 Focus of the Policy is on affordable urban housing with special emphasis on
the urban poor.
 Role of Housing and provision of basic services to the urban poor has been
integrated into the objectives of the Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal
Mission (JNNURM).
 Special emphasis has been laid on Scheduled Castes / Tribes / Backward
Classes / Minorities, empowerment of Women within the ambit of the
urban poor.
 The Policy focuses on a symbiotic development of rural and urban areas in
line with the objectives of the 74th Constitution Amendment Act.
 Within the overarching goal of "Affordable Housing for All," emphasis has
been laid on urban planning, increase supply of land, use of spatial
incentives like additional Floor Area Ratio (FAR), Transferable
Development Rights, etc., increased flow of funds, healthy environment,
effective solid waste management and use of renewal sources of energy.
National Housing Policy

 Encouraging Integrated townships and Special Economic Zones.
 10-15% of land in every new public/private housing projects or
or 20-25% FAR whichever is greater to be reserved for
EWS/LIG Housing through appropriate spatial incentives.
 Private Sector to be permitted land assembly within the purview
of Master Plans. Action Plans for urban slum dwellers and
special package for cooperative housing, labour housing and
employees housing is to be prepared.
 States to be advised to develop 10 years perspective plan for
housing of EWS/LIG.
 Policy gives primacy to provision of shelter to urban poor at
their present location or near their work place.
The National Urban Housing & Habitat Policy
2007

 Approach will be in-situ slum rehabilitation. Relocation will be
considered only in specific cases.
 Micro finance institutions to be promoted at state level to
expedite flow of finances to urban poor.
 Model municipal laws to be prepared by the Central
Government.
 Detailed city maps to be prepared based on GIS, aerial survey
and ground verification.
 Use of proven cost effective technology and building materials
to be encouraged.
 Green cover for cities to be encouraged for balanced ecological
development.
The National Urban Housing & Habitat Policy
2007

A roof for each family in India. The call given for ‘Housing for
all’ by 2022 would require
 2 crore houses in urban areas
 4 crore houses in rural areas
Each house in the country should have basic facilities of 24-
hour power supply, clean drinking water, a toilet, and be
connected to a road
Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana (Gramin)
Under the PMAY (Gramin) in the next three years from 2016-
17 to 2018-19, there is a target for construction of 1 crore
houses in rural areas.
12th Five Year Plan 2012-2017
Housing provisions

Important elements of PMAY- U are :
i) Rehabilitation of existing slum dwellers, using land as
resource through participation of private developers in situ,
wherever possible and in unavoidable cases by relocation.
ii) Promotion of affordable housing through credit linked
subsidy.
iii) Affordable Housing in partnership.
iv) Subsidy for beneficiary led individual house construction
or enhancement.
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana Urban PMAY-
U

(i) In-situ slum redevelopment (ISSR): using land as resource, the
scheme aims to provide houses to eligible slum dwellers by redeveloping the
existing slums on public/ private land. Under this scheme, a grant of 1 lakh per
house is provided by the central government to the planning and implementing
authorities of the states/UTs.
(ii) Credit-linked subsidy scheme (CLSS):
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana Urban
PMAY-U
under this scheme, easy institutional
credit is provided to EWS, LIG and MIG
households for purchase of homes with
interest subsidy credited upfront to the
borrower’s account through primary
lending institutions (PLIs), effectively
reducing housing loan and equated
monthly instalments (EMI).

(iii) Affordable housing in partnership (AHP): it aims to
provide ﬁnancial assistance to private developers to boost
private participation in affordable housing projects; central
assistance is provided at the rate of 1.5 lakh per EWS house
in private projects where at least 35 per cent of the houses
are constructed for the EWS category.
(iv) Beneﬁciary-led construction or enhancement (BLC): this
scheme involves central assistance of 1.5 lakh per family for
new construction or extension of existing houses for the
EWS/ LIG.
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana Urban
PMAY-U

Various Provisions for Affordable Housing :-
 Provision-1A
Mandatory Provisions for Residential Schemes of ULBs/UITs/Development
Authorities/RHB and Private Developers – for Private Developers 7.5% FAR
is required to be reserved for EWS/LIG houses, For UITs/ Development
Authorities/ ULBs 25% of scheme area is to be reserved for EWS/LIG
houses and for RHB 50% of houses would be for EWS/LIG category.
 Provision-1B
Mandatory Provisions for the proposed industrial Areas of RIICO and
Private Developers – In Industrial Schemes 5% area would be reserved for
EWS/LIG category.
CM’s Jan Awas Yojana -2015

 Provision-2
Development of Affordable Houses by Private Developer on Private Land in
Partnership – In the Scheme of minimum 2 hectares minimum 50% area will be
used for construction of EWS/LIG units and these will be allotted to eligible
EWS/LIG families by the concerned Local Authority. Remaining 50% area may
be used for Residential Development. Certain incentives such as waiver of Land
conversion/ Land use change of land and Building Plan Approval Charges on
100% Land area along with free FAR up to 2.25.
 Provision-3A
Development of EWS/LIG flats by Private Developer on whole of Private Land
(flatted development, Multistory format) – Basic objective of this provision is
to create Housing Stock of EWS/LIG segment and to attract Private Developers
to construct 100% EWS/LIG category houses on their own Land. Certain
incentives of additional height along with waiver of Land conversion/ Land use
change of land and Building Plan Approval Charges on 100% Land area along
with free FAR up to 2.25.

