Attitude of esl chinese students towards call

ATTITUDES OF ESL STUDENTS TOWARD THE USE OF
COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING
(CALL) IN A UNIVERSITY IN CHINA
by
SHIKUN ZHANG
Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School
Texas A&M University-Commerce
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2011

UMI Number: 3467974
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ii

Copyright ©2011
Shikun Zhang
in

ABSTRACT
Shikun Zhang, EdD
Texas A&M University-Commerce, 2011
Adviser: Jason Davis, PhD
With the development of educational technology, it is important to determine ESL
students' attitudes toward the effectiveness of technology used in the ESL classes in a
university in Central Eastern China. Students' attitudes can reflect the reality of
utilization of computer technology-based ESL courses. The findings can help educators
to effectively use computer technology.
This study utilized two instruments: A demographic survey and a separate Scale
of Attitudes toward Computer-Assisted Language Learning (SACALL). The research
questionnaires were administered to 208 participants. Statistical methods including t-
tests, correlation coefficient tests, and a one-way ANOVA were used to analyze the data.
iv

V
The study findings indicate that Chinese ESL learners had positive attitudes
toward CALL. The r-test findings showed that female ESL learners in the university had
more positive attitudes toward CALL than their male counterparts. The r-test also found
that undergraduate learners had more positive attitudes toward CALL than did graduate
learners. The ANOVA findings confirmed that students expressed different attitudes
toward CALL based on the previous number of CALL courses taken and the frequency of
the students' computer usage. The results of the Pearson's r correlation indicated that
five out of six correlations were statistically significant among the following variables:
(a) students' perceived abilities in computer use, (b) students' number of CALL-based
ESL courses, (c) students' frequency of computer usage, and (d) students' attitudes
toward CALL.
In the ESL field, this study found that students' attitudes toward CALL were a
key factor for predicting the success of computer assisted learning. The findings of this
study should be useful for both administrators and faculty who use CALL in their ESL
courses.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my major advisor and chair of
my doctoral degree committee, Dr. Jason Davis, for his patience, understanding,
kindness, and support. My appreciation also extends to my other committee members:
Dr. Madeline Justice and Dr. Chris Green for their encouragement and constructive
suggestions.
Special thanks are extended to Dr. Fang Chuanyu for his assistance in the process
of data collection in China. I would like to express my appreciation to Bob and Jerry
Titus. They are like grandparents who took care of me while I lived in Commerce.
Thanks are also expressed to all my friends, classmates, and co-workers who supported
and assisted me when I had any kind of problem.
Most of all, my deepest gratitude is expressed to my parents in China. They gave
me all kinds of support, especially emotionally. They also trusted and encouraged me,
even when I almost lost my confidence. Without all their help, I could not have
completed this study.
VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES x
CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the Problem 6
Purpose of the Study 7
Research Questions 8
Hypotheses 9
Significance of the Study 10
Method of Procedure 17
Human Subjects Committee Approval 18
Development of Survey Instrument 18
Selection of Subjects 20
Collection of Data 20
Treatment of Data 21
Definitions of Terms 21
Limitations 22
Delimitations 22
Assumptions 23
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 24
Utilization of Computer Technology in ESL Education 25
The Application of CALL 27
vii

viii
The Advantages of Using Computer Technology in ESL Education ... 31
The Concerns of Using Computer Technology in ESL Education 37
Future Trends in Using Computer Technology in ESL
Education 40
The Current Situation of Using CALL in Universities in China 42
Attitudes toward Using Computers in Language Learning 49
3. METHOD OF PROCEDURE 52
Development of Survey Instrument 53
Part One: Demographic Data 53
Part Two: Scale of Attitudes toward CALL (SACALL) 54
Validation of Survey Instruments 55
Translation of Survey Instruments 57
Reliability of Survey Instruments 58
Selection of Subjects 58
Collection of Data 66
Treatment of Data 68
4. ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA 69
Research Question 1 69

ix
5. SUMMARY, FINDINGS & DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS 80
Summary 80
Findings & Discussion 82
Conclusions 85
Recommendations 86
Recommendations for Further Study 89
REFERENCES 91
APPENDICES 107
Appendix A: Faculty Informed Consent Letter 108
Appendix B: Faculty Informed Consent Letter (Chinese Version) 110
Appendix C: Student Informed Consent Letter 112
Appendix D: Student Informed Consent Letter (Chinese Version) 114
Appendix E: Permission for Using Instrument 116
Appendix F: Survey Questionnaire 119
Appendix G: Survey Questionnaire (Chinese Version) 124
VITA 129

