ANALYSIS PAPER GUIDELINES and FORMAT What is the problem or is.docx

ANALYSIS PAPER: GUIDELINES and FORMAT:
What is the problem or issue to be solved?
ABSTRACT:
State the problem and best course of action (i.e. solution) in the
absolute fewest words possible. YOU MUST BEGIN YOUR
PAPER WITH A ONE PARAGRAPH SUMMATIVE
“ABSTRACT” DEFINING YOUR POSITION/THESIS.
1. INTRODUCTION:
Restate the problem and proposals/solutions CLEARLY.
Provide any necessary background information.
Explain/Summarize why your proposed course(s) of action are
worthwhile/best, etc. Explain key terms needed to understand
the problem.
2. BODY (Part One):
What are the causes of the problem?
Why/How did it happen?
For whom is this a problem?
What are the effects of the problem?
Why is it a problem?
The better you, the writer, understands the problem/issue and all
its implications, the better solutions you will find.
Properly document/support your arguments/findings, etc.
3. BODY (Part Two):
Discuss and examine each solution, course of action, etc. Why
is it feasible. Why is this the best course of action. What are the
advantages over other courses of action or solutions.
What resources are available or will be necessary?
Use logic and critical thinking in your discussion.
Apply learned or researched theories and/or principles.
Fully and properly DOCUMENT your work/paper.
Discuss and consider all sides/arguments and look for
repercussions. What could go wrong; what might not work; what
might not be supported?

4. BODY (Part Three/Conclusion):
Discuss which/why your proposed course of action/solution is
the
most feasible and why you chose it, developed it, etc.
Make sure your justification of the “value” of the chosen
solution is fully supported/rationalized.
When you done, make sure you did the following:
Are all your arguments/reasoning logical and supported?
Are your transitions and connections clear and do they flow
together?.
Are all your ideas, arguments, sources moving the reader further
from one idea to the next?
Is there a constant “nexus” between what you are writing and
your abstract?
Are you using correct words?
Short sentences?
Short paragraphs?
Complete sentences?
Punctuation, capitalization, spelling, word-choice, word usage?
Length: (7) FULL pages (double-spaced, one inch margins, 11
point type)
NOTE:
**Your paper should be balanced between ( background, general
research, and your PERSONAL insight and analysis.)
** Use reliable sources.
DUE : IN April 2nd.
Indirect Trauma in the Field Practicum:
Secondary Traumatic Stress, Vicarious Trauma,
and Compassion Fatigue Among Social Work Students
and Their Field Instructors

Carolyn Knight
A sample of BSW students and their field instructors was
assessed for the presence
of indirect trauma, including secondary traumatic stress,
vicarious trauma, and
compassion fatigue. Results indicated that students were at
greater risk of experi-
encing vicarious trauma than their field instructors and research
participants in
previous studies. Risk factors for students and social workers
included age, experi-
ence, gender, and placement in a child welfare setting. Race was
a risk factor only
for students. The results underscore the protective effects of
advance preparation,
agency support, and agency supervision, but also suggest that
specific education
about indirect trauma is lacking. Also discussed are the links
among indirect trauma,
burnout, and students’ career aspirations, as well as suggestions
for future research.
Keywords: indirect trauma, vicarious trauma, secondary
traumatic stress,
compassion fatigue, field practicum
It is increasingly recognized that helping professionals are
likely to be trauma-
tized as a result of their work with challenging clients, such as
those with his-
tories of trauma. Stamm notes, “The great controversy about
helping- induced
trauma is not ‘Can it happen?’ but ‘What shall we call it?’”
(1997, p. 1). In this

article the term indirect trauma will be used (Knight, 2009),
which refers to the
range of reactions that clinicians can experience as a result of
their work, such
as secondary traumatic stress (STS), vicarious trauma (VT), and
compassion
fatigue (CF).
STS refers to “symptoms nearly identical to PTSD
[posttraumatic stress dis-
order] except that exposure to a traumatizing event experienced
by one person
The Journal of Baccalaureate Social Work, Vol. 15, No. 1
(2010)
© 2010 by the Association of Baccalaureate Social Work
Program Directors. All rights reserved.
Carolyn Knight, PhD, MSW, is professor at the University of
Maryland, Baltimore County.
Journal of Baccalaureate Social Work32
becomes a traumatizing event for the second person” (Stamm,
1999, p. 11).
VT involves changes in the clinician’s views of self and others
that result from
hearing clients’ stories of victimization and witnessing clients’
pain firsthand
(McCann & Pearlman, 1990). Prac titioners are at risk of
developing a world-
view characterized by suspicion and personal vulnerability
(Pearlman &
Saakvitne, 1995). CF can occur with any client and refers to the