 Provision-3B
Development of EWS/LIG houses by Private Developer on whole of
Private Land (Plotted development with G+3 format) – Since in smaller
Towns Multistoried Flats are not acceptable hence the provision of Low
rise houses is also given with the objective of creating Housing Stock of
EWS/LIG segment and to attract Private Developers to construct 100%
EWS/LIG category houses on their own Land. Certain incentives as
waiver of Land conversion/ Land use change of land and Building Plan
Approval Charges on 100% Land area along with free FAR up to 2.25
 Provision – 4 – Construction of EWS/LIG Houses on Government
Land :-
4A - By allotment of Government Land
4A (i) Affordable Housing on Government Land by Private Developer
in 75:25 ratio (75% land for EWS/LIG and 25% for other categories)on
G+3 format.

4A(ii) Affordable Housing on Government Land by Private Developer in 75:25
ratio(75% land for EWS/LIG and 25% for other categories) on multistoried
format.
 Provision 4B – By allotment of Government Land by Bidding –
 Affordable Housing on Government Land minimum of 1 Hact by Private
Developer with price of land as bid parameters:
 In cities with population 3 lacs and above in 75:25 ratio.
 In cities with population above 1 lac up to 3 lacs in 60:40 ratio.
 In cities with population less than 1 lac in 50:50 ratio.
 Provision-4C
Affordable Housing on Government Land above 10 Hect. by Private Developer
in Joint Development Agreement.

Factors affecting housing types & design are :
 Life style : Lifestyle measurement based on personal
perception of statements focused on activities, interests, and
opinions on general or specific topics or conditions.
 Ceremonies : Griha Pravesh, Diwali ,Holi, Rakhi etc.
 Caste system : Brahmins. The highest of all the castes, and
traditionally priests or teachers, Kshatriyas. Meaning
“protector of the gentle people,” Kshatriyas were
traditionally the military class. Vaishyas, Shudras, Adivasi.
& Dalits.
 Religious belief & Location: Proximity to Mandir, Masjid,
Religious and community space.
Social Factors affecting Housing

 Size of Family: sufficient space for all family members to
live comfortably Single family or Joint family or HUF (
Hindu undivided Family )
 Special needs: no stairs for disabled or elderly, Granny flats,
wide doorways
 Time The length of time going to be spent in the house
 Vastu : Old age mythological and cosmological orientation
of house has taken the name of vastu.
 Status & Security : Home ownership is very important to
Indian social status criteria.
Social Factors affecting Housing

As per IS 8888 (part-I) : 1993
Indian Standard OF LOW INCOME HOUSING - GUIDE
Plot Size
The minimum plot size with ground coverage not exceeding 75 % shall
 not be less than 40 m2 in small and medium town
 not less than 30 m2 in metropolitan cities.
Plot sizes below 30 m2 but not less than 15 m2 may be permitted in
case of cluster planning, however, in such cases the
 ground coverage shall be 100 %
 FSI shall be 2 %
Minimum Frontage
 The minimum frontage of the plot shall be 3.6 m in width
Housing Standards

The density norms for plotted development and mixed development shall
be as follows:
Type of Development : Range of Densities ( Gross )
Plotted development 65-120 plots per hectare
Mixed development
Small towns 75-100 dwelling units per hectare
Cities 100-125 dwelling units per hectare
Metropolitan Cities 125-150 dwelling units per hectare
In case of developments with per dwelling unit covered area of 15 m2
maximum densities of 500 dwelling units per hectare shall be permissible.
Housing Standards IS 8888 (part-I) : 1993

GENERAL BUILDING REQUIREMENT
Size of Room :
Every dwelling unit to be provided should. have at least two habitable
rooms. Even if one room house is provided initially it should be capable of
adding a new second room in future. However, in case single room
tenaments are required to be provided where future additions are not
possible, the carpet area of the multi- purpose single room, should be at
least 15.5 m2.
In a house of two rooms; first room shall not be less than 9.0 m2 with
minimum width of 2.5 m and second room shall be not less than 6.5 m2
with a minimum width of 2.1 m provided the total area of both the rooms is
not less than 15.5 m2. In incremental housing the bigger room shall
always be the first room
Housing Standards
IS 8888 (part-I) : 1993

W.C. Bath Room
i) Size of independent WC shall be
0.90 m2 with minimum width of 90
cm
ii) Size of independent bath room
shall be 1.20 m2 with minimum width
of 1 m
iii) Size of combined bathroom and
WC shall be 1.80 m2 with minimum
width of 1 m.
Kitchen
The size of a cooking alcove serving
as cooking space shall not be less
than 2.4 m2 with a minimum width of
1.2 m. The size of individual kitchen
provided in two-roomed house shall
not be less than 3.3 m2 with a
minimum width of 1.5 m.
Minimum Height
The minimum height of rooms
spaces shalt- be as follow
a) Habitable room 2.6 m
b) Kitchen 2.6 m
c) Bath/W.C. 2.1 m
d) Corridor 2.1 m
In the case of sloping roofs, the
average height of roof for habitable
rooms shall be 2.6 m and the
minimum height at eaves shall be
2.0 m.
Housing Standards
IS 8888 (part-I) : 1993

Lighting and Ventilation
The openings through windows, ventilators and other openings for
lighting and ventilation shall be as follows:
a) One-tenth of the room floor area for dry- hot climate.
b) One-sixth of the room floor area for wet- hot climate.
Housing Standards
IS 8888 (part-I) : 1993
Stairs
The following criteria shall be
adopted for internal individual
staircase:
a) Minimum width
i. 2 storeyed - straight 0.60 m
ii. 2 storeyed - winding O-75 m
iii. 3 or more storeyed - 0.75 m
straight
iv. 3 or more storeyed - 0.90 m
winding
b) Riser 20 cm, Max
c) Tread
i. 2 storeyed 22.5 cm, Min (
see Note) *
ii. 3 storeyed or more 25 cm,
Min
d) Head Room - The minimum
clear head room shall be 2.1 m.
NOTE - This could be reduced to 20 cm as the
clear tread between perpends, with possibility
of open riser as well as nosing and inclined
riser to have an effective tread of 22.5 cm.

