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VOLATILE OILS
VOLATILE OILS
All official volatile oils are
  of vegetable origin.
Normally pre-exist in the
  plant – stored in a
  special secretory tissue
  (e.g. Citrus peel oil cells
  or oil ducts in
  umbelliferous fruits).
EXCEPTION: Oil of bitter
  almond – formed by
  hydrolysis of the
  glycosides.
USES OF VOLATILE OILS
   Therapeutically (Oil of
    Eucalyptus)
   Flavouring (Oil of Lemon)
   Perfumery (Oil of Rose)
   Starting materials to
    synthesize other compounds
    (Oil of Turpentine)
   Anti-septic – due to high
    phenols (Oil of Thyme). Also
    as a preservative (oils interfere
    with bacterial respiration)
   Anti-spasmodic (Ginger,
    Lemon balm, Rosemary,
    Peppermint, Chamomile,
    Fennel, Caraway)
   Aromatherapy
DEFINITION OF VOLATILE OILS
Volatile oils are products which are generally complex in
     composition, consisting of the volatile principles
     contained in plants, and are more or less modified
     during the preparation process.

Only 2 procedures may be used to prepare official oils
i.  Steam distillation
ii. Expression

4 Main types of volatile oils
i.   Concretes
ii.  Pomades
iii. Resinoids
iv.  Absolutes
CONCRETES
Prepared from raw materials of
   vegetable origin (bark,
   flowers, leafs, roots etc.)

Extracted by HC type solvents,
  rather than distillation or
  expression – Becomes
  necessary when the
  essential oil is adversely
  affected by hot water or
  steam (e.g. jasmine).

Produces a more true-to-nature
   fragrance.
CONCRETES
Concretes contain about
  50 % wax and 50 %
  essential oil
  (jasmine).

Ylang ylang (concrete
  volatile) contains 80
  % essential oil and 20
  % wax.

Advantages of
  concretes: they are
  more stable and
  concentrated than
  pure essential oils.
POMADES
True pomades are (volatile
  oil) products of a process
  known as enfleurage (hot
  or cold).
Enfleurage is used for
  obtaining aromatic
  materials from flowers
  containing volatile oils to
  produce perfume long
  after they were cut.
ENFLEURAGE: METHOD
A glass plate is covered with a thin
  coating of especially prepared
  and odourless fat (called a
  chassis).

The freshly cut flowers are
  individually laid on to the fat
  which in time becomes
  saturated with their essential
  oils. The flowers are renewed
  with fresh material.

Eventually the fragrance-saturated
  fat, known as pomade, may be
  treated with alcohol to extract
  the oil from the fat.
RESINOIDS
Prepared from natural
  resinous material (dried
  material) by extraction
  with a non-aqueous
  solvent, e.g. Petroleum
  ether or hexane.

E.g. Balsams – Peru
  balsam or benzoin;
  resins (amber or mastic);
  Oleoresin (copaiba
  balsam and turpentine);
  Oleogum resins
  (frankincense and myrrh)
RESINOIDS
Can be viscous liquids,
 semi-solid or solid.
Usually homogeneous
 mass of non-
 crystalline character.

Uses: in perfumery as
 fixatives to prolong
 the effect of a
 fragrance.
ABSOLUTES
Obtained from a concrete,
  pomade, or a resinoid by
  alcoholic extraction.

The extraction process may
  be repeated.

The ethanol solution is
  cooled & filtered to
  eliminate waxes.

The ethanol is then
  removed by distillation.

They are usually highly
  concentrated viscous
  liquids.
Allie, yusra volatile-oils
Fx OF VOLATILE OILS
In most cases, the biological
   function of the terpenoids
   of essential oils remains
   obscure – it is thought
   that they play an
   ecological role –
   protection from predators
   & attraction of pollinators.
LOCALIZATION
Synthesis & accumulation of essential oils are
  generally associated with the presence of
  specialized histological structures, often located
  on or near the surface of the plant:

  - Oil cells of Zingiberaceae
  - Glandular trichomes of Lamiaceae
  - Secretory cavities of Myrtaceae or Rutaceae
  - Secretory canals of Apiaceae or Astereraceae
  (Compositeae)
VOLATILE OIL COMPOSITION
   Mixtures of HC’s and oxygenated
    compounds derived from these HC’s.
        Oil of turpentine – mainly HC’s
        Oil of Clove – mainly oxygenated
         compounds
   EXCEPTION: Oils derived from
    glycosides (e.g. bitter almond oil &
    mustard oil).

   Oxygenated compounds – responsible for
    the odour/smell of the oil. They are slightly
    water soluble – Rose water & Orange
    Water; more alcohol soluble.

   Most volatile oils are terpenoid. Some are
    aromatic (benzene) derivatives mixed with
    terpenes.

   Some compounds are aromatic, but
    terpenoid in origin (e.g. Thymol – Thyme)
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Volatile oils are divided into 2 main classes based
   on their biosynthetic origin

i.     Terpene derivatives (formed via the acetate
       mevalonic acid pathway)

ii.    Aromatic compounds (formed via the shikimic
       acid-phenylpropanoid route)

iii.   Miscellaneous Origin
A. TERPENES
Terpenes, or
  terpenoids, are the
  largest group of
  secondary products
  (metabolites).
They are all formed
  from acetyl CoA or
  glycolytic
  intermediates.
CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES
All terpenes are formed
  from 5-C elements

Isoprene is the basic
  structural element.
CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES
Terpenes are classified by the number of 5-C atoms they
  contain

10-Carbon terpenes (contain 2 C-5 units) – monoterpenes
15- Carbon terpenes (3 C-5 units) are called
  sesquiterpenes.
20-carbon terpenes (4 C-5 units) are diterpenes.
Larger terpenes (30
  Carbons) are called triterpenes (triterpenoids), 40
  Carbons – called tetraterpenes and polyterpenoids.
TERPENOIDS
Terpenoids contain only the
  most volatile terpenes
  (i.e. molecular weight is
  not too high)  mono
  and sesquiterpenes

May occur as oxygenated
  derivatives, e.g. alcohols,
  aldehydes, ketones,
  phenols, oxides & esters.
EXAMPLES OF TERPENES
i.   LIMONENE
ii. MENTHOL
iii. BORNEOL
iv. SESQUITERPENES
i. LIMONENE
Structural classification:
  Monocyclic terpene

Functional
  Classification:
  Unsaturated HC

Occurrence: Citrus fruit
ii. MENTHOL
Structural classification:
Monocyclic with
  hydroxyl group

Functional
  classification: Alcohol

Occurrence:
 Peppermint
iii. BORNEOL

Functional
  Classification: ////

Occurrence: Cinnamon
iv. SESQUITERPENES
(Contain 3 isoprene units)

Acyclic – E.g. Farnesol

Monocyclic – E.g. Bisobolol

Bicyclic e.g. Chamezulene
  (Chamomile)
B. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS
Many are phenols are
 phenol esters

E.g. Vanillin
PROPERTIES OF VOLATILE OILS
   Almost entirely volatile without
    decomposition.
   Density: Most are less than 1g/ml.
    
        2 are heavier – Oil of Cinnamon and
        Clove oil.
   Soluble in ether, chloroform &
    alcohol.
   Slightly soluble in water: give it a
    characteristic odour & taste.
   Leaves a temporary translucent
    stain on paper which disappears
    as the oil volatilizes.
   Most are colourless. Oxidize on
    exposure to air and resinify 
    colour becomes darker (odour
    changes slightly).
   All are characteristic odours.
   Most are optically active.
PRODUCTION OF ESSENTIAL
               OILS
Essential oils may be produced
i.   By steam
        - Simple steam distillation
        - Saturated steam distillation
        - Hydrodiffusion

i.    By expression
ii.   Other Methods

Concretes & Resinoids may be produced
i.   By solvent extraction
ii.  By methods using oils & fats
iii. By extraction by supercritical gasses
ESSENTIAL OILS:
       i.STEAM DISTILLATION

a. SIMPLE STEAM DISTILLATION
Plant material is immersed directly in a still
    filled with water. This is then brought to
    a boil.
Heterogeneous vapours are condensed on
    a cold surface.
Essential oil separates based on difference
    in density and immiscibility.
b. SATURATED STEAM
Plant does not come into contact with the water 
    steam is injected through the plant material
    placed on perforated trays.
It is possible to operate under moderate pressure.

Advantages: Limits the alteration of the
   constituents of the oil
It shortens the duration of the treatment
It conserves energy
It can also be conducted on on-line in automated
   set ups.
c. HYDRODIFFUSION
Pulses of steam is sent through the plant
 material at very low pressure from (top to
 bottom).

ADVANTAGE: Normally produces a
 product of high quality.
Saves time and energy.
ii. EXPRESSION
       (E.G.OF CITRUS EPICARPS)
The rind is lacerated, and the contents of the
  ruptured secretory cavities are recovered.
CLASSIC PROCESS: an abrasive action is
  applied on the surface of the fruit in a flow of
  water. The solid waste is eliminated, and the
  essential oil separated from the aqueous phase
  by centrifugation.
OTHER machines break the cavities by
  depression, and collect the essential oil directly
   prevents the degradation linked to the action
  of water.
EXPRESSION OF CITRUS
           EPICARPS
Most facilities allow for the simultaneous or
  sequential recovery of the fruit juice and of the
  essential oil, by collecting the oil with a spray of
  water after the abrasion (scarification – puncture
  by pins) before or during the expression of the
  fruit juice.
Enzymatic treatment of the residual water allows
  recycling, and markedly increases the final yield
  of essential oil.
Citrus oils are also obtained directly from the fruit
  juices (by vacuum de-oiling)
iii. OTHER METHODS
-   Steam distillation by microwaves under vacuum.
     In this procedure, the plant is heated selectively
    by microwave radiation in a chamber inside
    which the pressure is reduced sequentially.
-   fresh plants require no added water.