practitioner’s
inability to empathize (Collins & Long, 2003).
Numerous studies have documented a relationship between a
client’s trau-
ma history and indirect trauma (Bober & Regehr, 2006).
Previous research
also has documented positive connections among difficult- to-
engage clients,
CF, and STS (Figley, 1995). Professionals with less education
and those who
are newer to their jobs appear to be at greater risk of indirect
trauma, as are
those with the most and least experience working with trauma
survivors
(Baird & Jenkins, 2003; Meyers & Cornille, 2002; Steed &
Bicknell, 2001). Pro -
fessionals who report feeling supported in their work experience
fewer symp-
toms, whereas those who describe feeling unsupported appear to
be at greater
risk (Ortlepp & Friedman, 2002).
Women may be more likely to experience indirect trauma than
men, but
this may reflect their greater willingness to acknowledge these
reactions
(Kassam- Adams, 1999). Women may be more vulnerable
because they are
more likely to have experienced trauma themselves, a factor
that has been
found to increase the risk of indirect trauma in some studies
(Baird & Kracen,
2006; Nelson- Gardell & Harris, 2003).
Indirect trauma is not the same as burnout, which is defined as

“feelings of
hopelessness and difficulties in dealing with work and in doing
[one’s] job
effectively” (Stamm, 2005, p. 12). There is evidence, however,
that similar var -
iables influence both burnout and indirect trauma and that a
practitioner’s
risk of burnout increases when she or he experiences indirect
trauma (Bell,
Kulkarni, & Dalton, 2003; Salston & Figley, 2003).
Study Rationale
Indirect trauma among social workers has been less widely
studied, but available
research has generated findings consistent with those noted
previously. A recent
study of licensed social workers in one state found that almost
all of the respon-
dents exhibited at least one symptom of STS, and a minority
met the criteria for
PTSD (Bride, 2007). Further, a study of child welfare workers
in one state, most
of whom were social workers, indicated that rates of CF were
relatively high
(Conrad & Kellar- Guenther, 2006). Further, indirect trauma
and burnout
among social workers appear to be distinct but related
phenomena (Perron &
Hiltz, 2006; Siebert, 2005). In one study, indirect trauma was
more likely to
occur among younger, less experienced social workers (Adams,
Matto, &

Harrington, 2001). In this same study, there was no association
between indirect
trauma and the amount of time spent with traumatized clients.
Cunningham,
on the other hand, found that interpersonal victimization of
clients, especially
sexual abuse, produced more symptoms of indirect trauma
(2003).
The relationship between education and risk of indirect trauma
has
received insufficient empirical attention. There is some
evidence that prepar-
ing clinicians in advance for the challenges associated with
working with trau-
ma survivors may have a protective effect (Bell et al., 2003;
Dane, 2000). How -
ever, research indicates that few professionals receive adequate
preparation for
working with trauma survivors (Knight, 1997; Shackelford,
2007). Finally,
virtually no attention has been paid to the existence and
implications of indi-
rect trauma among students in any mental health discipline—
including social
work— in field practicum and internship experiences.
Research Questions
The exploratory study described in this article examined the
existence of indi-
rect trauma among a nonmatched sample of baccalaureate
social work stu-
dents and their field instructors. In addition to ascertaining the
extent to
which participants exhibited three manifestations of indirect

trauma, the pur-
pose of the study was threefold.
First, the author was interested in determining the role of
educational and
supervisory variables in mitigating or intensifying the effects of
indirect trau-
ma. Based on the limited research available, it was anticipated
that respon-
dents who reported learning about or being prepared for indirect
trauma
would evidence fewer signs of it. It also was anticipated that
supervisory
support— from the field instructor for students and from the
agency supervisor
or peers for field instructors— would serve as a protective
effect. Second, the
author sought to substantiate previous findings regarding the
influence of per-
sonal, client, professional, and organizational variables on the
risk of indirect
trauma. Third, the author examined the relationship between
indirect trauma
and burnout among both students and field instructors, and
between indirect
trauma and career aspirations among students.
Research Design
Selection of Subjects
All students from one undergraduate program who were in the
field placement
and their field instructors were included in the study. A total of
81 students
and 72 field instructors received the surveys (some field