The water supply standards as indicated by the CPHEEO for different
types of town / cities are :
1 Towns provided with piped water supply but without sewerage system
Recommended maximum water supply levels should be 70 lpcd
2 Cities provided with piped water supply where sewerage system is exi
sting / contemplated Recommended maximum water supply levels
should be 135 lpcd
3 Metropolitan and Mega cities provided with piped water supply where
sewerage system is existing/contemplated Recommended maximum wa
ter supply levels should be 150 lpcd ( Litre Per Capita per Day )
Housing Standards
Water Supply Standards

As per CPHEEO manual, 80% of water supply may be expected to reach
the sewers however it recommends designing minimum wastewater flow
of 100 LPCD
Housing Standards
Sewerage and Sanitation Standards

The Housing Standards-Factors Influencing
1. Per capita floor space
2. Family income
3. Family size and composition
4. Standard of living Life style
5. Stage in life cycle
6. Education and cultural factors
7. Cultural diversity
8. Climate and
9. Social traditions
In short, there cannot be rigid standards. However, minimum standards
are still maintained by available resources and objectives.
Relevance of standard in housing

Social Goals of Housing
1. Shelter: That the house should provide a sanitary shelter, which is
a basic need.
2. Family life: house should provide adequate space for family life
and related activities, viz preparation and storage of food,
relaxation, recreation etc
3. Access to community facilities; health services, schools,
shopping areas, places of worship etc.
4. Family participation in community life
5. Economic stability: Housing is a form of investment of personal
savings. It provides for economic stability and well being of the
family.
Relevance of standard in housing

1. The stock of housing is heterogeneous: dwellings differ in size,
location, age, floor plan, interior features, and utilities.
2. Housing is immobile: it is impractical to move dwellings from one
location to another.
3. Housing is durable: if properly maintained, a dwelling can be used
for several decades.
4. Housing is expensive: to purchase a dwelling, the typical
household must borrow a large sum of money.
5. Moving costs are relatively high: in addition to the substantial
monetary cost of moving, there are also costs associated with
leaving the old neighbourhood – with its schools, stores, and friends
– behind.
6. Neighbourhood background: some people care about the racial
and ethnic background of their neighbours, leading to racial
discrimination and segregation.
Why housing is critical ?
Six features make housing different from other goods.

1. Public Agencies
1. Housing Boards , e.g. RHB (Rajasthan Housing Board)
2. The Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO)
2. Private Agencies
1. Cooperative housing society
2. Private real estate developers
Housing Development Agencies

The Rajasthan Housing Board was established on 24th Feb, 1970 by
promulgation of an RHB Act No. 4, of 1970 (received the assent of The
Governor on the 18 April 1970) by the Government of Rajasthan as an
autonomous body to provide for measures to be taken to deal with &
satisfy the need of Housing accommodation in State of Rajasthan.
The Board consists of a chairman, appointed by The State Government and
of six non official members, nominated by The Government and official
Members-Principal Secretary to Government (UDH), Secretary to
Government (Finance), Chief Town Planner, Rajasthan and the Housing
Commissioner of the Board.
Jawahar Nagar , Shastri Nagar , Malviya Nagar, Mansarovar & Pratap nagar
are developed by RHB in Jaipur
Rajasthan housing board (RHB)

Housing co-operatives were functioning in Jaipur city since 1945,
though the scale of their activities was rather limited. The societies
used to purchase agricultural lands on the fringes of the city,
subdivide it into residential plots and sell them to their members.
These societies were registered with the Registrar of Co-operative
Societies; the only preconditions for registration were that the society
should have a minimum of 15 members and that it should be in
possession of a piece of land.
Rajasthan Co-operative Societies Act (Act No. 16 of 2002) is enforced
in Rajasthan in 2001 to register Housing Co-operative Society. Under
this act government appoint registrar of cooperatives societies in the
state. Housing societies shall be regulated by a set of byelaws
registered under the societies act.
Housing co-operatives societies (Grah
Nirman Sahkari Samiti) GNSS

Role of housing in development of family well
being
Housing plays a dual-centered relationship in society: on the one hand, housing
provides a service as it is an accommodation, and on the other it is an asset,
especially through home ownership, for families. Housing is a major cost, but it can
also represent a key means to saving and wealth accumulation. The growth of
homeownership raises questions about the role of housing and intergenerational
transfers of financial resources within families.
Housing encompasses a bundle of characteristics that are integral to family well-
being. On a physical level, housing must be decent and safe, as well as present in a
family's life. Housing is also critical because of the way in which it relates to its
occupants,
1. providing sufficient space so that the family is not overcrowded
2. being affordable
3. providing opportunities to create a positive sense of self and empowerment
4. providing stability and security.

Role of housing in development of family
well being
Housing in development of family well being

Role of housing in development of family
well being
Intergenerational transfers of financial resources :
A recent financial trend suggests that especially in India, the increase in house
prices has put middle and upper-class parents in a stronger position to provide
financial support to their adult children, thereby strengthening family
relationships. A wealth transfer from parents to adult children is made possible due
to an increase in the standard of living combined with the rising value of homes.
The growth in resources has enabled parents to assist their adult children through
intergenerational wealth transfers to enter the housing market. The same trend,
the increase in housing prices, has also made it more difficult for adult children to
buy homes. They, thus, are becoming more dependent on receiving financial
assistance from their families, illustrating that intergenerational family solidarity is
critical and relevant even for well-to-do individuals.