LIST OF TABLES
Table
1: Participants by Gender 59
2: Participants by Degree 60
3: Participants by Self-perceived Computer Ability 60
4: Participants by Major 61
5: Participants by Access to a Computer 62
6: Participants by Course Preference 63
7: Participants by Attitudes toward Helpfulness of CALL in ESL Course 63
8: Participants by Frequency of Using Computer 64
9: Participants by Number of Received CALL-Based ESL Course 65
10: Participants by Places of Receiving CALL-Based ESL Course 65
11: General Attitudes toward CALL 70
12: Gender and Attitudes toward CALL 71
13: Degree of Pursuing and Attitudes toward CALL 72
14: Major and Attitudes toward CALL 73
15: Accessibility to a Computer and Attitudes toward CALL 74
16: Number of Classes Taken and Attitudes toward CALL 75
17: Frequency of Computer Usage and Attitudes toward CALL 77
18: Setting of Receiving CALL-Based ESL Courses and Attitudes toward CALL 78
19: Comparison of Four Factors 79
x

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The computer is an inevitable technology that is widespread in daily life.
Combined changes in computer technology, the economy and social structure have
propelled technology into the 21st
century. Braul (2006) stated that "certain sectors of
society have developed an increasing reliance on computers to carry out jobs, maintain
and establish lines of communication, as well as to meet needs of leisure" (p. 7).
Muffoletto and Knupfer (1993) also found that the influence of the computer on
education, business and entertainment is not only situated within the social world, but
also has affected the social world.
Education is an area with varied degrees of success. Muffoletto and Knupfer
(1993) said that the computer is the motif of academic excellence and quality education.
Technology has helped engage students in meaningful learning that enhances their
abilities in critical thinking skills, problem solving skills and cooperation skills
(Monsakul, 2005).
Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) refers to the use of the computer as a tool to
facilitate and improve instruction (Sharp, 2005). The term CAI came into being in the
early 1960's when computers were first used in education (Zhao, 1996). Sharp said the
invention of the microcomputer has led to the development of computer technology in the
education field. Also, Sharp stated that there are five different types of CAI that can
facilitate students learning through various methods including: (1) tutorial, (2) simulation,
(3) drill and practice, (4) problem solving and (5) instructional games.
1

2
Bruess (2003) described the current situation of computer technology usage in
universities by stating that "the ever-growing use of computer technology in the
classroom is being realized in the universities" (p. 1) and that there has been an increase
in the use of instructional technology in higher education classrooms. Integrating
computer technology into education can maintain students' interest as well as engage
them in the classroom (Pemberton, Borrego, & Cohen, 2006). Zaremba and Dunn (2004)
summarized in their report that "students have greater enjoyment of classes using active
learning techniques like using computer technology in the classroom" (p. 192). As
technological developments accelerate in educational settings, integrating computer
technology into academic learning provides students with more opportunities to gain
interest in exploring learning content (Wright, 2008).
Orshalick (1982) wrote a chapter entitled Instructional Computing at the
University Level in the book Computer Supportfor Education. Orshalick listed the
advantages of computer usage at the university level, which include: "it frees the
instructor of repetitive tasks, it provides individualized instruction, it's more accurate, it's
more patient, and it lets the student progress at his own pace" (p. 22).
Computer technologies bring some problems and challenges that may keep
educators from achieving the full potential of the computer. Simonson and Thompson
(1997) found three problems with using computers effectively in the classroom: (1)
inadequate teacher training, (2) lack of integration into the curriculum and (3) the
dynamic nature of computing. Computers have also become a valuable component in
language programs. Jonassen (1996) indicated that current computer technologies offer
many advantages for second language learning. According to Dhaif (1983) the