instructors supervised
more than one student).
Indirect Trauma in the Field Practicum 33
Research Instruments
All respondents were asked to complete three instruments, two
of which meas-
ure indirect trauma. The author developed the third instrument,
which col-
lected background details on respondents.
The Professional Quality- of- Life Scale (ProQOL) This 30-
item self- report
instrument is the most widely used measure of secondary
traumatic stress,
compassion satisfaction, and burnout among mental health
professionals.
Respondents are asked how frequently they experienced a
variety of reactions
within the last 30 days on a 6-point Likert scale (Stamm, 2005).
Three subscale scores are generated. The compassion
satisfaction subscale
measures “the pleasure [that is] derive[d] from being able to do
[one’s] work
well” (Stamm, 2005, p. 5). The lower the score, the greater the
risk of CF.
Burnout is defined as “feelings of hopelessness, and difficulties
in dealing with
work or in doing [one’s] job effectively” (p. 5). Higher scores
indicated a high-
er risk of burnout. The STS subscale is “about . . . work-

related, secondary
exposure to extremely stressful events [which may include]
being afraid, hav-
ing difficulty sleeping, having images of the upsetting event
pop into [one’s]
mind, or avoiding things that remind one of the event” (p. 5).
Higher scores
indicate a heightened risk of STS.
Good alpha reliabilities have been found for each subscale:
compassion sat-
isfaction, .87; secondary traumatic stress, .80; burnout: .72. The
construct
validity of the instrument also has been documented (Stamm,
2005). Fol -
lowing the recommendation of Stamm, the author substituted
“social worker”
for “helper.”
Trauma and Attachment Belief Scale (TABS) The TABS also is
a self- report
and is the most widely used measure of VT among
professionals and psycho-
logical trauma among clinical and nonclinical samples
(Pearlman, 2003).
Respondents are asked to agree or disagree with 84 items, using
a 6-point
Likert scale. An overall score is generated, as well as scores on
10 different sub-
scales. The overall score has been found to have good internal
consistency
(α =.96). The average alpha score for the 10 subscales is .79 and
ranges from
.67 to .87 (Pearlman, 2003). The TABS has good face and
construct validity,
although intercorrelations between the subscales can be fairly

high, ranging
from .22 to .75.
The overall TABS score “provides an index of the respondent’s
overall level
of disruption in areas that are important to maintaining healthy
relation-
ships” (Pearlman, 2003, p. 14). Pearlman (p. 16) defines each of
the subscales
as follows:
• Self- safety: the need to feel secure and reasonably
invulnerable to harm
inflicted by oneself or others
• Other- safety: the need to feel that cherished others are
reasonably protect-
ed from harm inflicted by oneself or others
• Self- trust: the need to have confidence in one’s own
perceptions and judgment
• Other- trust: the need to depend or rely on others
• Self- esteem: the need to feel valuable and worthy or respect
• Other- esteem: the need to value and respect others
• Self- intimacy: the need to feel connected to one’s own
experiences
• Other- intimacy: the need to feel connected to others
• Self- control: the need to manage one’s feelings
• Other- control: the need to manage interpersonal situations
Raw scores are converted to standardized T- scores. In all
cases, higher scores

indicate a greater risk of VT.
Background details Respondents supplied basic demographic
information
about themselves. They also were asked a variety of questions
that previous
research indicated might be associated with indirect trauma.
Each question
used a 3-point Likert scale. Respondents were asked the extent
to which they
worked with four types of clients: “mandated,” “aggressive,”
“difficult to en -
gage,” and “with histories of trauma.” They also were asked
whether their
education prepared them for “negative personal reactions to
clients”—the def-
inition of indirect trauma in this study— and whether their
agencies assisted
staff in dealing with negative personal reactions. Students were
asked how
much they had learned about negative reactions in social work
classes and
how often they discussed them in class and with peers. Field
instructors were
asked whether their agencies provided them with any
preparation for negative
reactions they might encounter in their work.
In addition, students were asked to evaluate the helpfulness of
their field
instructor in assisting them with negative personal reactions and
how fre-
quently they discussed negative reactions in supervision. Field
instructors
were asked how frequently they talked in supervision, with
colleagues, and

with family and friends about negative personal reactions they
experienced.
Finally, students were asked the extent to which their field
experience strength-
ened or lessened their desire to be a social worker and to
estimate the likelihood
that they would seek employment in a setting similar to their
field placement.
Method
Students received the research packet in their social work
methods course,
taken concurrent with the field practicum. Distribution occurred
in late April,
approximately 3 weeks before the end of the year- long
practicum experience.
Students were asked to complete the instruments outside of
class and to return
them to the author’s campus mailbox or to their methods
instructor. The
author sent e- mail reminders, and methods instructors also
reminded students
to complete the instruments.
Field instructors received the research packet via regular mail
and were asked
to complete the instruments and return them in the postage-
paid envelope that

was provided. The author sent an e- mail to all field instructors
in advance
informing them about the study. Follow- up e- mail reminders
also were sent.
A cover letter accompanied the surveys and explained the
purpose of the
research as the author’s interest in understanding social
workers’ negative
personal reactions. The letter assured confidentiality, explained
that all
responses were anonymous and confidential, and confirmed that
the research
project had been approved by the author’s institutional review
board.
Results
Characteristics of Participants and Field Settings
Forty- two students completed and returned the research
instruments, repre-
senting 51.8% of all seniors in field placement. Thirty- nine
were female.
Twenty- two described themselves as White; 14 indicated they
were African
American. The average age of the students was 32.3 years, and
their ages
ranged from 20 to 54. Twenty- six reported having less than 1
year or no prior
experience in social work or a related discipline.
Fifty- one (70.8%) of the field instructors completed and
returned the
instruments. Forty- four were female. Forty- two described
themselves as