-   ADVANTAGE: This method is fast, consumes
    little energy and yields a product which is most
    often of a higher quality than the traditional
    steam distillation product.
PRODUCTION OF CONCRETES
           & RESINOIDS

i.  SOLVENT EXTRACTION
Extraction is generally preceded by a
    process of: bruising the fresh, wilted or
    semi-desiccated organs, chopping
    herbaceous drugs, pounding roots &
    rhizomes or turning wood into chips or
    shavings.
The procedure is conducted in specialized
    facilities e.g. Soxhlet-type extractor.
SOLVENT EXTRACTION
The solvent selection is influenced by technical &
  economical factors

  - Selectivity (being a good solvent for the specific
  constituents).
  - Stability (chemical inertness)
  - Boiling point should not be so high that the solvent
  can be completely eliminated; nor too low, to limit losses
  & control cost
  - Handling safety

Solvents most used are aliphatic HC’s – petroleum ether,
   hexane, propane & liquid butane.
Although benzene is a good solvent, its toxicity
   increasingly limits is use.
SOLVENT EXTRACTION
At the end of the procedure, the solvent contained
  in the plant material is recovered by steam
  injection.

Main disadvantages of solvent extraction
- Lack of selectivity, many lipophilic substances
   may end up in the concretes & render further
   purification necessary.
- The toxicity of solvents  leads to the
   restrictive regulations regarding their use
- Residues in the final product.
ii. METHODS USING OILS &
              FATS
These procedures take advantage of the liposolubility of the
  fragrant components of plants in fats.

a. “Enfleurage” – the plant material is placed in contact
   with the surface of the fat. Extraction is achieved by
- Cold diffusion into the fat
- Digestion – carried out with heat, by immersing the
   plant in melted fat (also known as hot enfleurage).


The final product is known as a floral pomade.
METHODS USING OILS & FATS
b. PNEUMATIC METHOD: similar in principle to
  the enfleurage process.

It involves the passage of a current of hot air
    through the flowers.

The air, laden with suspended (extracted) volatile
  oil, is then passed through a spray of melted fat
  in which the volatile oil is absorbed.
iii. EXTRACTION BY
      SUPERCRITICAL GASSES
Beyond its critical point, a fluid can have the density of a
  liquid & the viscosity of a gas  therefore diffuses well
  through solids, resulting in a good solvent.
CO2 is the main gas used
Advantages of CO2
  - It is a natural product
  - chemically inert, non-flammable
  - non-toxic
  - easy to completely eliminate
  - selective
  - readily available
  - Inexpensive
EXTRACTION BY
     SUPERCRITICAL GASSES
DISADVANTAGE: Technical constraints
- High cost of initial investment

ADVANTAGES:
 - obtain extracts which are very close in
 composition to the natural product.
 - It is possible to adjust the selectivity &
 viscosity, etc by fine tuning the temperature &
 pressure
 - All result in the increase of popularity of this
 type of method
EXTRACTION BY
     SUPERCRITICAL GASSES
USES
Initially developed to decaffeinate coffees, prepare
   hops extracts or to remove nicotine from
   tobacco, the method is now used to
   - Prepare spice extracts (ginger, paprika, celery)
   - Specific flavours (black tea, oak wood smoke)
   - Plant oils
   - To produce specified types of a certain
   product, e.g. thujoneless wormwood oil.
TREATMENTS OF THE OILS
Occasionally it is necessary to decolourize,
   neutralize or rectify the oils obtained.

i.  Steam jet under vacuum
Allows for the elimination of smelly or irritating
    products, and to obtain a final product of
    desired “profile”.

ii. Chromatrographic techniques
This permits a good separation of the essential oil
    from non-volatile lipophilic compounds.
VARIABILITY FACTORS OF
         ESSENTIAL OILS
i.   Occurrence of Chemotypes
ii. Influence of the vegetative cycle
iii. Influence of environmental factors
iv. Influence of preparation method
i. CHEMOTYPES
Chemical breeds
 commonly occur in
 plants containing
 volatile oils, e.g.
 Thyme (Thymus
 vulgaris) – has 7
 different chemotypes,
 each with slightly
 different types &
 amounts of volatile
 oils.
ii. THE VEGETATIVE CYCLE
Proportions of the different
  constituents of a volatile
  oil may vary greatly
  throughout its
  development. Wide
  ranges are commonly
  found in fennel, carrot
  and coriander (linalool is
  higher in ripe fruit than
  unripe fruit). Mentha
  (peppermint) is also
  greatly affected by the
  vegetative cycle.
iii. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Temperature, humidity,
  duration of daylight
  (radiation), and wind
  patterns all have a direct
  influence on volatile oil
  content, especially in those
  herbs that have superficial
  histological storage
  structures (e.g. glandular
  trichomes). When the
  localization is deeper, the oil
  quality is more constant.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
e.g. Peppermint: long days
   & temperate nights 
   higher yields of oil &
   menthofuran. Cold nights
   lead to an increase in
   menthol.
Laurus nobilis (Bay) [volatile
   oil] is greater in the
   southern hemisphere
   than the northern.
Citrus: higher temperatures
   = higher oil content.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Cultivation practices
  also play an important
  factor to the yield &
  quality of the final
  product.
Fertilization and the
  amounts of N, P and
  K have been studied
  for various species.
The watering regiment
  also plays an
  important role.
PREPARATION METHOD
Because of the volatile nature of the
  constituents of essential oils, the
  composition of the product
  obtained by steam distillation is
  often different from the
  constituents originally found in the
  secretory organs of the plant.

During steam distillation, the water,
  acidity and tempereature may
  induce hydrolysis of the esters.
  Rearrangements, isomerizations,
  racemiazations, oxidations and
  other reactions also occur, all of
  which change the composition.
GINGER: Zingiber officinale
   Definition: Ginger is the
    peeled or unpeeled
    rhizome of Zingiber
    officinale (Zingiberaceae).

   Common Names:
    Jamaican ginger, Ginger
Zingiber officinalis - Ginger
GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
   •   Jamaica
   •   China
   •   India Africa


HISTORY
Cultivated in India from the
  earliest times. Used by
  Greeks and Romans and
  was a common article of
  commerce in the European
  Middle Ages.
CULTIVATION & PREPARATION
   Grows well in subtropical
    temperatures with high
    rainfall.
   Grown by vegetative means.
   Mulching or is necessary as
    the plant rapidly exhausts
    minerals from the soil.
   When the stems wither, the
    rhizomes are ready for
    collection.
   Dried.
MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
   Scraped/peeled herb has little
    resemblance to the fresh herb
    (loss in weight & shrinkage).
   Occurs in branched pieces
    “hands” or “races”.
   Buds
   No cork
   Aromatic odour & pungent
    taste.
   Unscraped rhizome:
    resembles scraped herb –
   Covered with cork (brownish
    layers)
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES

   Cork cells – high starch
    content
   Cork cells are absent in
    the scraped drug.
   Outer zone of flattened
    parenchyma & inner
    zone of normal
    parenchyma.
   Oil cells scattered in the
    cortex.
Zingiber officinale - CONSTITUENTS
   Volatile oils (1 – 2%)
       Camphene
    
        Cineole
    
        Citral
    
        Borneol
   Gingerol – pungent component – Anti-inflammatory
   Shogaols – increases bile secretion

   Sesquiterpene HC’s
       Zingiberene & Zingiberol (Sesquiterpene alcohol)

   Resins
   Starch
   Mucilage
Zingiber officinale
   VARIETIES
    
        Chinese Ginger – sliced
    
        African ginger – darker (cortex is
        grey – black in colour); lacks the
        odour but more pungent than
        Jamaican herb.

   ALLIED DRUGS
    
        Japanese ginger – Z. mioga
    
        Preserved ginger – undried rhizomes
        preserved by boiling in syrup.

   ADULTERANTS
    
        Spent ginger
    
        Vegetable adulterants (detected with
        microscopical examination).
USES & ACTIONS
ACTIONS
 Carminative
 Stimulant
 Anti-emetic
 Anti-bacterial & Anti-fungal
 Sesquiterpene lactones – Anti-ulcer
 Gingerol – pungent component –
  Anti-inflammatory
 Shogaols– increases bile secretion
  & enhanced GIT activity

USES
 Motion Sickness
 Morning Sickness
Allie, yusra volatile-oils
CARDAMOM FRUIT & OIL
DEFINITION: Cardamom
  consists of the dried, nearly
  dried ripe fruits of Elettaria
  cardamomum var miniscula
  (Zingiberaceae).

PARTS USED: Seeds (should
  be kept in the fruit until ready
  to be used – Prevents loss of
  volatile oils).