3
introduction of the computer as an aid in the language classroom was the most significant
milestone in recent language teaching. Teachers of contemporary language education are
currently discovering new and innovative ways to use computers to assist in the
acquisition of second languages (Braul, 2006).
"The computer and its attached language learning programs could provide second
language learners more independence from classrooms and allow learners the option to
work on their learning material at any time of the day" (Lai & Kritsonis, 2006, p. 2). It
can be expected that, according to Lai and Kritsonis,
the cost for computer technology is considerably lower than for face-to-
face classroom teaching under the condition that it is implemented, and
when used in conjunction with traditional second language classroom
study, students can study more independently, leaving the teacher more
time to concentrate effort on those parts of second language teaching that
are still hard or impossible by the computer, such as pronunciation, work
on spoken dialogue, training for essay writing and presentation, (p.2)
Lee (2000) further stated that the reason why computers should be applied
technology in second language instruction is that with the computer and its attached
language learning programs, the technology can (a) improve practices for students
through experiential learning, (b) motivate students to learn more, (c) enhance student
achievement, (d) increase authentic materials for study, (e) encourage greater interaction
between teachers and students and students and peers, (f) emphasize individual needs, (g)
escape from a single source of information and, (h) enlarge global understanding. Taylor

4
(1980) also expressed that computer assisted language learning programs can be a
wonderful stimulus for second language learning.
As a specialized term for second language computer-assisted learning, Computer-
Assisted Language Learning (CALL) was adopted at the 1983 Teachers of English to
Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) conference in Toronto, Canada to refer to the
applications of computer technologies to second language acquisition (Chapelle, 2001).
The development and innovation of CALL'S development and innovation illuminated
more possibilities for language teachers and learners. Braul (2006) summarized CALL'S
advantages in second language teaching in the dissertation ESL Teacher perceptions and
attitudes toward using CALL as being "individualized instruction, exposure to more
authentic materials and communicative opportunities, self-paced instruction, feedback,
lower anxiety levels, student positive perceptions of CALL, and experiential learning and
interaction" (p. 26 - 27).
Some scholars, however, have negative viewpoints about CAI. Olsen (1980)
found that some faculty thought CAI was a waste of time, energy, and money and feared
it would dehumanize language learning. To be more specific, Gips, DiMattia, and Gips
(2004) indicated that the first disadvantage of the computer and its attached language
learning programs is that they would increase educational costs and cause educational
inequity. To illustrate this point, expensive hardware and software can become major
obligations for schools and parents.
Second, it is necessary that both teachers and learners should have basic
technology knowledge before they use computer technologies to assist in second
language teaching and learning. Students do not have the ability to utilize the computer if

5
they lack training in basic computer literacy skills. Unfortunately, most teachers have not
received technological training to guide their students in exploring computers and in
using them for language learning. As a result, the benefits of computer technology for
those students who are not familiar with the computer can be missed (Roblyer, 2003).
Third, the software programs that are used for computer-assisted language
learning programs are far from perfect. Current computer technology deals the most with
reading, listening and writing skills. Programs for improving speech skills, which are the
most useful skills for foreign language learners in order to communicate with native
speakers, are still underdeveloped. Even though some speaking programs have been
developed recently, their functions are still limited. Warschauer (2004) indicated that an
ideal speaking skills improvement program should be able to understand a user's 'spoken'
input and evaluate it, not just for correctness, but also for 'appropriateness'. In addition, it
should be able to diagnose a student's problems with pronunciation, syntax or usage and
then intelligently decide among a range of options.
Fourth, computers are still machines. They do not have the ability to deal with
unexpected situations. Second language learners' learning situations are varied and ever
changing. Due to the limitations of artificial intelligence, computer technology is unable
to deal with learners' unexpected learning problems or to respond to learners' questions
immediately as teachers do. The reasons for the computer's inability to interact
effectively can be traced back to a fundamental difference in the way humans and
computers utilize information (Dent, 2001). Blin (1999) also expressed that computer
technology with a degree of intelligence does not yet exist and is not expected to exist for
quite a long time. In summary, today's computer technology and its attached language