Housing , Health and Wellbeing of Community
.
Relationships of Housing with Health and Wellbeing

Socio Economic Status related to Housing
Socioeconomic status varies from one household to the other which provides social
picture at a glance such as occupation, income and education. Low income level can
be a barrier for household from selecting a dwelling and place to live. On the other
hand Lower-income groups also tend to have more friends, acquaintances and
relatives in the housing estate than higher-income groups, which might result in
greater satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
Socioeconomic variables :
1. Length of stay; the period of residency over time within a given dwelling unit
or housing environment.
2. Type of housing has been found to have significant influence on housing
satisfaction
3. Occupation
4. Income level
social, cultural and behavioral elements within the entire societal environment
influenced the habitability of a house . Perception towards housing and
neighborhood settings. Previous housing experience as well as residential mobility
and future intention to move

Safety & Security in Housing
In language, security is the opposite of fear and worry. It means providing protection
and security to members of society from any danger that may occur. Other definitions
include:
a) The state in which man is protected or far from a danger that threatens him. It is
also a feeling that frees from fear.
b) Security is a condition not a feeling and the feeling of security is a reflection of
this condition on the self.
c) The person’s feeling of serenity as a result of absence of danger that may
threatens him or possessing the means to face such dangers.
Safety and security are related to settlement and serenity(श ांति). In order to differentiate
between the two concepts, they can be defined as follows:
- Security: a material need such as security from theft, break in or terrorism. It
could be achieved through preventing a danger or facing it when it occurs using
the necessary measures by man himself or through using technology.
- Safety: is a sentimental and psychological need as in family and social safety
such as the safety of a child with his mother or that of a person with his family.
It is a feeling that moves away danger as a result of existing major security
measures; nevertheless, it is not necessary that a person feels safe despite the
availability of all security measures.http://www.frontdesk.co.in/forum

Threats to urban safety and security
Major threats to safety and security of urban poor are :
1. Crime and violence
2. Insecurity of tenure
3. Natural and human-made disasters
These threats either stem from, or are often exacerbated by, the process of urban growth
and from the interaction of social, economic and institutional behaviours within cities, as
well as with natural environmental processes.
1. Crime and violence : There are many dimensions of urban crime and violence.
• The highest rates of homicide are found in developing countries
• Africa’s cities have the highest burglary and assault rates and the second highest rates
of robberies
• High murder rates are found in US and Russia.
In past two decades the incidence of death that can be attributed to crime and violence
among young males in most cities has increased significantly . Origins and motivations for
crime and violence have covered a wide spectrum. On one side, there are many psycho-
social theories and explanations focusing on the socialization of individuals, including
intra-family dynamics and violence, to the birth of aggression and lack of self-esteem, and
to peer experiences in school, in gangs and in the streets, much of this captured in the
notion of the ecological modelhttp://www.frontdesk.co.in/forum

Insecurity of tenure
Insecurity of tenure :
Problem of insecure tenure of the urban poor and the threat of forced eviction from
public and private land, which they occupy with or without legal permission.
Freedom from forced eviction has become recognized as a fundamental human right
within human rights law
more than 1 billion people living in slums and are often characterized by insecurity of
tenure. in most developing country cities, between 25 and 70 per cent of the urban
population are living in irregular settlements, including squatter settlements and rooms
and flats in dilapidated buildings in city centre areas.
Insecurity of tenure is at once a cause and an outcome of poverty and inequality. People
are poor because they have inadequate living conditions and, at the same time, they are
also unable to improve their living conditions due to the tenure arrangements under
which they live.
The scale of insecurity of tenure and forced evictions is largely a result of public policies
and private-sector behaviours. Urban growth places great demands on public policies
and strategies to enable the provision of shelter, whether by the public or private
sectors. Local urban governments often argue that they need to displace urban residents
from locations planned for other uses.

Insecurity of tenure
Availability of legally accessible land and shelter options for growing urban populations
is limited due to
• Ineffective land tenure and administration systems,
• Poor infrastructure design and construction,
• Lack of finance.
Providers of infrastructure services such as water supply or public transport use the
absence of tenure as excuses for not providing services to low-income communities.
Insecurity of tenure contributes significantly to other problems as well. By seriously
undermining the performance of the housing sector, tenure issues limit the overall
supply of housing, thereby raising both prices and costs. These, in turn, contribute to
homelessness and the pressure on the urban poor to find whatever land is available for
squatting, whether between railroad tracks, on dangerously unstable hillsides , or
alongside canals filled with human waste.

Threats to urban safety and security
Natural and human-made disasters : The third threat to urban safety and security is the
growing frequency of natural and human-made disasters.
Number of major disasters in the
World
Taken from ENHANCING URBAN SAFETY AND SECURITY :
GLOBAL REPORT ON HUMAN SETTLEMENTS 2007
The location of these disasters in developing
countries is particularly important because of
the impact on their already low levels of income
and poverty.
The increasing frequency of these events,
therefore, is a matter of great concern. Patterns
of climate change resulting from global
warming, rises in sea temperatures and
resulting weather patterns have all contributed
to a 50 per cent increase in extreme weather
events from the 1950s to the 1990s.