(3RD most expensive spice).
Elettaria cardamomum
   GEOGRAPHICAL
    SOURCES
       Sri Lanka
       India
    
        Guatemala

   HISTORY
       Traditional Indian
        ceremonies
PRODUCTION, COLLECTION &
          PREPARATION
   Mainly obtained from
    cultivated plants
    (propagated by seedlings
    or vegetatively
    [problematic due to virus
    infection]).
   Capsules on the same
    plant ripen at different
    times – important to
    collect them before they
    split.
COLLECTION & PREPARATION
   Fruits are dried slowly
    (outdoors or indoors).
   Too rapid drying – capsules
    split & shed seeds
   Calyx at the apex of the stalk
    and the stalk at the base may
    be removed.
   Fruits are graded with a sift
    into ‘longs’, ‘mediums’,
    ‘shorts’ & ‘tiny’.
   If they have been sulphur –
    bleached (improved colour),
    it will be aired outdoors
    before packed for transport.
MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
   Plant is reed-like - > 4 m, with long leaves
    growing from the rhizome.
   Fruits – capsular: inferior, ovoid, 1-2 cm long.
   Apex: shortly beaked & shows floral remains.
   Base: rounded & shows the remain of a stalk.
   Internally the capsule is 3-celled; each cell
    contains x2 row of seeds.
   Each seed: Slightly angular, 4mm long & 3 mm
    broad.
   Colour: dark red-brown (fully ripe seeds) 
    paler in unripe seeds.
   Strong, pleasant, aromatic odour
   Pungent taste
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
   Oil cells
   Predominant
    Parenchyma
    (yellow colour)
   Cells containing
    silica
   Starch grains
VARIETIES & ADULTERANTS
   ADULTERATION
      Powdered drug adulterated with the fruit pericarp

       (powdered).

   ALLIED HERBS
      Official variety – E. cardamomum var miniscula

      Other: E. cardamomum var major (more elongated &

       sometimes 4 cm long with dark brown pericarps)
      Amomum aromaticum (Bengal cardamom)

     
       Amomum subulatum (Nepal cardamom)
     
       Amomum cardamomum (Java cardamom)
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
 2.8 – 6.2 % volatile oil
 Abundant starch (up to 50%)
 Fixed oil (1 – 10%)
 Calcium   oxalate
Elettaria: ACTIONS & USES
   Flavouring agent
    (curries & biscuits)

   Liqueur manufacture

   Small amount is used
    for pharmaceutical
    manufacture
    (Compound Tincture of
    Cardamom).
CINNAMON: Cinnamomum
             zeylanicum
   DEFINITION: Cinnamon
    is the dried bark of
    Cinnamomum zeylanicum
    (Lauraceae).

   GEOGRAPHICAL
    SOURCES
    Cultivated in Sri Lanka,
    South India, Seychelles,
    Madagascar, Martinique,
    Cayenne, Jamaica &
    Brazil.
CULTIVATION, COLLECTION &
        PREPARATION
Grown from seed
Cut down when 2-3 years
   old.
After 5-6 shoots grow from
   the stump (18 months),
   shoots are harvested,
   trimmed and fermented.
Bark is removed.
Peeled bark is then
   stretched over a suitable
   stick
Outer cortex is removed.
PREPARATION OF Cinnamomum

Individually scraped
  barks are placed
  inside each other.
Compound quills are
  dried on wooden
  frames in the open air
  without exposure to
  direct sunlight.
Sorted into grades.
MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Normally received in shorter lengths
   known as ‘cigar lengths’.
Consists of a single or double
   compound quill about 6-10 mm
   diameter of varying length.
Thickness of the quill varies according
   to grade (good quality: Not >
   0.5mm), bark: 10-40mm.
External surface: is yellow-brown,
   shining, wavy lines (pericycle fibres)
   and occasional scars & holes
   (leave/twig positions).
Inner surface: darker, longitudinally
   striated.
Odour: fragrant
Taste: Warm, sweet & aromatic
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
 Transverse:   absence of epidermis & cork
 Sclereids (thickened lignified pitted walls)
 Secondary phloem is composed of phloem
  parenchyma containing oil & mucilage cells,
  phloem fibres & medullary rays.
 Some phloem parenchyma contain tannins.
 Secretion cells: volatile oils and mucilage
 Calcium oxalates
Cinnamomum - CONSTITUENTS
•   Volatile oils (at least
    1.2 %)
•   Phlobaphenes
•   Mucilage
•   Calcium Oxalate
•   Starch
CINNAMON OIL –
ADULTERATION & ALLIED HERBS
Adulterants
• Cinnamon Leaf Oil
• Oil of Cassia



Allied Herbs
• Cayenne Cinnamon – C. zeylanicum grown in
  Brazil – not used in Britain
• C. loureirii – from Vietnam – Closely resembles
  C. cassia
Cinnamomum zeylanicum - USES
Flavouring agent
Mild astringent

Oil:   Carminative
       Germicide
LEMON PEEL
Definition: Dried lemon
  (Limonis Cortex) peel is
  obtained from the fruit of
  Citrus limon (Rutaceae).

Botanical Description:
Small tree, growing to 3-5 m
  in height.

Geographical Sources
Mediterranean Regions
Limonis Cortex –
  COLLECTION & PREPARATION
Lemons are collected in
  January, August &
  November, before the
  green colour changes to
  yellow.
The smaller fruit, which
  would not be sold on the
  produce market, are used
  in the preparation of oil of
  lemon - the peel is
  removed with a sharp
  knife in the form of a
  spiral band.
Limonis Cortex –
          CHARACTERISTICS
Dried lemon peel occurs
  in spiral bands (2 cm
  wide; 2-3 mm thick).
The outer surface is
  rough & yellow; the
  inner surface is pulpy
  & white (anatomically
  similar to that of an
  orange peel).
Odour: Strong &
  characteristic
Taste: aromatic & bitter
Limonis Cortex –
       CONSTITUENTS & USES
CONSTITUENTS
Should contain at least
   2.5% volatile oil
Vitamin C
Hesperidin (Flavonoid)
Mucilage
Calcium Oxalate

USES
Flavouring purposes
LEMON OILS - Oleum limonis
Definition: Lemon oil is the oil expressed from the outer part of
  the fresh pericarp of the ripe or nearly ripe fruit of Citrus limon
  (Rutaceae).

BP: oil should be obtained by suitable mechanical means, without
  the use of heat, from the fresh peel.

Much oil is derived via steam distillation, but this process yields
  oil of inferior quality.

Distilled oil of lemon is much cheaper than that prepared by
  expression. Large amounts are used for non-pharmaceutical
  purposes.

Geographical Sources:
Mediterranean, North & South America, Australia & parts of Africa.
Preparation of Lemon Oils
i. Hand Methods
No longer applicable to
   pharmaceutical oils
Production of Lemon Oils
ii. Machine Processes
Quality is inferior to the best hand-pressed oils.
Machines are designed to release oils from the peel via puncture,
    rasting or cutting and by imitating the gentle squeezing action
    of the sponge method. (Superiority of the sponge method is
    due to the fact that there is no contact between the oil & the
    inner white part of the skin.
The newer machines extract oil more completely than the older
    ones and give a higher yeild

iii.Distilled Oils
Although not official, some lemon oils are produced by distillation,
    mainly from the residue of the expression processes. It is
    much cheaper than hand-pressed or machine-made oil.
Oleum limonis - CONSTITUENTS
Terpenes – mainly limonene
Sesquiterpenes
Aldehydes (Citral & Citronella)
Esters

Lemon oil has a tendency to resinify and
  should be protected from the action of air
  & light as much as possible.
Oleum limonis –
             ADULTATION & USES
ADULTERATION
Oil of turpentine
Terpenes from ‘terpeneless
  oil of lemon’
Distilled oil of lemon
Oil of lemon-grass

USES
Perfumery
Flavouring
TERPENELESS LEMON OIL
Definition: Oil prepared by
    concentrating lemon oil in
    vacuum until most of the
    terpenes have been
    removed, or by solvent
    partition. The
    concentrate is a
    terpeneless oil, which has
    a citral content of 40-50
    %.
It is equal in flavouring to
    10-15 times its volume of
    lemon oil
BUCHU – Agathosma betulina
Agathosma betulina –
         CONSTITUENS & USES
CONSTITUENTS
Volatile oils
• Pulegone
• Menthone & isomenthone
• limonene
Diosmin
Mucilage
Resin
Calcium oxalates
Buchu camphor – Responsible for the diuretic action

USES/ACTIONS
Diuretic
Urinary Tract Anti-Septic – Used for UTI’s
NUTMEG & NUTMEG OIL
Definition: Nutmeg is the
  dried kernel of the seed
  of Myristica fragrans
  (Myristicaceae).

Geographical Sources
Indigenous to the Molucca
   Islands (Spice Islands)
Cultivated in Indonesia,
   Malaysia & the West
   Indies.
NUTMEG – Myristica fragrans
HISTORY
First Introduced to the
   Europeans by the Arabs.

Portuguese lost control of
  the spice trade to the
  Dutch, who maintained
  complete monopoly by
  destroying all trees in the
  neighbouring islands &
  preventing the export of
  living seeds.
CULTIVATION, COLLECTION &
            PREPARATION
Trees can be grown from fresh seed
  gown in the shell. The seeds
  germinate after about 5 weeks.
  When the plants are 6 months
  old, they are transplanted to the
  fields.

Nutmegs are dried in the shells
  (process differs according to local
  conditions). Normally they are
  dried in the sun & covered at
  night & rainy weather. They can
  also be dried in the oven or over
  low flames.