6
learning programs are not yet intelligent enough to be truly interactive. More effort is
needed in developing and improving computer technology in order to assist second
language learners.
Despite the frustration and barriers confronted by some faculty, the field of
English as a Second Language (ESL) can be enhanced through the use of computer
technology (Zhao, 1996). Ybarra and Green (2003) included computer technologies in
their classroom and concluded that computers can play an integral part in providing
English language learners with valuable language experiences as they acquire a new
language. Warschauer (2004) addressed how ESL teaching and learning was promoted by
incorporating technology into instruction. Claybourne (1999) listed two advantages of
CAI-based ESL courses which include: creation of a safe and interactive teaching and
learning environment and language learning software programs that can stimulate the
interest of students.
With the development of the computer and its related software industry,
integrating language arts computer programs into the curriculum is easier than other types
of programs (Sharp, 2005). However, the field has not been studied very much (Zhao,
1996). Students' attitudes toward CAI-based ESL classes is a topic that deserves
researchers' attention.
Statement of the Problem
The information revolution has challenged the traditional means of knowledge
processing and is driving higher education's response to it. With the advancement of
computer technology in the field of education, English as Second Language (ESL)
teachers in the universities of China, influenced by scholars in western countries, started

7
to use computer-assisted instruction (CAI), especially computer-assisted language
learning (CALL), in their classrooms. Researchers in the past have questioned the
effectiveness of CAI for language learners (Al-Shammari, 2007).
Understanding why people accept or reject information technology has proven to
be one of the most important and challenging issues in educational research (Davis,
Bagozzi, & Warsaw, 1989). Also Horvat, Petric, and Mikrut (2004) said that no matter
how sophisticated and how capable the technology, its effective implementation depends
upon users having a positive attitude. There are many studies focused on the effectiveness
of CAI and CALL on teachers' attitudes toward computer usage in the language arts
classroom. Only a few studies pay attention to students' attitudes about computer usage
in the classroom, especially in the ESL classroom. The success of efforts to integrate
technology with education is largely affected by students' attitudes toward technology
(Pektas & Erkip, 2006). The problem for this study is the attitudes of ESL students
regarding the computer and its application in ESL programs in a university in Central
Eastern China.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine the attitudes of ESL students toward
CALL and to describe the demographic characteristics of students in a university in
Central Eastern China. The specific purposes are as follows:
1. To examine the attitudes of students toward computer usage in ESL courses
based on gender, academic level, major, access to a computer, self-perception
of computer ability, prior experience in a course utilizing CALL, frequency of

8
computer usage, and the kinds of lab settings in which the ESL course is
received.
2. To discover the relationship among the following variables: (a) students'
perceived ability in computer use, (b) students' number of CALL-based ESL
courses, (c) students' frequency of computer usage and (d) students' attitudes
toward CALL.
Research Questions
The following research questions will direct this study:
1. What are the ESL students' attitudes toward CALL in general at the university
as indicated by the SACALL instrument?
2. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL
between male and female ESL students?
between undergraduate and graduate level ESL students?
between students with majors in Arts and those with majors in Sciences?
between ESL students who have access to a computer and those who do not?
6. What is the difference in the attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL among
ESL students who have taken a different number of CALL courses?
between ESL students based on frequency in computer usage?

9
between ESL students based on the laboratory setting: computer lab and
language lab?
9. What is the difference in the relationships among the following variables: (a)
students' perceived ability in computer use, (b) students' number of CALL-
based ESL courses, (c) students' frequency of computer usage, and (d)
students' attitudes toward CALL?
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses will be tested and reported at the .05 level of
significance.
1. There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the receiving of CALL
between male and female ESL students.
between undergraduate and graduate level ESL students.
between ESL students majoring in Arts and Science.
4. There is no significant difference in attitudes regarding the receiving of CAI
between ESL students who have access to a computer and those who do not.
between ESL students based on the number of CALL courses taken.
between ESL students based on frequency of computer use.