White; seven described themselves as African American. The
average age of
the supervisors was 50.4 years, and their ages ranged from 26 to
68. Each had
an MSW. Twenty- five field instructors indicated they had 15
or more years of
practice experience, and six had practiced less than 5 years.
Thirty- two indi-
cated they had 5 or more years of experience in the field
agency.
Students were most likely to report they worked in an education
or school
setting (n=13) or in child welfare (n=12). More than one quarter
reported they
worked with difficult- to- engage clients “a great deal” (n=16).
A number of
students reported having no experience with three of the client
groups (trau-
ma histories: n=11; mandated: n=17; aggressive: n=10).
Field instructors also were most likely to report they worked in
an educa-
tional/school setting (n=12) or child welfare agency (n=11).
Forty of the field
instructors reported working with clients with trauma histories
“a great deal.”
Fewer field instructors reported working with the other client
groups “a great
deal”: mandated: n=15; difficult to engage: n=20; aggressive:
n=17.
Manifestations of Indirect Trauma Among Participants
Virtually all students and their field instructors reported some
negative reac-

tions associated with their work with clients (students: n=40;
field instructors:
n=50). Student and field instructor average scores on the
compassion satisfac-
tion subscale of the ProQOL were slightly higher than those of
1,000 mental
health professionals in previous studies, as reported by Stamm
(2005), indicat-
ing a lower risk of CF (see Table 1). Compared to the same
professionals, stu-
dents and field instructors had lower average scores on the STS
subscale.
Difference of means tests between student and field instructor
scores for STS
and CF were nonsignificant.
Students’ scores on the TABS overall and for each subscale
were lower than
a sample of outpatient mental health clients without histories of
trauma as
reported by Pearlman (2003), but they were higher than or
essentially equal
to those of a sample of respondents who identified themselves
as trauma ther-
apists for all but one subscale, other safety (see Table 2). Field
instructors’ aver-
age scores generally were lower than both research samples.
Students’ VT scores were consistently higher than those of
field instructors
(see Table 2). Difference- of- means tests revealed significant

differences
between the two groups for the overall TABS score (t=–3.247,
df=90, p≤.002)
and 6 subscales (self- safety: t=–3.037, df=90, p≤.003; self-
trust: t=–1.999,
Table 1 Mean scores for Professional Quality of Life (ProQOL)
subscales:
BSW students, field instructors, and research participants
BSW BSW field Research
students instructors participantsa
Subscale N=42 N=51 N=1000
Compassion satisfaction 41.3 42.7 37.0
Secondary traumatic stress 11.2 10.3 13.0
Burnout 18.5 18.3 22.0
aStamm, 2005
Table 2 Trauma and Attachment Belief Scale (TABS) mean T-
scores for
composite scale and 10 subscales: BSW students, field
instructors, and two
research samples
BSW Field Outpatient Trauma
students instructors sample therapistsa

N=42 N=51 N=22 N=266
Composite TABS 48.3 41.8 54.6 44.0
Self-safety 46.4 38.4 53.9 45.4
Other safety 44.8 40.1 53.9 45.4
Self-trust 48.0 43.0 54.2 46.1
Other trust 44.4 36.0 52.1 44.9
Self-esteem 46.5 44.8 55.7 46.4
Other esteem 51.4 44.8 51.4 45.2
Self-intimacy 52.6 46.2 51.9 43.1
Other intimacy 48.7 43.1 56.6 47.7
Self-control 48.7 45.0 56.2 45.8
Other control 44.5 40.1 52.3 45.8
aPearlman, 2003
df=87, p≤.049; other trust: t=–3.669, df=86, p≤.000; other
esteem: t=–3.285,
df=89, p≤.001; self- intimacy: t=–2.948, df=89, p≤ .004; other
intimacy:
t=–2.658, df=89, p≤.009).
Manifestations of Burnout Among Participants