When completely dried, the kernel
 rattles in the testa, which is then
 cracked & the nutmeg extracted.
MACROSCOPICAL
              FEATURES
Nutmeg trees are
    evergreen, growing up to
    20 m in height.
Nutmegs are oval, 2-3 cm
    long & 2 cm broad.
If not heavily limed, the
    surface is a brown or grey
    brown in colour.
Odour: Strong & aromatic
Taste: Pungent and slightly
    bitter.
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Potassium acid tartrate
  crystals
Parenchym with thin
  brown walls
Oval oil cells
Feathery crystals of fat
Few tannin cells
  (containing tannin &
  starch)
NUTMEG – ALLIED HERBS
Papua nutmegs –
from M. argentea
(New Guinea) – little
odour & a
disagreeable taste.

Bombay nutmegs –
M. malabarica (India)
– lack the
characteristic odour of
the genuine herb.
NUTMEG OIL
Nutmeg oil is distilled from the
  kernels of Myristica fragrans.

CONSTITUENTS
Pinene
Sabinene
Camphene
Dipentene
Safrole
Eugenol & eugenol derivatives
Myristicin – a benzene: toxic to
   humans (large does of nutmeg
   or nutmeg oil may cause
   convulsions).
MACE
Common mace or Banda
 mace consists of the
 dried arillus or arillode of
 M. fragrans.

Description: bright red
 colour & lacks in aroma.
MACE – CONSTITUENTS & USES
CONSTITUENTS                     Nutmegs, maces & their
Volatile oils (similar to that     oils, are all used for
  of nutmeg) – eugenol           • Carminatives
  derivatives are the main       • Flavouring
  active constituents –          • Infantile Diarrhoea (Tea
  responsible for the anti-        of nutmeg – Ayurveda).
  bacterial effects.

Also has 2 anti-microbial
  resorcinols (Malabaricone
  B and C)
CLOVE
DEFINITION: Cloves are
  the dried flower buds of
  Syzygium aromaticum
  (Eugenia caryophyllus),
  (Myrtaceaea).

Geographical Sources
Molucca or Clove Islands,
  Zanzibar, Pemba,
  Madagascar, Indonesia &
  Brazil.
HISTORY OF CLOVE
Cloves were used in China as
   early as 266 BC, and by the
   4th century, they were known
   in Europe, although very
   expensive.
Same as with nutmeg, the
   Dutch also destroyed all trees
   from surrounding native
   islands to secure a
   monopoly, and cultivated
   them only in a small group of
   islands.
In 1770, the French managed to
   introduce clove trees to
   Mauritius, and started
   cultivating them there, as well
   as in Zanzibar, Penang and
   Sumatra.
COLLECTION & PREPARATION
The flower buds are
  collected when the lower
  part turns green-crimson.
  The cloves are dried in
  the open air on mats &
  separated from their
  peduncles (forming clove
  stalks which are also sold
  commercially).

If left on the tree for too
    long, the buds open & the
    petals fall, leaving “brown
    cloves”. Later the fruits
    (“mother cloves”) are
    produced.
MACROSCOPICAL
             FEATURES
Cloves are 10-17.5 mm
  long.
The head consists of 4
  slightly projecting calyx
  teeth, 4 membranous
  petals and numerous
  incurved stamens around
  a large style.

Odour: Spicy & Pungent
Taste: Aromatic
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Heavy cuticularized epidermis
Numerous oil cells (shizolysigenous)
Calcium oxalates (cluster crystals & prisms)
Stomata (epidermis of sepals)
Starch (Fruit – “mother cloves”)
Lignified sclereids
CONSTITUENTS
14-21% Volatile oils
• Mainly eugenol & isoeugenol
• Sitosterol
• Stigmasterol
• Campesterol


Tannins
Triterpene acids & esters
Glycosides
USES OF CLOVE
Stimulant aromatic
Spice
For the preparation of
  volatile oil
Sesquiterpenes:
  potential anti-
  carcinogenic
  compounds
CLOVE OIL
Oil distilled in Europe
  and the US normally
  does not need
  purification, while oil
  distilled in other areas
  (e.g. Madagascar)
  does. After
  purification the oil is
  sold with varying
  eugenol contents.
Oil of cloves is yellow or
  colourless, is slightly
  heavier than water.
CLOVE OIL - CONSTITUENTS
Volatile oils – mainly eugenol & acetyleugenol
Sesquiterpenes (α and β caryophyllenes)

Oil of clove – like other volatile/essential oils –
  should be stored in a well-fitted, air-tight
  container, & should be protected from light &
  heat.
CLOVE OIL - USES
Anti-septic
Aromatic
Stimulant
Flavouring Agent
Allie, yusra volatile-oils
EUCALYPTUS LEAF
DEFINTION: Eucalyptus
  leaf consists of the whole
  or cut dried leaves of the
  older branches of
  Eucalyptus globulus,
  (Myrtaceae).

GEOGRAPHICAL
  SOURCES
Portugal, SA, Spain, China,
  Brazil, Australia, India &
  Paraguay.
Eucalyptus - DESCRIPTION
MACROSCOPICAL
• Older dried leaves are
  grey-brown & have lateral
  veins. Secretory oil cells
  are visible in leaves held
  to the light.

MICROSCOPIC
• Epidermal cells have a
  thick cuticle.
• Anisocytic stomata
• Mesophyll has
  schizogenous oil glands
• Calcium oxalate crystals:
  Prisms & Cluster crystals
Eucalyptus - CONSTITUENTS
Volatile Oil (at least 2
  %)
sesquiterpene - Anti-
  bacterial action
  against oral
  pathogens.
EUCALYPTUS OIL
Oil of eucalyptus is distilled from the fresh leaves
  of various species of Eucalyptus and rectified.
  They are produced in the same countries which
  produce the dry herb.
Only a certain amount of species produce oil
  suitable for medicinal use – the main criteria is a
  high cineole content and low amounts of
  phellandrene and aldehydes.

Suitable oils are obtained from E. polybractea, E.
  smithii, E. globulus and E. australiana.
CHARACTERISTICS &
             CONSTITUENTS
CHARACTERISTICS
Colourless or pale yellow
  liquid
Aromatic & camphoraceous
  in odour.
Pungent & camphoraceous
  in taste, which is followed
  by a sensation of cold.

CONSTITUENTS
 At least 70 volatile oils
  (mainly cineole).
EUCALYPTUS OIL - USES
Alleviating the symptoms of
   nasopharyngeal
   infections
Treating coughs
Decongestant.

Official preparations
Mixtures, inhalations,
  lozenges and pastilles;
  also applied externally as
  ointments and liniments.
FENNEL
DEFINITION: Fennel
  consists of the dried ripe
  fruits of Foeniculum
  vulgare (Umbelliferae).

GEOGRAPHICAL
  SOURCES
  Europe, India, China &
  Egypt. Mediterranean
  origin.
ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS

1-4 % Volatile oil
• trans-anethole
• Antethole
• Estragole
• Fenchone
Flavonoids
Coumarins
Glycosides
ACTIONS & USES
ACTIONS
• Carminative
• Expectorant
• Aromatic
   - All due to anethole (and
      fenchone)


USES
Flatulence
Dyspepsia
Chronic coughs & catarrh
Foeniculum vulgare
Foeniculum vulgare – USES
Culinary purposes
Used in medicine as a
 flavouring
Carminative
CARAWAY & CARAWAY OIL
DEFINITION: Caraway
  consists of the dried, ripe
  fruits of Caram carvi
  (Umbelliferae).

GEOGRAPHICAL
  SOURCES
Wild & Cultivated in Central
  & Northern Europe,
  Holland, Denmark,
  Germany, Russia,
  Finland, Poland,
  Hungary, Britain, Egypt,
  Morocco, Australia &
  China
MACROSCOPICAL
             FEATURES
A biennial herb growing up
  to 1 m in height.
Herb: Normally consists of
  mericarps separated from
  the pedicels. Fruits are
  slightly curved, brown &
  glabrous.
Size: 4-7 mm long, 1-3 mm
  wide
Often the stigma & style are
  still attached.
Characteristic aromatic
  odour & taste
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Pitted sclerenchyma
secretory canals
Dark, red-brown cells
  containing a pale
  yellow or colourless
  oleoresin
Thick cellulose walls
Calcium oxalate crystals
ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS
1-7 % Volatile oils
• Carvone
• Limonene
• Carveole
8-20 % Fixed oils
Proteins
Calcium oxalates
Colouring matter
Resin
CORIANDER & CORIANDER OIL
DEFINITION: Coriander is
  the dried, nearly ripe fruit
  of Coriandrum sativum
  (Umbelliferae).

GEOGRAPHICAL
  SOURCES
Indigenous to Italy. Also
  cultivated in Holland,
  Central & Eastern
  Europe, Mediterranean
  (Morocco, Malta &
  Egypt), China, India &
  Bagladesh.
MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Annual herb growing 0.7 m
  in height with white or
  pink flowers.
Drug: Normally consists of
  whole cremocarps –
  straw yellow & 2-4 mm in
  diameter when ripe.
Considerable variation
  occurs (e.g. Indian variety
  > oval).
Apex has 2 styles.
Fruits have an aromatic
  odour & spicy taste.
Unripe plant: unpleasant
  mousy odour  same
  odour oil has when made
  from unripe fruit.
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Outer pericarp: stomata
  & calcium oxalte
  prisms.
Thick sclerenchyma
Testa:= brown flattened
  cells
Endosperm is curved &
  consists of
  parenchymous cells
  containing fixed oils.
ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS
1.8 % Volatile oils
• Linalool/coriandrol
• Pinene
• Terpinene
• Limonene
• Cymene
• Non-linalool alchols & esters
Flavonoids
Coumarins
Phenolic acids
High fat content (16-28%)
Protein (11-17%)
Coriandrum sativum - USES
Domestic purposes
  (cooking - curries)
Pharmaceutically:
  flavouring agent &
  Carminative
PEPPERMINT
          & PEPPERMINT OIL
DEFINITION:
 Peppermint is the
 dried leaves of
 Mentha piperita
 (Labiate). It should
 contain at least 1.2 %
 volatile oil.