10
between ESL students based on the laboratory setting: computer lab and
language lab.
8. There is no significant difference in the relationships among the following
variables: (a) students' perceived ability in computer use, (b) students'
number of CALL-based ESL courses, (c) students' frequency of computer
usage, (d) students' attitudes toward CALL.
Significance of the Study
"Computers have become important tools in today's society and have proven
beneficial in the field of education" (Morton, 1996, p. 416). Educational institutions rely
increasingly on computers to modify the teaching and learning process (Mitra &
Steffensmeier, 2000). Computer technology brings a new way of teaching to teachers.
Calero (2001) said that after experiencing teaching English as a second language with 50
students "the use of the computer in the classroom was proposed as an ideal solution to
make up for the limitation of the traditional classroom" (p. 6). Research showed that
students learn more using a computer than other students receiving traditional instruction
(Murray, 1999). Sharp (2005) also said that,
Because of the multitude of good language art programs, it is often easier
to integrate language arts programs into the curriculum than any other
types of programs. Language arts programs are subdivided into many
categories: writing, spelling, grammar, reading, and more. (p. 299)
Forcier (1996) wrote in his book that the computer is a valuable tool in teaching
written and spoken communication to students who are culturally and linguistically

11
different in bilingual/ESL education. Otlowski (1998) conducted research on ESL
students and found that computers encourage students to write. Huang (2006)
summarized from research that Chinese students generally have weaknesses in college
level English learning in terms of communication including speaking and listening. In
this area, numerous studies have compared the achievement scores of students using
CAI/CALL with the achievement scores of students receiving regular instruction.
Generally, the results indicate that CAI/CALL produces equal or greater achievement
(Bayraktar, 2002). The research over the potential of CAI/CALL in the field of the
foreign language acquisition has indicated that computer technology has the potential to
play a major role in foreign language learning and instruction (Gillespie & McKee, 1999;
Levy, 1997).
At the same time, Haugen (2000) observed that "learning environments based on
new technology impose new challenges on the teachers" (p. 26). Cameron (1999a) also
wondered about the effectiveness of the computer and said the efficiency of computers in
learning is being questioned. Under the condition of the acceptance of computer
technology, teachers have to adapt themselves to correspond with the classroom
integrated with computer technology. Calero (2001) said that the presence of the
computer in the classroom would require significant changes in the teacher's role from
Transferor of knowledge to facilitator;
authority to consultant and facilitator;
director of learning to facilitator of learning;
sage of the stage to guide on the side;
transmitter of knowledge to coach, mentor, manager of the learning;

12
expert on learning psychology, technical expert;
someone in charge of telling to someone in charge of facilitating learning.
(p. 7).
In addition, teachers are reluctant to express their willingness to integrate computer
technology into their courses because they are afraid of being replaced by machines.
Moreover, teachers with less professional training in computer technology insist
on not using computer technology. In a National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)
survey in 2000, only one-third of regular public-school teachers reported that they were
well prepared or very well prepared to use computers and the Internet in classroom
instruction (National Center for Education Statistics, 2000). Jones (2001) reported that
most teachers said they need more help because they had not received the technology
training necessary for them to incorporate technology into their classrooms. In order to
solve this problem, many teacher education programs are beginning to integrate
technology training into a professional education course (Abbott & Faris, 2000).
In the field of CAI, computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is well known in
the field of foreign language teaching and learning process. CALL classes represent new
ways of language learning in highly institutionalized and examination-based education
systems (Holmes, 1998). The definition of CALL is defined as the search for and study of
applications of the computer in language teaching and learning (Levy, 1997). CALL has
followed technological advances closely, starting with text-based software, which later
became augmented with multimedia applications and additions and presently with the
ever increasing network of the World Wide Web in order to stimulate user interaction
(Cameron, 1999b). CALL can be regarded as a useful tool, a subject and a way of

13
focusing student perceptions of language education. Students, after taking CALL-based
courses, will begin to think critically about the way technology influences how they study
language and their educations in general (Holmes, 1998).
English as a second language (ESL) education is required for both undergraduate
and graduate level students in China. Students that graduate with a satisfactory ESL GPA
can receive an official diploma. Vice Minister of Education in China Wu (2005) said that
the reform of a higher educational level ESL education is necessary to improve the
students' ability to implement English as a communication tool in their daily life. The
Requirementfor College Level English Teaching Handbook was introduced to college
ESL teachers after the college ESL teaching and learning revolution had been in place for
a year. The handbook emphasized the computer as a powerful educational technology
and its application in the teaching and learning of ESL.
China, as one of the leading countries which advocates the importance of
education, requires more scholars to do research in computer technology in order to
discover the best way to use it effectively. In China, computer technology used in the
field of education has lagged behind compared with other countries. Cai and Guo (2006)
said that "compared to the advanced industrial countries, the use of information
technology in Chinese higher education came relatively late" (p. 353).
In 2005, Wu pointed out that educational technology will have a profound impact
on the reform of the country's educational concepts and educational process; it is the
command post of educational and teaching reform. Zhang, Dong, and Chen (2005) stated
that the situation of using computer technology in China is a productive force which can
grant educators a tool to facilitate their teaching. Cai and Guo (2006) also said that