Student and field instructor average scores on the burnout
subscale of the
ProQOL were essentially equal (see Table 1). When compared
to research par-
ticipants in previous studies reported by Stamm (2005), both
students and
field instructors had lower scores, indicating a lower risk of
burnout.
Agency Support, Supervision, and Education
Seventeen of the 42 students and 33 of the 51 field instructors
reported they
were “not at all” or “somewhat” prepared by their social work
education for
negative personal reactions. Ten students and 6 field instructors
reported that
the agency did not provide assistance with their negative
reactions “at all,”
whereas 17 students and 22 field instructors stated their
agencies provided
“some” assistance. Twenty- two students indicated they learned
“some” about
negative reactions in their social work classes. Sixteen
instructors reported that
their agencies did not prepare them “at all” for negative
reactions they might
experience in the setting, and 20 stated they received “some”
preparation.
Four of the 40 students who reported experiencing negative
reactions stat-
ed they were unable to talk about these reactions in class, but 18
said they
were able to talk “a great deal.” Twenty- four of these same

students reported
they talked with fellow students “a great deal.” Twenty- five
indicated that they
were able to talk with their field instructors “a great deal,” and
12 reported
they talked “some.” Twenty- one indicated their instructors
helped “a great
deal”; 15 stated they received “some” help.
Among the 50 field instructors who reported experiencing
negative reac-
tions, 36 reported they talked with colleagues “a great deal.”
Forty- six indicat-
ed that they talked with family and friends “a great deal” or
“some” about their
reactions. Among the field instructors who experienced negative
reactions and
were in supervision (n=22), 4 indicated they “never” talked with
their super-
visors; 14 said they talked “some.” Among the 10 instructors
who experienced
negative reactions and were in peer supervision, 8 reported
talking about their
reactions “a great deal.”
Correlates of Indirect Trauma Among Students
Correlation analysis using Kendall’s tau- b as a measure of
association for ordi-
nal and rank- order variables examined the relationship
between determinant
and dependent measures. There were 13 dependent measures:
the compassion

satisfaction and traumatic stress subscales of the ProQOL and
the overall and
10 subscale scores on the TABS. There were a number of
statistically signifi-
cant associations, but these tended to be weak. Three of the VT
subscales (self-
safety, other safety, other trust) were not associated with any
variables.
Intercorrelations among the CF, STS, and VT measures also
were examined.
To simplify this analysis, the composite TABS score was used
as the sole meas-
ure of vicarious trauma. CF was associated with VT (τ= .241,
p≤ .020, n=42).
Personal characteristics Women scored higher on one VT
subscale, self-
trust (see Table 3). Students who described themselves as
White scored lower
on compassion satisfaction, indicating a greater risk of CF and
also exhibited
more signs of VT overall and on two subscales (self- trust and
other esteem).
Younger students and those with less experience also were at
greater risk of CF
and scored higher on one VT subscale (other control).
Client characteristics Students who reported more frequent
contact with
mandated clients had higher scores on 4 VT subscales (self-
trust, self- intimacy,

other intimacy, and self- control). Students who more
frequently worked with
aggressive clients had higher STS scores.
Education variables Students who reported they were not
prepared by their
education were at greater risk for CF, as were those who
reported they did not
learn about negative personal reactions in class and were not
able to talk in
class or with fellow students about their negative reactions. Not
talking with
fellow students also was associated with higher scores on two
VT subscales
(self- trust and other intimacy). Learning about negative
reactions was associ-
ated with a decreased likelihood of VT (overall, other intimacy,
and self-
control), as was the ability to talk in class (other intimacy).
Field instruction and agency variables Students who were
unable to talk with
their field instructors as well as those who believed their field
instructors did not
assist them with their personal reactions were at greater risk of
CF. Field
instructor assistance was positively associated with one measure
of VT (self-
esteem). Students who reported their field agencies did not
provide assistance
were at greater risk of CF and scored higher on one VT
subscale (self- trust).
Agency type, categorized into child welfare settings and other,
was associat-
ed with three measures. Students who worked in child welfare

settings had
higher secondary traumatic stress scores and higher scores on
the self- esteem
and self- control subscales.
Association among indirect trauma, burnout, and career
aspirations CF was
associated with a diminished desire to practice social work, a
decreased likeli-
hood that the student would seek employment in a setting
similar to the field
practicum, and a higher risk of burnout. Those students with
higher scores on
the self- esteem subscale were less likely to report they would
seek employment
in a setting similar to their field site. Burnout itself was not
associated with
either career aspiration variable.
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ic
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la
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ly
.
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li
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c
a
le
Correlates of Indirect Trauma Among Field Instructors
Correlation matrices were constructed for field instructors using
Kendall’s tau-
b. There were a number of significant associations, but most
were weak. None
of the determinant variables was associated with STS. None of
the client or
supervision variables was associated with any of the dependent
measures. CF
was associated with the overall measure of VT (τ= –.333,
p=.000, n=51).
Personal characteristics Younger instructors and those with less
experi-
ence as social workers and in the agency exhibited more signs
of VT (overall,
self- safety, self- trust, other esteem, self- intimacy, other
intimacy, and self-