GEOGRAPHICAL
 SOURCES:
 Europe & America
MACROSCOPICAL
                   FEATURES
All mints have a square
  stem & creeping rhizome.
Black mint, which is the
  most commonly
  cultivated variety in
  England, has purple
  stems and dark green
  petiolate leaves tinged
  with purple. Leaf blades
  are 3-9 cm long with a
  grooved petiolate up to 1
  cm long.
Pinnate venation.
Glandular trichomes: bright
  yellow points (hand lens)
Small purple flowers appear
  in late summer.
MICROSCOPIC FEATURES
Diacytic stomata
Multicellular clothing
  trichomes
2 types of glandular
  trichomes (one with a
  unicellar head; with a
  multicellular head).
Calcium oxalate is
  absent.
Oleum Menthae
Oil of peppermint is
  obtained from Mentha
  piperita via steam
  distillation using the
  flowering tops.
Oil should contain at
  least 44 % menthol,
  15-32 & menthone
  and 4.5-10 % menthyl
  acetate.
Oleum Menthae - CONSTITUENTS
Menthol
Menthone & isomenthone
Menthyl acetate
Limonene
Cineole
Menthofuran
Pulegone
Cineole

OIL COMPOSITION: greatly
influenced by genetic
factors & seasonal variation.
PEPPERMINT & PEPPERMINT
         OIL USES
OIL: anti-bacterial,
  cooling, carminative

HERB: Carminative
LESSON TAKE-AWAY
   Definitions of Volatile
    Oils
   Methods of
    Production of Volatile
    Oils
   Herbs containing
    Volatile Oils