Social vulnerability
Social vulnerability identifies people who are at greater risk in disasters. It helps
explain how and why residents of slums, for example, face greater uncertainties and
obstacles for housing recovery than the general population
Vulnerability from derives from what we call urban processes which involve such
things as concentration, centralization of economic activity of power, it derives from
land-use planning principles, it relates to environmental degradation processes in
urban areas it relates also to the way in which urban government structures are set
up. In cities it is more highly likely that we will get hazards that are socially
constructed as opposed to naturally constructed. If you are poor, it is very simple to
understand that you don't have access to adequate land and people living on slopes
in cities or by the sides of rivers or in ravines or on top of seismic faults etc. is not a
result of their choice to do so, it is a result of the fact that they have no choice to
enter the formal land market and purchase land which is secure. So insecure location
is merely reflecting a lack of opportunity, a lack of ability to gain access to the formal
land market and choose safer sites. Poverty does generate conditions of vulnerability

Ghettoism
Ghetto is a part of a city in which members of a minority group live, typically as a
result of social, legal, or economic pressure. Informal rules and discrimination by
Indian landlords to keep out religious minorities and single people creating ghettos in
Indian cities. When it comes to living spaces urban dweller become very insular and it
lead to weaken social fabric. In some of the posh parts of Mumbai, apartment
complexes have rules prohibiting renting or selling property to non-vegetarians.
Others being discriminated against include single women, unmarried couples and so
on.

Gender discrimination in housing
Gender inequality in housing persists in the early twenty-first century. For a long
time, its causes were linked to the inferior legal status of women and are first and
foremost of an economic nature: since women quite often still earn less income than
men, they experience more difficulties finding housing.
Low-income women and men in slums and informal settlements live with the most
tenure and housing-related insecurity; low-income single women and women-
headed households are often even more restricted in their access to housing
Challenges :
women have limited rights to adequate housing and insufficient security, and the
following challenges consequently arise:
• Women face discrimination across all aspects of housing as a result of their gender
and factors such as poverty, age, sexual orientation, and caste.
• As a consequence of cultural and traditional norms, women are more often
excluded from secure land tenure and housing than men.
• Single female heads of households are particularly vulnerable, as access to land is
often through their husbands or fathers. In these cases, they may lose access after
widowhood, divorce, desertion, or male migration, throwing the women into
destitution. http://www.frontdesk.co.in/forum

Gender discrimination in housing
Increasingly, women-headed households represent a high proportion of the poorest
people living in slums and informal settlements in India . According to the Census, a
total of 27 million households in India are headed by females, who live in inadequate
housing in poor locations, with scarce access to portable water, toilets, electricity,
public transportation, and health and education services, all of which have a great
impact on the daily life of women and girls.
• Gender-based violence compromises women’s access and right to adequate
housing. In domestic violence cases, if the marital property is only in the man’s name,
the woman and her children effectively lose their home or property when the only
way for her to defend herself is to leave her partner or husband.
• If a woman is deserted or thrown out of the marital home, she is also left destitute
and homeless.
• Women are usually paid less than men, work in the low-paying informal economy,
or work without pay in the care economy.
• Lack of economic power further impoverishes women and hinders their right to
adequate housing. Women do not have equal access to credit and finance and thus
cannot ensure their property and land rights.

Housing as component of Master plan
Housing is one of the most important elements of a master plan, after the vision and
land use sections. It is directly related to economic as well as population conditions
Master plan should show the location of various types of uses, densities, yields, and
lot sizes. When developing housing, a variety of housing types, sizes, and tenures
must be considered. In this context, the plan should also ensure appropriate housing
density and diversity. The master plan should also be flexible enough to allow for
change over time in housing diversity as communities mature.
• Master plan considers the pattern of residential development in determining what
types of housing stock is needed and where it might best be constructed in the
future.
• Master plan assesses the local and regional area to determine how future market
forces may influence the development and affordability of housing in the community.
The provision of adequate housing is a primary need in every community. If a
community desires to have economic growth, housing will be needed for residents of
differing income levels, both single-family and multi-family, and for purchase or rent.
The housing section presents a useful picture of the community’s current housing
capacity and demand and what sort of housing will be needed and where it should
go in the future. http://www.frontdesk.co.in/forum

Housing goals in master plan
The organization of the housing section in master plan should begin with an overview
of the current housing characteristics of the area. It is important that the housing
section identify the housing goals of an area.
These goals should address a number of factors, such as
• Demand for land for housing construction versus other land use needs
• Provision of a variety of housing types at a range of different costs
• Sustaining a rate of growth that does not overwhelm municipal/school service
• Considering the housing needs of all age groups within the community
• Maintaining the existing character of the area
• Address the issue of affordability

Considerations for carrying out city level
housing studies projections
1. Housing studies present following residential housing demand nature
1. Ownership vs. rental (individual and corporate) break-up
2. Gender-wise break-up
3. Age-wise break-up break-up
4. Education-wise break-up
5. Profession wise break-up
6. Income class-wise break-up (i.e. based on the purchasing power).
2. Correlation of projected housing demand with other economic factors such as
induced demand for cement, steel, (backward linkage), employment benefits, etc.
so that the multiplier effect of housing can be estimated at the national level.
Other relevant correlations such as with other assets say car, two-wheeler, TV, (for
low income group) may also be considered.
3. Factors reckoned at time of purchase of houses and nature of their financing
4. Based on published data on demographics, household expenditure, etc.,
projection of housing demand for the next 5 years using econometric models.
5. Broad profile and trends in the projected demand for housing using time series
forecasting techniques