control; see Table 4). Women had a higher score on the other-
trust subscale.
Education and agency variables Field instructors who indicated
their educa-
tion did not prepare them exhibited more signs of VT (overall,
other safety,
other trust, self- esteem, other esteem, self- intimacy, other
intimacy, self-
control, and other control). Similarly, instructors who felt their
agencies had
not prepared them for negative reactions had higher scores on
the self- trust
and self- esteem subscales.
Field instructors who reported they frequently talked with
colleagues had
lower scores on the self- esteem and other control subscales,
whereas field
instructors who reported they frequently talked with their
friends and family had
higher scores on the other trust, self- intimacy, and other
intimacy subscales.
Field instructors who worked in child welfare settings exhibited
more signs of CF
and had higher scores on the self- esteem and other control
subscales compared
to instructors who indicated they worked in a setting other than
child welfare.
Association between indirect trauma and burnout CF was
associated with a
greater risk of burnout. Field instructors at greater risk of STS
also were at
greater risk of burnout.

Discussion and Implications
The findings of this study are consistent with and expand the
body of research
that examines indirect trauma among helping professionals,
generally, and
social workers, specifically. Limitations of the study, however,
necessitate cau-
tious interpretation.
Limitations
Student participants in this study were similar to BSW students
nationally
with respect to age, race, and gender (Council on Social Work
Education,
2007). However, the generalizability of the findings is unclear
because student
and field instructor participants were associated with only one
large under-
graduate program in a major metropolitan area. Further, it is
unclear why al -
most one half of the students opted out of the study. The
possibility that students’
experiences in their agencies and with clients may have
affected their willing-
ness to participate in the study must be considered.
T
a
b

le
4
C
o
rr
e
la
ti
o
n
m
a
tr
ix
:
F
ie
ld
i
n
s
tr
u

c
to
r
v
a
ri
a
b
le
s
w
it
h
d
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t
m
e
a

s
u
re
s
C
o
m
p
a
s
s
io
n
S
e
c
o
n
d
a
ry
O
v
e
ra

ll
S
e
lf
-
O
th
e
r
S
e
lf
-
O
th
e
r
S
e
lf
--
O
th
e

r
S
e
lf
-
O
th
e
r
S
e
lf
-
O
th
e
r
s
a
ti
s
fa
c
ti
o
n

tr
a
u
m
a
T
A
B
S
a
s
a
fe
ty
s
a
fe
ty
tr
u
s
t
tr
u
s
t

e
s
te
e
m
e
s
te
e
m
in
ti
m
a
c
y
in
ti
m
a
c
y
c
o
n
tr

o
l
c
o
n
tr
o
l
In
s
tr
u
c
to
r
G
e
n
d
e
r
τ
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3
6

p
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–
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x
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τ
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d
a
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ic
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ti
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o
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ly
.
a
T
A
B
S
=
T
ra
u
m
a
a
n
d
A
tt
a
c
h
m
e
n
t
B
e

li
e
f
S
c
a
le
.
The self- report nature of the data also is a limitation. Of
particular impor-
tance is the fact that key terms such as “mandated clients,”
“clients with his-
tories of trauma,” and “agency support” may have been
interpreted different-
ly by individual respondents.
There were a number of statistically significant relationships,
but these
tended to be weak. Field instructor variables generally were not
associated
with the measures of CF and STS. Further, there were
relatively few instances
when student and field instructor variables were associated with
the compos-
ite TABS score, the most straightforward measure of VT.
Whether the absence
of significant associations is a legitimate finding or the result
of the small sam-
ple size or problems with the instruments themselves is unclear.
Participants’ Experiences With Indirect Trauma

Virtually all the participants in this study reported experiencing
some negative
reactions. In general, field instructors’ levels of STS, VT, and
CF were lower
than those of participants in previous studies that employed the
ProQOL and
TABS (Pearlman, 2003; Stamm, 2005). Students tended to
exhibit more signs
of indirect trauma than their field instructors. In fact, students
were signifi-
cantly more likely than their field instructors to manifest signs
of VT overall
and on 6 subscales. Students’ scores also were higher than those
of trauma
therapists from prior studies (Pearlman, 2003).
Impact of Personal Characteristics
There was limited evidence that younger students and field
instructors exhib-
ited more signs of indirect trauma, especially VT. Students and
field instructors
with less experience, and, for field instructors, less experience
in the agency,
also exhibited more signs of VT, as did female participants and
White students.
White students also evidenced more signs of CF.
This set of findings supports the documented risk that less
experienced,
younger social workers and students may face with respect to
developing distor-
tions in thinking characteristic of VT (Baird & Jenkins, 2003;
Steed & Bicknell,
2001). The findings also underscore the role that gender plays,