14
"recent Chinese practices have achieved significant progress in the country's efforts to
bridge the digital divide" (p. 353). One of the most successful and distinguished leaders
in computer-enhanced education is Yuanchun Chi, a professor at Tshinghua University,
Beijing, China.
A survey of CAI development and application in various engineering colleges and
universities in China in 1994 by Lang (1999) showed that
There were a total of 142 pieces of software developed and used in the
colleges and universities of arts, 125 in science, 123 in engineering, and
102 in medical sciences. Among them, 346 were course software,
including 27 for foreign languages. As shown by recent data, 30% of the
engineering colleges and universities have established their own CAI labs
and 20% of them have used a computer network as support for CAI in
education, (p. 400)
Lang summarized from the study that CAI has been widely applied in basic courses in
higher educational institutions, although the level of development and the extent of
application varies greatly among colleges and universities in China.
The college English syllabus has been revised several times. The latest revised
version in 2003 listed the new requirements for the students in their English courses
which aimed to develop their abilities in listening, speaking, writing, and translation. For
listening, it requires students to understand the key points in conversation and speech at a
speed of 150-170 words per minute. After listening, students should make the right
judgment about a speaker's attitude and opinion. For speaking, it requires students to
have the ability to carry on a conversation with others about everyday life. For writing, it

15
requires students to write about a topic, abstract or summary of about 150-180 words in
half an hour with correct grammar and spelling. For translation, it requires students to
translate between Chinese and English with the consultation of the dictionary under the
condition of 300 words per hour.
In order to fulfill the requirements of the college English syllabus, school
administrators pay more attention to the ESL teaching and learning process. For non-
English major students, they will have more than 4 hours of English courses per week,
more than 70 hours per semester, and more than 280 hours total for four continuous
semesters in their freshmen and sophomore years. In addition, all the English courses are
mandatory for every major in college.
There are eight questions and challenges mentioned as well in the college English
syllabus in China. One of the major issues that deserves time and patience in ESL
teaching is the integration of the modern and latest technology into the teaching process.
The revised syllabus (2003) states that technology initialization in English as a second
language teaching techniques should be taught through audio, video, film, TV, Internet
and multimedia projects. The suggestion is that faculty members, curriculum designers,
and technology staff should cooperate in order to learn the appropriate way to deliver the
ESL college level courses utilizing technology, especially computer technology.
The consequences of the college English syllabus reformation are obvious. Yu
(2007) said, "with the technology, the lecturing method of teaching is being replaced by
the teacher-assisted teaching method gradually" (p. 22). In addition, he said the interests
of students during the learning process are important. The usage of technology can have a
positive impact for students by encouraging them to accept knowledge in an easy way.

16
Some negative results are also listed as a result of computer usage in ESL course teaching.
One major problem is that students with different backgrounds in computer technology
show different learning capabilities during their computer-based ESL courses, which
causes the teacher a lot of trouble when deciding whether or not to integrate the new
technology into the learning process.
Simonson and Thompson (1997) listed the findings of several researchers on
computers in education that deserve further attention. Attitude is a factor that needs
further research. Attitude toward technology is a popular research topic among the
scholars. In terms of the teachers' attitudes toward computer technology utilization,
Davies and Crowther (1995) summarized that "if there was a lack of motivation or an
unfavorable attitude on the part of the teacher, this attitude would be directly transmitted
to the student and the system would fail" (p. 4). Fernandez (2001) did a field study about
English faculty's attitudes toward the introduction of multimedia in the classroom in
Spain. The result showed that the average ESL teacher would be in favor of the
introduction of the computer into the classroom.
In terms of students' attitudes toward computer technology utilization, Brownell
(1992) said that the attitudes of students toward technology may need to be challenged
and explored. This controversial topic has been studied by several researchers. The effect
of experience on the development of positive attitudes has been identified in several
studies (Mergendoller & Sacks, 1994), though some have found that the attitudes affect
the nature of a computer experience, with negative attitudes contributing to the
experience as well (Rosen & Weil, 1995).