6. Identification of emerging trends in housing and housing finance.
7. The studies also includes correlating the existing profile of housing loan
borrowers of select banks and HFCs to understand the correlation between
borrower characteristics and loan parameters such as asset quality,
delinquencies, period of loans, collateral values etc. It also examine the link
between loan delinquency and value of collateral to further pinpoint the
importance of valuation in the housing sector
Key Findings :
• Urban India has a severe shortage of housing, yet Indian cities have many vacant
houses. According to the census of India 2011, out of the 90 million residential
census units, 11 million units are vacant; that is about 12% of the total urban
housing stock consists of vacant houses.
• Net 68 million Indians (assuming average size of households is 3) will require
independent housing and thereby they will add to the housing demand of the
nation due to age-demographic effect.
• A typical borrower would most likely to be a male in the age group of 40 to 50
having an average monthly income of Rs.10000 who prefers to buy a house of the
size of 100 square meters http://www.frontdesk.co.in/forum

• The demand for house-size is found to be inversely related with the age of the
borrowers. The number of dependence, which capture the financial liability of the
borrower, is found to have negatively significant implying thereby more the
number of dependents in a family reduces the affordability and hence the size of
the house.
• Urban people have greater demand for bigger house in comparison to suburban
counterparts. The demand for house in terms of size in the rural area is lesser than
the people live in suburban area; access to housing loan, capacity/affordability
might be reasons driving the same.11

Housing land use provisions
Landuse provisions of housing based on
1. Housing types based on household income
1. HIG
2. MIG
3. LIG
4. EWS
2. Housing density
3. Mixed Land Use
4. Access to employment
5. Access to transport
Affordable Housing in Partnership Scheme (AHP) 2013 : Dwelling Units (DUs) with
Carpet Area shall be between 21 to 27 Sqm. for Economically Weaker Section (EWS)
category and 28 to 60 Sqm. for Lower Income Group (LIG) category (LIG-A: 28-40 sq.
m. and LIG-B 41- 60 Sq.m.).
PMAY Credit Linked Subsidy Scheme 2017:
EWS max Household Annual Income (Rs.) 3,00,000 & Carpet Area shall be 30sqm
LIG Household Annual Income (Rs.) 3,00,001 to 6,00,000 Carpet Area shall be 60sqm

Housing land use provisions
The intensity of use of urban land for residential purposes can be measured in terms
of Gross population density of the city, that is, population of the city upon area of
the city—the city boundary defined as in municipality, municipal corporation, nagar
palika, etc., and the population contained in it.
Residential density: that is, population of the city upon residential area.
The following density norms, with corresponding category of dwelling units (DU)
have been stipulated in the Delhi Master Plan-2021:
• Slum/EWS housing (to 30 sq.m) - 600 to 900DUs/Ha
• Category I (above 30 to 40 sq.m) - 500 DUs/Ha
• Category II (above 40 to 80 sq.m) - 250 DUs/Ha
• Category III (above 80 sq.m) - 175 DUs/Ha

Suitability of land for housing
Geographical Information System (GIS)technology is used to assess the different criteria
to define the suitability of land for housing. Multi Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA)
help planners to handle complicated matrix calculation of suitability which involves
socio-economic, political, infrastructure and land & environmental factors.
Criteria in MCDA depends goal of housing, some example of criteria are :
• Impacts on a nature reserve, landscape, and water table
• Air pollution coming from a waste water treatment plant, dumps, and a highway
• Noise due to traffic.
• Accessibility measured by the estimated time needed to reach a workplace in the
morning
• Local climate: sunshine, temperature, and fog
• Risk of landslide
• Distance to localities and public facilities such as water supply, electricity, etc.
• Viewpoint quality estimated from the view shed
• Ground Water level : for basement construction and shallow excavation
• septic tank absorption field
Selecting criteria from a list of factors should be an important step for the
negotiation between actors. http://www.frontdesk.co.in/forum

Suitability of land for slum redevelopment
The land suitability technique is used to determine the fitness of the given piece of land
for a particular use. It use multiple criteria to access this some of them are: 12
1. The eco sensitive areas should be retained and no construction should be allowed
1. Location
2. Eco sensitive
3. Forest
4. Water bodies
5. Catchment areas
6. Flood prone areas
7. Coastal areas
8. Rich bio-diversity
9. Living heritage
10. Built heritage
11. Natural heritage
2. Protection of inhabitant against hazardous & Preparedness for disaster
1. Near Dangerous / hazardous location Railway track
2. High tension line
3. Airport Industries
4. Explosive Mining http://www.frontdesk.co.in/forum

3. Integration with urban fabric adherence to urban design regeneration Enhancing
interdependency of informal sector with formal sector
1. Location with respect to city Inner city
2. Down town Near airport/ railway station/ bus terminus
3. Peri-urban area
4. CBD
5. Heritage zone
6. Near administrative building
7. Near community building
4. Ensure social infrastructure , Redevelopment model should take into account the
existing social infrastructure
1. Proximity of slums to Workplace
2. Health facilities
3. Education
4. Recreational facilities
5. Social facilities
6. Community facilities
7. Cultural facilities http://www.frontdesk.co.in/forum

5. Promote low cost sustainable construction. Incorporate green technologies
1. Soil condition
2. Suitability for building construction
3. Fertility Potential for contamination
4. Porosity for rainwater harvesting
5. Use of soil as building material
6. Prevent environmental degradation and use water resources. Protection of natural
resources- soil, water
1. Hydrology
2. Surface water bodies
3. Ground water tables
4. Potential for contamination
5. Potential for rain water recharge
6. Potential source of portable water
7. Water quality
8. Potential for irrigation and industrial use