but they do not
explain why women may be more negatively affected by their
work. As noted
previously, women simply may be more willing to acknowledge
their reactions
(Kassam- Adams, 1999). Further study of this relationship is
warranted.
The role that race may play also warrants further study because
heretofore
it has not been identified as a determinant of indirect trauma. It
is possible that
White students may have had less personal experience with or
understanding
of the sorts of clients and client situations that they
encountered in their prac-
tice than their African American counterparts, leaving them
more vulnerable
to the effects of indirect trauma.
Impact of Client Characteristics
Although some studies have found that practitioners who work
with trauma
survivors are at increased risk of indirect trauma (Baird &
Jenkins, 2003;
Cunningham, 2003), others have found no such relationship
(Adams et al.,
2001). In the present study there was no relationship between a
client’s histo-
ry of trauma and indirect trauma among either students or field
instructors.

There also was no relationship between difficult- to- engage
clients and CF and
STS for either students or field instructors. However, the more
the student
reported working with mandated clients, the more likely she or
he was to man-
ifest signs of VT; working with aggressive clients also led to a
greater risk of CF
and STS among students.
The findings might reflect the way client type was measured in
this study or
the differing definitions of indirect trauma that have been
employed in previous
research. However, they do underscore the need for further
study of the role
that client characteristics— beyond just those with histories of
trauma— play in
explaining social workers’ and students’ experiences with
indirect trauma.
Impact of Education and Advance Preparation
Although not widely studied, there is some evidence that
education and train-
ing may mitigate the effects of indirect trauma (Bell et al.,
2003; Dane, 2000).
The findings of this study support this possibility. Students
who felt unpre-
pared by their education or reported they did not learn about
negative reac-
tions in class experienced more CF and VT, as did those who
reported they were
unable to talk about their reactions in their classes. Similarly,
field instructors
who reported being unprepared by their education had higher

scores on most
of the measures of VT. In contrast, those field instructors who
reported they
received some advance preparation from their agency for
negative personal
reactions they might experience had lower scores on two VT
subscales.
Findings in this area are cause for concern, because so many of
the partic-
ipants indicated that they did not receive any preparation for the
negative reac-
tions they experienced, either in their formal education or, in
the case of field
instructors, in their agencies. But the findings also are cause for
optimism,
because students were less likely than their field instructors to
report being
unprepared, suggesting that contemporary social work education
may be
doing more to include content on indirect trauma.
Continued study is indicated because it is unclear whether this
preparation
should take place in the classroom or in the agency. For
example, Cunningham
(2004) cautions that discussing indirect trauma in the classroom
can actual-
ly lead to indirect trauma. At minimum, course content can
identify, normal-
ize, and validate students’ reactions, as well as help them
identify ways to man-
age and cope with negative reactions when they surface.

Impact of Agency and Supervisory Support
In general, students and their field instructors reported that their
agencies pro-
vided support to employees regarding negative personal
reactions they might
experience. Yet, agency support had no impact on any measure
of indirect
trauma for field instructors and only limited impact on indirect
trauma among
students. Students who reported their agencies were not
supportive were more
likely to manifest CF and had higher scores on two VT
subscales. These find-
ings are at odds with the results of previous research that has
found that a sup-
portive organizational climate can mitigate the effects of
indirect trauma
(Ortlepp & Friedman, 2002). The findings do suggest that
students, who are
newer to their roles as social workers, may benefit from an
organizational cli-
mate that is supportive of their work.
Student respondents reported they could talk with their field
instructors
about their reactions and generally believed their field
instructors were helpful.
CF was higher for students who reported they did not talk with
their field
instructors and who felt their field instructors were not helpful.
One somewhat
anomalous finding was that students who reported their field
instructors

assisted them with their reactions had a higher score on one VT
subscale. It is
possible that talking with one’s supervisor might serve only to
intensify nega-
tive reactions, underscoring Cunningham’s cautionary note
discussed previ-
ously. It also is possible that students with a greater sense of
urgency regard-
ing their negative reactions were more compelled to talk with
their field
instructors.
In contrast to their students, the field instructors in this study
did not use
supervision to manage their negative reactions. This is
consistent with a sepa-
rate body of research on supervision, not reviewed for the
present study, which
suggests that clinicians often avoid talking about sensitive
subjects in supervi-
sion (Ladany, Hill, Corbett, & Nutt, 1996; Yourman, 2003).
Contrary to expec-
tations, supervision did not influence any of the dependent
measures. It is not
clear why this was the case, although prior research suggests
that unless the
supervisor understands the nature of indirect trauma as well as
how to
respond in ways that are consistent with the supervisory role,
her or his input
is not particularly useful (Bober & Regehr, 2006).
Field instructors appeared to rely more on colleagues and/or
friends and
family to assist them in dealing with their negative reactions. In
general, how-