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Allie, yusra volatile-oils

  • 2. VOLATILE OILS All official volatile oils are of vegetable origin. Normally pre-exist in the plant – stored in a special secretory tissue (e.g. Citrus peel oil cells or oil ducts in umbelliferous fruits). EXCEPTION: Oil of bitter almond – formed by hydrolysis of the glycosides.
  • 3. USES OF VOLATILE OILS  Therapeutically (Oil of Eucalyptus)  Flavouring (Oil of Lemon)  Perfumery (Oil of Rose)  Starting materials to synthesize other compounds (Oil of Turpentine)  Anti-septic – due to high phenols (Oil of Thyme). Also as a preservative (oils interfere with bacterial respiration)  Anti-spasmodic (Ginger, Lemon balm, Rosemary, Peppermint, Chamomile, Fennel, Caraway)  Aromatherapy
  • 4. DEFINITION OF VOLATILE OILS Volatile oils are products which are generally complex in composition, consisting of the volatile principles contained in plants, and are more or less modified during the preparation process. Only 2 procedures may be used to prepare official oils i. Steam distillation ii. Expression 4 Main types of volatile oils i. Concretes ii. Pomades iii. Resinoids iv. Absolutes
  • 5. CONCRETES Prepared from raw materials of vegetable origin (bark, flowers, leafs, roots etc.) Extracted by HC type solvents, rather than distillation or expression – Becomes necessary when the essential oil is adversely affected by hot water or steam (e.g. jasmine). Produces a more true-to-nature fragrance.
  • 6. CONCRETES Concretes contain about 50 % wax and 50 % essential oil (jasmine). Ylang ylang (concrete volatile) contains 80 % essential oil and 20 % wax. Advantages of concretes: they are more stable and concentrated than pure essential oils.
  • 7. POMADES True pomades are (volatile oil) products of a process known as enfleurage (hot or cold). Enfleurage is used for obtaining aromatic materials from flowers containing volatile oils to produce perfume long after they were cut.
  • 8. ENFLEURAGE: METHOD A glass plate is covered with a thin coating of especially prepared and odourless fat (called a chassis). The freshly cut flowers are individually laid on to the fat which in time becomes saturated with their essential oils. The flowers are renewed with fresh material. Eventually the fragrance-saturated fat, known as pomade, may be treated with alcohol to extract the oil from the fat.
  • 9. RESINOIDS Prepared from natural resinous material (dried material) by extraction with a non-aqueous solvent, e.g. Petroleum ether or hexane. E.g. Balsams – Peru balsam or benzoin; resins (amber or mastic); Oleoresin (copaiba balsam and turpentine); Oleogum resins (frankincense and myrrh)
  • 10. RESINOIDS Can be viscous liquids, semi-solid or solid. Usually homogeneous mass of non- crystalline character. Uses: in perfumery as fixatives to prolong the effect of a fragrance.
  • 11. ABSOLUTES Obtained from a concrete, pomade, or a resinoid by alcoholic extraction. The extraction process may be repeated. The ethanol solution is cooled & filtered to eliminate waxes. The ethanol is then removed by distillation. They are usually highly concentrated viscous liquids.
  • 13. Fx OF VOLATILE OILS In most cases, the biological function of the terpenoids of essential oils remains obscure – it is thought that they play an ecological role – protection from predators & attraction of pollinators.
  • 14. LOCALIZATION Synthesis & accumulation of essential oils are generally associated with the presence of specialized histological structures, often located on or near the surface of the plant: - Oil cells of Zingiberaceae - Glandular trichomes of Lamiaceae - Secretory cavities of Myrtaceae or Rutaceae - Secretory canals of Apiaceae or Astereraceae (Compositeae)
  • 15. VOLATILE OIL COMPOSITION  Mixtures of HC’s and oxygenated compounds derived from these HC’s.  Oil of turpentine – mainly HC’s  Oil of Clove – mainly oxygenated compounds  EXCEPTION: Oils derived from glycosides (e.g. bitter almond oil & mustard oil).  Oxygenated compounds – responsible for the odour/smell of the oil. They are slightly water soluble – Rose water & Orange Water; more alcohol soluble.  Most volatile oils are terpenoid. Some are aromatic (benzene) derivatives mixed with terpenes.  Some compounds are aromatic, but terpenoid in origin (e.g. Thymol – Thyme)
  • 16. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Volatile oils are divided into 2 main classes based on their biosynthetic origin i. Terpene derivatives (formed via the acetate mevalonic acid pathway) ii. Aromatic compounds (formed via the shikimic acid-phenylpropanoid route) iii. Miscellaneous Origin
  • 17. A. TERPENES Terpenes, or terpenoids, are the largest group of secondary products (metabolites). They are all formed from acetyl CoA or glycolytic intermediates.
  • 18. CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES All terpenes are formed from 5-C elements Isoprene is the basic structural element.
  • 19. CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES Terpenes are classified by the number of 5-C atoms they contain 10-Carbon terpenes (contain 2 C-5 units) – monoterpenes 15- Carbon terpenes (3 C-5 units) are called sesquiterpenes. 20-carbon terpenes (4 C-5 units) are diterpenes. Larger terpenes (30 Carbons) are called triterpenes (triterpenoids), 40 Carbons – called tetraterpenes and polyterpenoids.
  • 20. TERPENOIDS Terpenoids contain only the most volatile terpenes (i.e. molecular weight is not too high)  mono and sesquiterpenes May occur as oxygenated derivatives, e.g. alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, oxides & esters.
  • 21. EXAMPLES OF TERPENES i. LIMONENE ii. MENTHOL iii. BORNEOL iv. SESQUITERPENES
  • 22. i. LIMONENE Structural classification: Monocyclic terpene Functional Classification: Unsaturated HC Occurrence: Citrus fruit
  • 23. ii. MENTHOL Structural classification: Monocyclic with hydroxyl group Functional classification: Alcohol Occurrence: Peppermint
  • 24. iii. BORNEOL Functional Classification: //// Occurrence: Cinnamon
  • 25. iv. SESQUITERPENES (Contain 3 isoprene units) Acyclic – E.g. Farnesol Monocyclic – E.g. Bisobolol Bicyclic e.g. Chamezulene (Chamomile)
  • 26. B. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS Many are phenols are phenol esters E.g. Vanillin
  • 27. PROPERTIES OF VOLATILE OILS  Almost entirely volatile without decomposition.  Density: Most are less than 1g/ml.  2 are heavier – Oil of Cinnamon and Clove oil.  Soluble in ether, chloroform & alcohol.  Slightly soluble in water: give it a characteristic odour & taste.  Leaves a temporary translucent stain on paper which disappears as the oil volatilizes.  Most are colourless. Oxidize on exposure to air and resinify  colour becomes darker (odour changes slightly).  All are characteristic odours.  Most are optically active.
  • 28. PRODUCTION OF ESSENTIAL OILS Essential oils may be produced i. By steam - Simple steam distillation - Saturated steam distillation - Hydrodiffusion i. By expression ii. Other Methods Concretes & Resinoids may be produced i. By solvent extraction ii. By methods using oils & fats iii. By extraction by supercritical gasses
  • 29. ESSENTIAL OILS: i.STEAM DISTILLATION a. SIMPLE STEAM DISTILLATION Plant material is immersed directly in a still filled with water. This is then brought to a boil. Heterogeneous vapours are condensed on a cold surface. Essential oil separates based on difference in density and immiscibility.
  • 30. b. SATURATED STEAM Plant does not come into contact with the water  steam is injected through the plant material placed on perforated trays. It is possible to operate under moderate pressure. Advantages: Limits the alteration of the constituents of the oil It shortens the duration of the treatment It conserves energy It can also be conducted on on-line in automated set ups.
  • 31. c. HYDRODIFFUSION Pulses of steam is sent through the plant material at very low pressure from (top to bottom). ADVANTAGE: Normally produces a product of high quality. Saves time and energy.
  • 32. ii. EXPRESSION (E.G.OF CITRUS EPICARPS) The rind is lacerated, and the contents of the ruptured secretory cavities are recovered. CLASSIC PROCESS: an abrasive action is applied on the surface of the fruit in a flow of water. The solid waste is eliminated, and the essential oil separated from the aqueous phase by centrifugation. OTHER machines break the cavities by depression, and collect the essential oil directly  prevents the degradation linked to the action of water.
  • 33. EXPRESSION OF CITRUS EPICARPS Most facilities allow for the simultaneous or sequential recovery of the fruit juice and of the essential oil, by collecting the oil with a spray of water after the abrasion (scarification – puncture by pins) before or during the expression of the fruit juice. Enzymatic treatment of the residual water allows recycling, and markedly increases the final yield of essential oil. Citrus oils are also obtained directly from the fruit juices (by vacuum de-oiling)
  • 34. iii. OTHER METHODS - Steam distillation by microwaves under vacuum. In this procedure, the plant is heated selectively by microwave radiation in a chamber inside which the pressure is reduced sequentially. - fresh plants require no added water. - ADVANTAGE: This method is fast, consumes little energy and yields a product which is most often of a higher quality than the traditional steam distillation product.
  • 35. PRODUCTION OF CONCRETES & RESINOIDS i. SOLVENT EXTRACTION Extraction is generally preceded by a process of: bruising the fresh, wilted or semi-desiccated organs, chopping herbaceous drugs, pounding roots & rhizomes or turning wood into chips or shavings. The procedure is conducted in specialized facilities e.g. Soxhlet-type extractor.
  • 36. SOLVENT EXTRACTION The solvent selection is influenced by technical & economical factors - Selectivity (being a good solvent for the specific constituents). - Stability (chemical inertness) - Boiling point should not be so high that the solvent can be completely eliminated; nor too low, to limit losses & control cost - Handling safety Solvents most used are aliphatic HC’s – petroleum ether, hexane, propane & liquid butane. Although benzene is a good solvent, its toxicity increasingly limits is use.
  • 37. SOLVENT EXTRACTION At the end of the procedure, the solvent contained in the plant material is recovered by steam injection. Main disadvantages of solvent extraction - Lack of selectivity, many lipophilic substances may end up in the concretes & render further purification necessary. - The toxicity of solvents  leads to the restrictive regulations regarding their use - Residues in the final product.
  • 38. ii. METHODS USING OILS & FATS These procedures take advantage of the liposolubility of the fragrant components of plants in fats. a. “Enfleurage” – the plant material is placed in contact with the surface of the fat. Extraction is achieved by - Cold diffusion into the fat - Digestion – carried out with heat, by immersing the plant in melted fat (also known as hot enfleurage). The final product is known as a floral pomade.
  • 39. METHODS USING OILS & FATS b. PNEUMATIC METHOD: similar in principle to the enfleurage process. It involves the passage of a current of hot air through the flowers. The air, laden with suspended (extracted) volatile oil, is then passed through a spray of melted fat in which the volatile oil is absorbed.
  • 40. iii. EXTRACTION BY SUPERCRITICAL GASSES Beyond its critical point, a fluid can have the density of a liquid & the viscosity of a gas  therefore diffuses well through solids, resulting in a good solvent. CO2 is the main gas used Advantages of CO2 - It is a natural product - chemically inert, non-flammable - non-toxic - easy to completely eliminate - selective - readily available - Inexpensive
  • 41. EXTRACTION BY SUPERCRITICAL GASSES DISADVANTAGE: Technical constraints - High cost of initial investment ADVANTAGES: - obtain extracts which are very close in composition to the natural product. - It is possible to adjust the selectivity & viscosity, etc by fine tuning the temperature & pressure - All result in the increase of popularity of this type of method