17
Student attitudes toward computers can be related to their computer use and,
ultimately, the benefits they can reap from computer use (Mitra & Steffensmeier, 2000).
According to Clement (1981), "students' attitudes toward computer-based education have
been positive at all levels — elementary school, junior high school, high school and
college" (p. 29). Pektas and Erkip (2006) summarized that the success of efforts to
integrate technology with education is largely affected by the attitudes of students toward
technology.
However, Al-Shammari (2007) said that only a few studies focused specifically
on student attitudes toward CALL in ESL learning. In his research, he studied English as
foreign language learners' attitudes toward computer-assisted language learning in Saudi
Arabia for 1500 students on four campuses. The results indicated the ESL learners had
positive attitudes toward CALL and software in their ESL courses.
The usage of computer technology in college level ESL education in China is a
major component in the ESL teaching and learning process. The attitude of ESL students
toward the utilization of CALL technology was recommended by the above researchers
to be studied because of the positive/negative correlations between students' attitudes and
the effectiveness of the usage of the computer technology.
Method of Procedure
The purpose of this study was to investigate (a) the attitudes of ESL students in a
university in China toward the use of computer-assisted language learning (CALL),
(b)the demographic characteristics of students who are taking ESL courses in a university
in China, (c) the relationship of some of the demographic characteristics with ESL

18
students' attitudes in China and (d) the demographic factors which can predict the
students' attitudes toward CALL. The specific procedures included:
1. Human Subjects Committee Approval
2. Development of Survey Instrument
a. Survey Instrument: ESL student demographics and their attitudes toward
CAI in ESL courses
i. Part One: Demographic
ii. Part Two: Scale of Attitudes toward CALL (SACALL)
b. Validation of Survey Instrument
c. Translation of Survey Instrument
d. Reliability of Survey Instrument
3. Selection of Subjects
4. Collection of Data
5. Treatment of Data
Human Subjects Committee Approval
Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the University's Internal
Review Board (IRB) in order to protect the rights of participants. The study was
conducted after receiving the permission from the IRB.
Development of Survey Instrument
The survey instrument used for this study consists of two parts. Part one gathered
demographic and background information concerning students who participated in this
survey in the university in China. Part two, Scale of Attitudes toward CALL (SACALL)

19
survey, was employed to examine students' attitudes toward computer usage in ESL
courses.
Validation of Survey Instrument
A panel of three experts who are in the fields of both educational technology and
English literature were asked to judge the validation of the combined survey instrument.
The panel made suggestions for improvement and then approved the modified instrument.
Translation of Survey Instrument
After validation of the survey instrument was completed, the survey instrument
was translated into the home language of the participants (Mandarin) by the researcher in
order to eliminate the possibility of students' confusion about the survey questions in
English. A panel of two experts, who have PhDs in English literature were asked to
critique the translated Chinese version of the instrument. They gave positive comments
on the translation because the essential meanings were matched. Panel members
recommended some better ways to translate specific words in part two which were more
appropriate to the survey.
Reliability of Survey Instrument
In order to ensure that the survey instrument achieved reliability, the researcher
used Cronbach's coefficient alpha to compare with the coefficient alpha in Al-
Shammari's SACALL instrument. The coefficient alpha of .89 used in the SACALL
instrument is higher than a standard reliability level of .80, which is referenced in several
literature reviews in chapter two.