ever, these variables were not associated with any of the
indirect trauma meas-
ures. The exception to this was that talking with friends and
family was asso-
ciated with higher scores on three VT subscales, suggesting that
those individ-
uals who experienced distress in their work relied more on
friends and family
for support. Several authors have cautioned that mental health
professionals
must be proactive in taking care of themselves so that their
work will not
intrude on their personal lives in negative ways (Bell et al.,
2003; Saakvitne,
2002). These findings suggest that this cautionary note is
warranted.
The findings regarding supervision suggest the need for further
study.
Potentially, supervision of students and professional social
workers could mit-
igate the impact of indirect trauma. For this to be useful,
however, supervisors
need to understand the nature of indirect trauma, encourage
constructive dis-
cussion of this phenomenon, and provide suggestions for how
to manage it.
Evidence from this and other research suggests that informed
supervision in
this area may be lacking (Cunningham, 2003; Pearlman & Saak
vitne, 1995).

Several studies have found that social workers who practice in
child welfare
settings may be particularly vulnerable to the effects of indirect
trauma
(Bednar, 2003; Conrad & Kellar- Guenther, 2006). The results
of the present
study support this possibility. When compared to their
counterparts in other
settings, both students and field instructors who reported
working in child wel-
fare exhibited more signs of VT. Field instructors in these same
settings also
exhibited more CF, whereas students exhibited more signs of
secondary trau-
matic stress.
These findings suggest that continuing study is needed on the
relationship
between agency context and the risk for indirect trauma among
social work-
ers. At minimum, social work educators, particularly in the
field, should rec-
ognize the heightened risk for indirect trauma that may exist for
students in
child welfare placements. Many undergraduate and graduate
social work pro-
grams, including the one represented in the present study, rely
heavily on child
welfare placements and receive Title IV- E funds to prepare
students for careers
in child welfare. As a result, this is of particular importance.
Association Among Indirect Trauma, Burnout, and Student
Aspirations
Consistent with prior research (Bell et al., 2003), indirect

trauma was associ-
ated in limited ways with burnout for both students and field
instructors. CF
among both field instructors and students was associated with a
higher risk of
burnout. Field instructors at greater risk of STS also were more
likely to exhib-
it signs of burnout. Burnout was not associated with student
aspirations.
Students who manifested signs of CF exhibited a decreased
desire to practice
social work and a greater reluctance to work in a setting
comparable to their
field agency. The lack of association among VT, STS, and
career aspirations is
encouraging but somewhat counterintuitive, because common
sense might
suggest that students who develop distortions in thinking about
self and oth-
ers or experience intrusive thoughts would become disillusioned
about their
career choices.
A number of students in this study did manifest all three signs
of indirect
trauma; therefore, further study of their effects on the students’
career aspi-
rations is warranted. At minimum, the results of this study
support the need
for students to be helped with feelings of CF so that these
reactions do not dis-
courage them from pursuing careers in social work. Finally,
they also indicate
that to prevent burnout among students and practicing social
workers, their

experiences with indirect trauma, particularly CF and STS,
must be addressed
proactively and constructively.
Conclusion
The results of this study substantiate risk factors for indirect
trauma among
students and practicing social workers including age,
experience, gender,
and race. They also suggest that these two groups may
experience indirect
trauma differently. The results suggest that education and
advance prepara-
tion may moderate the effects of indirect trauma. Given the
limitations in
the present study, future research should focus on substantiating
and fur-
ther elucidating the risk and protective factors for social
workers as well as
the role that education and supervision can play in mitigating
the effects of
indirect trauma.
References
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TITLE: Employee Incentives, Benefits, & Awards: Outside the
Box Ways to Keep/Recruit Talent
ABSTRACT: (Short Summary/Thesis):
Employee incentives is very important as it is a key point to
improve employees’ performance which leads to benefits to the
workplace and many studies confirmed that. In my paper, I will
explore about different and creative ways to motivate and award
employees. Also, I will explore the huge benefits and results of
motivating employees.
RELATIONSHIP TO COURSE OBJECTIVES:
The topic relates to the course objectives in many ways:
· grasp important approaches to human resource management

· Examine goals, principles, and actions as they affect the
workplace.
· Gauge the impact of individual and corporate decisions on
employees.

ANALYSIS PAPER GUIDELINES and FORMAT What is the problem or is.docx

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