  • 42. EXTRACTION BY SUPERCRITICAL GASSES USES Initially developed to decaffeinate coffees, prepare hops extracts or to remove nicotine from tobacco, the method is now used to - Prepare spice extracts (ginger, paprika, celery) - Specific flavours (black tea, oak wood smoke) - Plant oils - To produce specified types of a certain product, e.g. thujoneless wormwood oil.
  • 43. TREATMENTS OF THE OILS Occasionally it is necessary to decolourize, neutralize or rectify the oils obtained. i. Steam jet under vacuum Allows for the elimination of smelly or irritating products, and to obtain a final product of desired “profile”. ii. Chromatrographic techniques This permits a good separation of the essential oil from non-volatile lipophilic compounds.
  • 44. VARIABILITY FACTORS OF ESSENTIAL OILS i. Occurrence of Chemotypes ii. Influence of the vegetative cycle iii. Influence of environmental factors iv. Influence of preparation method
  • 45. i. CHEMOTYPES Chemical breeds commonly occur in plants containing volatile oils, e.g. Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) – has 7 different chemotypes, each with slightly different types & amounts of volatile oils.
  • 46. ii. THE VEGETATIVE CYCLE Proportions of the different constituents of a volatile oil may vary greatly throughout its development. Wide ranges are commonly found in fennel, carrot and coriander (linalool is higher in ripe fruit than unripe fruit). Mentha (peppermint) is also greatly affected by the vegetative cycle.
  • 47. iii. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Temperature, humidity, duration of daylight (radiation), and wind patterns all have a direct influence on volatile oil content, especially in those herbs that have superficial histological storage structures (e.g. glandular trichomes). When the localization is deeper, the oil quality is more constant.
  • 48. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS e.g. Peppermint: long days & temperate nights  higher yields of oil & menthofuran. Cold nights lead to an increase in menthol. Laurus nobilis (Bay) [volatile oil] is greater in the southern hemisphere than the northern. Citrus: higher temperatures = higher oil content.
  • 49. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Cultivation practices also play an important factor to the yield & quality of the final product. Fertilization and the amounts of N, P and K have been studied for various species. The watering regiment also plays an important role.
  • 50. PREPARATION METHOD Because of the volatile nature of the constituents of essential oils, the composition of the product obtained by steam distillation is often different from the constituents originally found in the secretory organs of the plant. During steam distillation, the water, acidity and tempereature may induce hydrolysis of the esters. Rearrangements, isomerizations, racemiazations, oxidations and other reactions also occur, all of which change the composition.
  • 51. GINGER: Zingiber officinale  Definition: Ginger is the peeled or unpeeled rhizome of Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae).  Common Names: Jamaican ginger, Ginger
  • 52. Zingiber officinalis - Ginger GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES • Jamaica • China • India Africa HISTORY Cultivated in India from the earliest times. Used by Greeks and Romans and was a common article of commerce in the European Middle Ages.
  • 53. CULTIVATION & PREPARATION  Grows well in subtropical temperatures with high rainfall.  Grown by vegetative means.  Mulching or is necessary as the plant rapidly exhausts minerals from the soil.  When the stems wither, the rhizomes are ready for collection.  Dried.
  • 54. MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES  Scraped/peeled herb has little resemblance to the fresh herb (loss in weight & shrinkage).  Occurs in branched pieces “hands” or “races”.  Buds  No cork  Aromatic odour & pungent taste.  Unscraped rhizome: resembles scraped herb –  Covered with cork (brownish layers)
  • 55. MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES  Cork cells – high starch content  Cork cells are absent in the scraped drug.  Outer zone of flattened parenchyma & inner zone of normal parenchyma.  Oil cells scattered in the cortex.
  • 56. Zingiber officinale - CONSTITUENTS  Volatile oils (1 – 2%)  Camphene  Cineole  Citral  Borneol  Gingerol – pungent component – Anti-inflammatory  Shogaols – increases bile secretion  Sesquiterpene HC’s  Zingiberene & Zingiberol (Sesquiterpene alcohol)  Resins  Starch  Mucilage
  • 57. Zingiber officinale  VARIETIES  Chinese Ginger – sliced  African ginger – darker (cortex is grey – black in colour); lacks the odour but more pungent than Jamaican herb.  ALLIED DRUGS  Japanese ginger – Z. mioga  Preserved ginger – undried rhizomes preserved by boiling in syrup.  ADULTERANTS  Spent ginger  Vegetable adulterants (detected with microscopical examination).
  • 58. USES & ACTIONS ACTIONS  Carminative  Stimulant  Anti-emetic  Anti-bacterial & Anti-fungal  Sesquiterpene lactones – Anti-ulcer  Gingerol – pungent component – Anti-inflammatory  Shogaols– increases bile secretion & enhanced GIT activity USES  Motion Sickness  Morning Sickness
  • 60. CARDAMOM FRUIT & OIL DEFINITION: Cardamom consists of the dried, nearly dried ripe fruits of Elettaria cardamomum var miniscula (Zingiberaceae). PARTS USED: Seeds (should be kept in the fruit until ready to be used – Prevents loss of volatile oils). (3RD most expensive spice).
  • 61. Elettaria cardamomum  GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES  Sri Lanka  India  Guatemala  HISTORY  Traditional Indian ceremonies
  • 62. PRODUCTION, COLLECTION & PREPARATION  Mainly obtained from cultivated plants (propagated by seedlings or vegetatively [problematic due to virus infection]).  Capsules on the same plant ripen at different times – important to collect them before they split.
  • 63. COLLECTION & PREPARATION  Fruits are dried slowly (outdoors or indoors).  Too rapid drying – capsules split & shed seeds  Calyx at the apex of the stalk and the stalk at the base may be removed.  Fruits are graded with a sift into ‘longs’, ‘mediums’, ‘shorts’ & ‘tiny’.  If they have been sulphur – bleached (improved colour), it will be aired outdoors before packed for transport.
  • 64. MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES  Plant is reed-like - > 4 m, with long leaves growing from the rhizome.  Fruits – capsular: inferior, ovoid, 1-2 cm long.  Apex: shortly beaked & shows floral remains.  Base: rounded & shows the remain of a stalk.  Internally the capsule is 3-celled; each cell contains x2 row of seeds.  Each seed: Slightly angular, 4mm long & 3 mm broad.  Colour: dark red-brown (fully ripe seeds)  paler in unripe seeds.  Strong, pleasant, aromatic odour  Pungent taste
  • 65. MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES  Oil cells  Predominant Parenchyma (yellow colour)  Cells containing silica  Starch grains
  • 66. VARIETIES & ADULTERANTS  ADULTERATION  Powdered drug adulterated with the fruit pericarp (powdered).  ALLIED HERBS  Official variety – E. cardamomum var miniscula  Other: E. cardamomum var major (more elongated & sometimes 4 cm long with dark brown pericarps)  Amomum aromaticum (Bengal cardamom)  Amomum subulatum (Nepal cardamom)  Amomum cardamomum (Java cardamom)
  • 67. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS  2.8 – 6.2 % volatile oil  Abundant starch (up to 50%)  Fixed oil (1 – 10%)  Calcium oxalate
  • 68. Elettaria: ACTIONS & USES  Flavouring agent (curries & biscuits)  Liqueur manufacture  Small amount is used for pharmaceutical manufacture (Compound Tincture of Cardamom).
  • 69. CINNAMON: Cinnamomum zeylanicum  DEFINITION: Cinnamon is the dried bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Lauraceae).  GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Cultivated in Sri Lanka, South India, Seychelles, Madagascar, Martinique, Cayenne, Jamaica & Brazil.
  • 70. CULTIVATION, COLLECTION & PREPARATION Grown from seed Cut down when 2-3 years old. After 5-6 shoots grow from the stump (18 months), shoots are harvested, trimmed and fermented. Bark is removed. Peeled bark is then stretched over a suitable stick Outer cortex is removed.
  • 71. PREPARATION OF Cinnamomum Individually scraped barks are placed inside each other. Compound quills are dried on wooden frames in the open air without exposure to direct sunlight. Sorted into grades.
  • 72. MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES Normally received in shorter lengths known as ‘cigar lengths’. Consists of a single or double compound quill about 6-10 mm diameter of varying length. Thickness of the quill varies according to grade (good quality: Not > 0.5mm), bark: 10-40mm. External surface: is yellow-brown, shining, wavy lines (pericycle fibres) and occasional scars & holes (leave/twig positions). Inner surface: darker, longitudinally striated. Odour: fragrant Taste: Warm, sweet & aromatic
  • 73. MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES  Transverse: absence of epidermis & cork  Sclereids (thickened lignified pitted walls)  Secondary phloem is composed of phloem parenchyma containing oil & mucilage cells, phloem fibres & medullary rays.  Some phloem parenchyma contain tannins.  Secretion cells: volatile oils and mucilage  Calcium oxalates
  • 74. Cinnamomum - CONSTITUENTS • Volatile oils (at least 1.2 %) • Phlobaphenes • Mucilage • Calcium Oxalate • Starch
  • 75. CINNAMON OIL – ADULTERATION & ALLIED HERBS Adulterants • Cinnamon Leaf Oil • Oil of Cassia Allied Herbs • Cayenne Cinnamon – C. zeylanicum grown in Brazil – not used in Britain • C. loureirii – from Vietnam – Closely resembles C. cassia
  • 76. Cinnamomum zeylanicum - USES Flavouring agent Mild astringent Oil: Carminative Germicide
  • 77. LEMON PEEL Definition: Dried lemon (Limonis Cortex) peel is obtained from the fruit of Citrus limon (Rutaceae). Botanical Description: Small tree, growing to 3-5 m in height. Geographical Sources Mediterranean Regions
  • 78. Limonis Cortex – COLLECTION & PREPARATION Lemons are collected in January, August & November, before the green colour changes to yellow. The smaller fruit, which would not be sold on the produce market, are used in the preparation of oil of lemon - the peel is removed with a sharp knife in the form of a spiral band.
  • 79. Limonis Cortex – CHARACTERISTICS Dried lemon peel occurs in spiral bands (2 cm wide; 2-3 mm thick). The outer surface is rough & yellow; the inner surface is pulpy & white (anatomically similar to that of an orange peel). Odour: Strong & characteristic Taste: aromatic & bitter
  • 80. Limonis Cortex – CONSTITUENTS & USES CONSTITUENTS Should contain at least 2.5% volatile oil Vitamin C Hesperidin (Flavonoid) Mucilage Calcium Oxalate USES Flavouring purposes
  • 81. LEMON OILS - Oleum limonis Definition: Lemon oil is the oil expressed from the outer part of the fresh pericarp of the ripe or nearly ripe fruit of Citrus limon (Rutaceae). BP: oil should be obtained by suitable mechanical means, without the use of heat, from the fresh peel. Much oil is derived via steam distillation, but this process yields oil of inferior quality. Distilled oil of lemon is much cheaper than that prepared by expression. Large amounts are used for non-pharmaceutical purposes. Geographical Sources: Mediterranean, North & South America, Australia & parts of Africa.
  • 82. Preparation of Lemon Oils i. Hand Methods No longer applicable to pharmaceutical oils
  • 83. Production of Lemon Oils ii. Machine Processes Quality is inferior to the best hand-pressed oils. Machines are designed to release oils from the peel via puncture, rasting or cutting and by imitating the gentle squeezing action of the sponge method. (Superiority of the sponge method is due to the fact that there is no contact between the oil & the inner white part of the skin. The newer machines extract oil more completely than the older ones and give a higher yeild iii.Distilled Oils Although not official, some lemon oils are produced by distillation, mainly from the residue of the expression processes. It is much cheaper than hand-pressed or machine-made oil.