7. Conservation of native trees and consideration to bio diversity
1. Vegetation
2. Native trees
3. Extinct species
4. Exotic trees
5. Ground cover Potential to prevent erosion
6. Potential grazing grounds
8. Rain water harvesting Prevention of urban floods, ground water contamination ,
Development with respect to natural topography.
1. Topography
2. Surface drainage
3. Natural slope Ridge and valleys
4. Swamp prone areas
5. Natural and manmade features
6. Latitude
7. Special feature (if any)

9. Adherence to land use plan
1. Planning aspect
2. Land use
3. Green areas
4. Hard surfaces
5. Soft surfaces
6. Horticulture
7. Circulation spaces
10. To re-densify /decongest as per
prescribed population density. To
regulate building bye law accordingly.
1. Population density
2. Ground coverage
3. Building heights
4. FAR
11. Appropriateness of development
intervention with respect to prevailing
market value
1. Land value
2. Rental value
3. Collector rate
4. Market rate
5. Condition of structure
6. Ownership status
12. Co-ordination amongst parastatal
agencies and the play boundaries
should irrespective with development
of jurisdiction line
1. Administrative boundary
2. Ward/zone
3. Planning boundary
4. Urban area limit
5. Tenureship rights

Housing stress
Housing stress by Finance : Housing cost is more then 30% of household income
Housing stress by Tenure : House ownership or rental house
Housing stress by Location : Housing cost burden due to its specific area location in city
Three definitions of housing stress.
1. ‘30-only rule’. This is the most basic of the ratio measures of housing stress.
According to this rule, a household is defined to be in housing stress if it spends
more than 30 per cent of its disposable or gross income on housing costs.
2. ‘30/40 rule’. This is a narrower variant of the ’30-only rule’. In this rule, a
household is said to be in housing stress if it spends more than 30 per cent of its
disposable or gross income on housing costs and the household also belongs to the
bottom 40 per cent of the equivalised disposable income distribution.
3. ‘30/10-40 rule’. This approach goes one step further to exclude the bottom 10 per
cent of the income distribution. A household is defined as being in housing stress if it
spends more than 30 per cent of its disposable or gross income on housing and falls
in the bottom 10 to 40 per cent of the equivalised disposable income distribution.

Projecting housing requirements
Projecting the demand for new residential construction over a ten-year period. Demand
for new housing can be divided into three components:
1) the number of new households formed,
2) the net change in vacant units, and
3) the replacement of units lost on net from the existing stock to disaster,
deterioration, demolition, and conversion to non-residential use.
Household Growth : Net household growth is the largest single driver of demand for
new housing units. Household growth is equal to the total number of new households
formed minus the number of households dissolved over some period of time.
Vacant Units and Second Homes Vacant units are necessary to satisfy the demand for
second homes (seasonal and other occasionally used homes) and to accommodate the
turnover of the housing stock as people move for family, work-related, or financial
reasons.
Replacement of Net Removals The third component of construction demand is new
units built to replace those removed from the stock. Even if the number of households
and of vacant and second home units were to remain unchanged some new
construction would still be required to maintain the existing demand for housing as
units are lost from the existing stock to demolition, deterioration beyond habitability,
conversion to non-residential use or mergers of existing units.

Estimating future housing demand
The 1996 WORKING GROUP HOUSING DEMAND (WGHD) model is a planning tool for
estimating future housing demand. 13
The planning model comprises four steps :
(i) Projection of total housing needs;
(ii) Categorization of housing needs into public and private housing;
(iii) Derivation of housing demand from the sectoral housing needs
(iv) Estimation of sectoral flat production requirements.
The first step calculates the total housing needs over a ten-year period. Housing needs
are defined as the number of existing or new households requiring adequate housing.
An adequately housed household is one that lives in self-contained living quarters made
of permanent materials. Since not all potential households prefer to have separate
living quarters, an accommodation generation rate (AGR) is applied to estimate these
housing needs.
The second step applies a splitting ratio (SR) to divide the total housing needs into
public and private housing. While public housing refers to all kinds of assisted housing,
private housing refers to those developments where no assistance from the
Government is provided. http://www.frontdesk.co.in/forum

Estimating future housing demand
The third step converts the housing needs into housing demand. Housing demand is
defined as the number of households actually seeking accommodation. In the public
sector, housing demand is assumed to be equal to housing needs. In the private sector,
demand is constrained by affordability, a conversion factor (CF) is applied.
The fourth step translates housing demand into flat production requirements. In the
public sector, the flat production requirement is assumed to be equal to housing
demand. Nevertheless, a safety margin is included to safeguard against possible
slippages. In the private sector, a flat production ratio (FPR) is included to allow for
second homes, vacant flats, and non-residential uses.

Housing Allocation
Housing Allocation in Master plan : The assignment of accommodation in public housing
/ Private housing development concerns all those families who find themselves in
situations of socio-economic distress.
For example : Three broad income levels and three broad categories of housing
allocation in Dholera Special Investment Region (DSIR) master plan are :
• High Income Groups – low to medium density housing (detached bungalows and villas
above 100sqm in carpet area on large plot areas) (19 dwelling units/ha) 7%
• Medium Income Groups – Medium density housing (larger row houses and
apartments with carpet area of 50sqm-100sqm) (58 dwelling units/ha) 49%
• Low Income Groups, including EWS – High density housing (apartments, smaller row
houses, dormitories etc. with carpet area of >50sqm) (151 dwelling units/ha) 44%
Housing Allocation in Union Budget : The Housing and Urban Affairs Ministry's budgetary
provisions were allocated at Rs 48,000 crore in the Union Budget 2019-20, a hike of nearly
12 per cent from 2018-19.
The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana PMAY (Urban) has been given Rs 6,853.26 crore as
against Rs 6,505 crore in 2018-19. Under the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban), over
81 lakh houses with an investment of about Rs 4.83 lakh crore have been sanctioned of
which construction of about 47 lakh houses has started.