  • 84. Oleum limonis - CONSTITUENTS Terpenes – mainly limonene Sesquiterpenes Aldehydes (Citral & Citronella) Esters Lemon oil has a tendency to resinify and should be protected from the action of air & light as much as possible.
  • 85. Oleum limonis – ADULTATION & USES ADULTERATION Oil of turpentine Terpenes from ‘terpeneless oil of lemon’ Distilled oil of lemon Oil of lemon-grass USES Perfumery Flavouring
  • 86. TERPENELESS LEMON OIL Definition: Oil prepared by concentrating lemon oil in vacuum until most of the terpenes have been removed, or by solvent partition. The concentrate is a terpeneless oil, which has a citral content of 40-50 %. It is equal in flavouring to 10-15 times its volume of lemon oil
  • 88. Agathosma betulina – CONSTITUENS & USES CONSTITUENTS Volatile oils • Pulegone • Menthone & isomenthone • limonene Diosmin Mucilage Resin Calcium oxalates Buchu camphor – Responsible for the diuretic action USES/ACTIONS Diuretic Urinary Tract Anti-Septic – Used for UTI’s
  • 89. NUTMEG & NUTMEG OIL Definition: Nutmeg is the dried kernel of the seed of Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae). Geographical Sources Indigenous to the Molucca Islands (Spice Islands) Cultivated in Indonesia, Malaysia & the West Indies.
  • 90. NUTMEG – Myristica fragrans HISTORY First Introduced to the Europeans by the Arabs. Portuguese lost control of the spice trade to the Dutch, who maintained complete monopoly by destroying all trees in the neighbouring islands & preventing the export of living seeds.
  • 91. CULTIVATION, COLLECTION & PREPARATION Trees can be grown from fresh seed gown in the shell. The seeds germinate after about 5 weeks. When the plants are 6 months old, they are transplanted to the fields. Nutmegs are dried in the shells (process differs according to local conditions). Normally they are dried in the sun & covered at night & rainy weather. They can also be dried in the oven or over low flames. When completely dried, the kernel rattles in the testa, which is then cracked & the nutmeg extracted.
  • 92. MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES Nutmeg trees are evergreen, growing up to 20 m in height. Nutmegs are oval, 2-3 cm long & 2 cm broad. If not heavily limed, the surface is a brown or grey brown in colour. Odour: Strong & aromatic Taste: Pungent and slightly bitter.
  • 93. MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES Potassium acid tartrate crystals Parenchym with thin brown walls Oval oil cells Feathery crystals of fat Few tannin cells (containing tannin & starch)
  • 94. NUTMEG – ALLIED HERBS Papua nutmegs – from M. argentea (New Guinea) – little odour & a disagreeable taste. Bombay nutmegs – M. malabarica (India) – lack the characteristic odour of the genuine herb.
  • 95. NUTMEG OIL Nutmeg oil is distilled from the kernels of Myristica fragrans. CONSTITUENTS Pinene Sabinene Camphene Dipentene Safrole Eugenol & eugenol derivatives Myristicin – a benzene: toxic to humans (large does of nutmeg or nutmeg oil may cause convulsions).
  • 96. MACE Common mace or Banda mace consists of the dried arillus or arillode of M. fragrans. Description: bright red colour & lacks in aroma.
  • 97. MACE – CONSTITUENTS & USES CONSTITUENTS Nutmegs, maces & their Volatile oils (similar to that oils, are all used for of nutmeg) – eugenol • Carminatives derivatives are the main • Flavouring active constituents – • Infantile Diarrhoea (Tea responsible for the anti- of nutmeg – Ayurveda). bacterial effects. Also has 2 anti-microbial resorcinols (Malabaricone B and C)
  • 98. CLOVE DEFINITION: Cloves are the dried flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum (Eugenia caryophyllus), (Myrtaceaea). Geographical Sources Molucca or Clove Islands, Zanzibar, Pemba, Madagascar, Indonesia & Brazil.
  • 99. HISTORY OF CLOVE Cloves were used in China as early as 266 BC, and by the 4th century, they were known in Europe, although very expensive. Same as with nutmeg, the Dutch also destroyed all trees from surrounding native islands to secure a monopoly, and cultivated them only in a small group of islands. In 1770, the French managed to introduce clove trees to Mauritius, and started cultivating them there, as well as in Zanzibar, Penang and Sumatra.
  • 100. COLLECTION & PREPARATION The flower buds are collected when the lower part turns green-crimson. The cloves are dried in the open air on mats & separated from their peduncles (forming clove stalks which are also sold commercially). If left on the tree for too long, the buds open & the petals fall, leaving “brown cloves”. Later the fruits (“mother cloves”) are produced.
  • 101. MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES Cloves are 10-17.5 mm long. The head consists of 4 slightly projecting calyx teeth, 4 membranous petals and numerous incurved stamens around a large style. Odour: Spicy & Pungent Taste: Aromatic
  • 102. MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES Heavy cuticularized epidermis Numerous oil cells (shizolysigenous) Calcium oxalates (cluster crystals & prisms) Stomata (epidermis of sepals) Starch (Fruit – “mother cloves”) Lignified sclereids
  • 103. CONSTITUENTS 14-21% Volatile oils • Mainly eugenol & isoeugenol • Sitosterol • Stigmasterol • Campesterol Tannins Triterpene acids & esters Glycosides
  • 104. USES OF CLOVE Stimulant aromatic Spice For the preparation of volatile oil Sesquiterpenes: potential anti- carcinogenic compounds
  • 105. CLOVE OIL Oil distilled in Europe and the US normally does not need purification, while oil distilled in other areas (e.g. Madagascar) does. After purification the oil is sold with varying eugenol contents. Oil of cloves is yellow or colourless, is slightly heavier than water.
  • 106. CLOVE OIL - CONSTITUENTS Volatile oils – mainly eugenol & acetyleugenol Sesquiterpenes (α and β caryophyllenes) Oil of clove – like other volatile/essential oils – should be stored in a well-fitted, air-tight container, & should be protected from light & heat.
  • 107. CLOVE OIL - USES Anti-septic Aromatic Stimulant Flavouring Agent
  • 109. EUCALYPTUS LEAF DEFINTION: Eucalyptus leaf consists of the whole or cut dried leaves of the older branches of Eucalyptus globulus, (Myrtaceae). GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Portugal, SA, Spain, China, Brazil, Australia, India & Paraguay.
  • 110. Eucalyptus - DESCRIPTION MACROSCOPICAL • Older dried leaves are grey-brown & have lateral veins. Secretory oil cells are visible in leaves held to the light. MICROSCOPIC • Epidermal cells have a thick cuticle. • Anisocytic stomata • Mesophyll has schizogenous oil glands • Calcium oxalate crystals: Prisms & Cluster crystals
  • 111. Eucalyptus - CONSTITUENTS Volatile Oil (at least 2 %) sesquiterpene - Anti- bacterial action against oral pathogens.
  • 112. EUCALYPTUS OIL Oil of eucalyptus is distilled from the fresh leaves of various species of Eucalyptus and rectified. They are produced in the same countries which produce the dry herb. Only a certain amount of species produce oil suitable for medicinal use – the main criteria is a high cineole content and low amounts of phellandrene and aldehydes. Suitable oils are obtained from E. polybractea, E. smithii, E. globulus and E. australiana.
  • 113. CHARACTERISTICS & CONSTITUENTS CHARACTERISTICS Colourless or pale yellow liquid Aromatic & camphoraceous in odour. Pungent & camphoraceous in taste, which is followed by a sensation of cold. CONSTITUENTS At least 70 volatile oils (mainly cineole).
  • 114. EUCALYPTUS OIL - USES Alleviating the symptoms of nasopharyngeal infections Treating coughs Decongestant. Official preparations Mixtures, inhalations, lozenges and pastilles; also applied externally as ointments and liniments.
  • 115. FENNEL DEFINITION: Fennel consists of the dried ripe fruits of Foeniculum vulgare (Umbelliferae). GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Europe, India, China & Egypt. Mediterranean origin.
  • 116. ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS 1-4 % Volatile oil • trans-anethole • Antethole • Estragole • Fenchone Flavonoids Coumarins Glycosides
  • 117. ACTIONS & USES ACTIONS • Carminative • Expectorant • Aromatic - All due to anethole (and fenchone) USES Flatulence Dyspepsia Chronic coughs & catarrh
  • 119. Foeniculum vulgare – USES Culinary purposes Used in medicine as a flavouring Carminative
  • 120. CARAWAY & CARAWAY OIL DEFINITION: Caraway consists of the dried, ripe fruits of Caram carvi (Umbelliferae). GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Wild & Cultivated in Central & Northern Europe, Holland, Denmark, Germany, Russia, Finland, Poland, Hungary, Britain, Egypt, Morocco, Australia & China
  • 121. MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES A biennial herb growing up to 1 m in height. Herb: Normally consists of mericarps separated from the pedicels. Fruits are slightly curved, brown & glabrous. Size: 4-7 mm long, 1-3 mm wide Often the stigma & style are still attached. Characteristic aromatic odour & taste
  • 122. MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES Pitted sclerenchyma secretory canals Dark, red-brown cells containing a pale yellow or colourless oleoresin Thick cellulose walls Calcium oxalate crystals
  • 123. ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS 1-7 % Volatile oils • Carvone • Limonene • Carveole 8-20 % Fixed oils Proteins Calcium oxalates Colouring matter Resin
  • 124. CORIANDER & CORIANDER OIL DEFINITION: Coriander is the dried, nearly ripe fruit of Coriandrum sativum (Umbelliferae). GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Indigenous to Italy. Also cultivated in Holland, Central & Eastern Europe, Mediterranean (Morocco, Malta & Egypt), China, India & Bagladesh.
  • 125. MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES Annual herb growing 0.7 m in height with white or pink flowers. Drug: Normally consists of whole cremocarps – straw yellow & 2-4 mm in diameter when ripe. Considerable variation occurs (e.g. Indian variety > oval). Apex has 2 styles. Fruits have an aromatic odour & spicy taste. Unripe plant: unpleasant mousy odour  same odour oil has when made from unripe fruit.
  • 126. MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES Outer pericarp: stomata & calcium oxalte prisms. Thick sclerenchyma Testa:= brown flattened cells Endosperm is curved & consists of parenchymous cells containing fixed oils.
  • 127. ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS 1.8 % Volatile oils • Linalool/coriandrol • Pinene • Terpinene • Limonene • Cymene • Non-linalool alchols & esters Flavonoids Coumarins Phenolic acids High fat content (16-28%) Protein (11-17%)
  • 128. Coriandrum sativum - USES Domestic purposes (cooking - curries) Pharmaceutically: flavouring agent & Carminative
  • 129. PEPPERMINT & PEPPERMINT OIL DEFINITION: Peppermint is the dried leaves of Mentha piperita (Labiate). It should contain at least 1.2 % volatile oil. GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES: Europe & America
  • 130. MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES All mints have a square stem & creeping rhizome. Black mint, which is the most commonly cultivated variety in England, has purple stems and dark green petiolate leaves tinged with purple. Leaf blades are 3-9 cm long with a grooved petiolate up to 1 cm long. Pinnate venation. Glandular trichomes: bright yellow points (hand lens) Small purple flowers appear in late summer.
  • 131. MICROSCOPIC FEATURES Diacytic stomata Multicellular clothing trichomes 2 types of glandular trichomes (one with a unicellar head; with a multicellular head). Calcium oxalate is absent.
  • 132. Oleum Menthae Oil of peppermint is obtained from Mentha piperita via steam distillation using the flowering tops. Oil should contain at least 44 % menthol, 15-32 & menthone and 4.5-10 % menthyl acetate.
  • 133. Oleum Menthae - CONSTITUENTS Menthol Menthone & isomenthone Menthyl acetate Limonene Cineole Menthofuran Pulegone Cineole OIL COMPOSITION: greatly influenced by genetic factors & seasonal variation.
  • 134. PEPPERMINT & PEPPERMINT OIL USES OIL: anti-bacterial, cooling, carminative HERB: Carminative
  • 135. LESSON TAKE-AWAY  Definitions of Volatile Oils  Methods of Production of Volatile Oils  Herbs containing Volatile Oils