Neighbourhood Approach in Society
A neighbourhood is the vicinity in which people live.
People live next to or near one another in sections of an area and form communities.
Those sections have some particular physical or social characteristics that distinguish
them from the rest of the settlements. Due to the incremental development there is a
mixture of large and small houses, shops, restaurants, offices etc. Civic buildings
(schools, theatres, worship areas, clubs, museums, etc.)
The concept of neighbourhood is used also to describe the social environment formed
by communities at distinguished urban sections. The social composition of the
residential environment is constituted by a set of physical spaces integrated with each
other through a hierarchical order.
The term “community” as used in conjunction with the notion of neighbourhood can
be defined as the social group that resides in a specific locality and that shares some
common resources, and common values. Therefore the people forming a community
have their own social, economic, and political characteristics. Those characteristics
develop in time with ongoing social interaction that can hardly be separated from the
physical properties of the concerned environment.

Neighbourhood in rural & urban settlements
The urban life where the social, economic and cultural interactions are much more
complex compared to rural settlements, is characterized with an accentuated familial
privacy in Indian traditional residential environments. The traditional dwellings are
organized to protect familial privacy while forming a strong physical and social border for
the neighbourhood composed of them. The dead-end street is the most typical physical
layout stemming from the privacy based neighbourhood concept.
The concept of neighbourhood in traditional built environments and rural settlements
constituted a strong sense of attachment, identity, admittance and belonging for
inhabitants.
That traditional notion evolved with the physical aspects shaped through ages, with
familial relations, and with relations that endured through several generations. The
traces of this neighbourhood understanding were transmitted to urban environments by
slums and squatter settlements during the last decades of the 20th century.
The urban environment in contemporary cities now suffer from the effects of squatting,
illegal and unplanned developments that destroyed the traditional physical and social
structure. The housing constructions mostly continue as sprawl type of developments in
the out squirts of towns and cities. The high-rise settlement blocks with inadequately
planned physical environment characterize most of the contemporary developments

Neighborhood-unit Planning
The Housing developments connected to neighborhood-unit planning across North
America, the UK, Seoul, and Singapore can be largely categorized into five phases14
1. Radburn Model (1928)
2. Perry’s Model (1929)
3. TODs Transport Oriented Development (1986) encouraging the use of public
transportation
4. New Urbanism (1999) Form Based Code : claiming walkable neighborhood in that
it pointed out mixed land use and a grid street system in contrast to Perry’s model
5. Fused Grid System (2002) characterized in that several housing clusters were
grouped into one block, which cars cannot cross, and continuous pedestrian foot
path system, connected to the open space at the center of the block, providing a
direct route to the facilities

North America
Radburn Model (1928)
25 ppl/ha
Perry’s Model (1929)
76 ppl/ha
TODs (1986) 100ppl/ha
New Urbanism (1999)
Form Based Code
Fused Grid System (2002)

UK
Harlow (1947) 30.9 ppl/ha Hook (1957), 170 ppl/ha
Runcorn (1964)
104ppl/ha Milton Keynes (1967) 40ppl /ha
NW Bicester (2009)
Eco Town

Seoul
Echon (1966) 144 ppl/ha
Jamsil (1975) 135 ppl/ha
Mokdong (1983)
261 ppl/ha Bundang (1989) 175 ppl /ha Dongtan (2001)
137 ppl/ha

Singapore
Toa Payoh (1965)
150 ppl/ha
Tampiness (1978) 124 ppl/ha
Bukit Batok (1981)
124 ppl/ha Sengkang (1991) 207 ppl /ha Punggol (1996–2011)
139 ppl/ha

Neighborhood Structure :
Face-block Structure
Face-block Structure :
Face-block means the smallest unit within the neighborhood unit, which consists of a
single housing cluster or several housing clusters, providing public spaces differently
and promoting social interaction differently
Face-block may be delineated by streets or greenery, and it forms the smallest
community of residents. ‘Face-block Structure’ directly reflects neighborhood
Walkability in which the larger the block, the fewer the options for walking, as more
road space makes walking difficult and inconvenient. In analyzing ‘Face-block
Structure’, it was classified into ‘A Single Housing Cluster (b1)’ and ‘A Group of Housing
Clusters 14
A Group of Housing Clusters

A Group of Housing Clusters
Single detached house
Dongtan, Seoul Sengkang, Singapore
FGS: Calgary, Canada Milton Keynes, the UK
Neighborhood Structure :
Face-block Structure

Neighborhood Structure
Cell Structure
Cell Structure
The neighborhood unit has been treated as a complete closed space like a cell . It
creates a hierarchical base on the neighborhood unit, which results in openness and
flexibility between neighborhoods. ‘Cell structure’ with various hierarchical bases of
central facilities allows residents’ perception of a neighborhood boundary from
inward to outward directions , affecting walking patterns. When the perceived
neighborhood facilities associated with walking are located at a distance in the
neighborhood unit, longer walk distances are made 14. Cell Structure can be classified
into
1. Single Cell
2. Clustered Cell
3. Inter-locked Cell

Single Cell
Clustered Cell
Mokdong, Seoul Tampiness, Singapore
Radburn, USA Runcorn, the UK
Cell Structure

Inter-locked Cell
FGS, Canada
Dongtan, Seoul
Punggol, Singapore
Cell Structure

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