20
Selection of Subjects
This study focused on students' attitudes toward the utilizing of CALL in their
ESL courses in a university in China. This comprehensive university was chosen because
it is representative of more than 200 four-year universities in China in terms of size,
location, ranking and program setting. The university was one of the key comprehensive
provincial institutions in Middle Eastern China. It is now a well-developed higher
education institution supported by the government under the State 211 project the
ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China initiated in Key universities and
colleges in 1995 to help them move into the 21st
century. The project aimed at cultivating
high-level elite universities for national economic and social development. The university
where the study was done consists of approximately 20 schools and 40 departments,
including undergraduate, masters, and PhD programs. The university has a staff of
approximately 2,400 among which are about 200 professors and 500 associate professors.
The student population totals about 30,000. The subjects of this study were students who
took undergraduate level or graduate level ESL courses in the university during the
spring semester 2010, but were not English majors.
The total number of participations at the university was 320 students in April
2010. The participation included all students, excluding English majors. 214 students
responded to the survey. Among the 214 returned surveys, 208 were considered valid
surveys for this study.
Collection of Data
The researcher received oral permission to conduct the survey from the vice
president in curriculum at the Chinese university in October 2009. The instructors who

21
administered the survey received the survey package including a cover letter and the
survey materials.
The instructors printed out and brought the survey questions to the classroom.
According to the instructions from the cover letter, students who were willing to do the
survey signed the consent form and then finished the survey. For students who could
access the Internet, they were given the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) which is an
address for a particular webpage to the survey website after signing the consent form.
Treatment of Data
Descriptive statistics were used to examine part two of the survey which was the
students' attitudes toward the using of CALL in their college level ESL courses. T-test,
ANOVA and correlation coefficient, were used for the demographic factors toward the
attitude to CALL courses.
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the
data from the survey. The .05 alpha level of significance was used to test all hypotheses
in the study.
Definitions of Terms
The following terms are defined according to their use in this study:
CAT. Computer-assisted instruction, which refers to the use of the computer as a
tool to facilitate and improve instruction (Sharp, 2005).
CALL: Computer-assisted Language Learning, which is the use of computers to
assist in second - or foreign -language instructional activities (Merrill et al., 1986).
Educational technology: Educational technology which includes any technologies
that facilitate and enhance classroom instruction and students' learning. Educational

22
technology includes relatively new electronic media and devices such as computers,
peripheral hardware and software, and basic equipment such as video, overhead, and
projectors. Educational technology can be employed in various ways, such as use in the
classroom setting, use to support personal productivity, etc. (McCampbell, 2002;
Mehlinger & Powers, 2002). The primary concern in this study was the use of computer
technology in a classroom setting.
ESL: English as a second language, that is the field of teaching Standard English
as used in the United States to persons who have a different native language (Hawes &
Hawes, 1982). Hu (2007) mentioned that Chinese students who take English courses can
also be called ESL students.
TESOL: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
Limitations
The study is limited by the following:
1. The study was limited to the completed surveys returned.
2. The study was limited to the faculty members who were willing to participate.
3. The study was limited to the ESL courses taught in the university in China.
Delimitations
The study is delimited by the following:
1. The study was delimited to students who were enrolled in the ESL courses in the
university in spring 2010.
2. Only one major comprehensive provincial university in China in the city of Hefei in
Anhui province was selected.
3. All students who returned the survey were not English majors.

23
Assumptions
The basic assumptions for the study included:
1. Every student was to complete only one survey questionnaire.
2. The students reported demographic and background information accurately.
3. The students self reports were accurate in their assessments about their computer
ability.
4. Students were honest in answering the survey about their attitudes toward CALL.
5. All the survey instruments used in the study were valid and reliable.

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The development of civilization is influenced by the evolution of technology
(McGinn, 1991). The emergence of new technologies injects new ideas and various
changes into life in various domains. One of technology's major contributions has been to
education. From the introduction of the concept of technology-integrated education, the
development of technology brings educators new tools which can facilitate their delivery
of knowledge. Among the educational technologies which were used in the past and in
recent years, the computer and its associated applications (software, the Internet,
networks, servers) is regarded as a major step toward enhancement of learning. Currently,
educational technology is not a new term that is feared by educators. Norton and Wiburg
(2003) said education in modern days has sustained a long-term interest in the use of
electronic technology as a remedy for educational problems. In 1996, Chickering and
Ehrmann updated the famous Seven Principles of Good Practice by Chickering and
Gamson (1987). In the articles, the authors introduced the principles of the Good Practice
philosophy with regard to technology. More educators agreed on the important roles that
educational technology plays.
The successful implementation of educational technology settles controversies
about the effectiveness of using technology in teaching and learning. Both educators and
learners gave positive feedback about the effectiveness of technology in assisting
lecturing (Brothen, 1998). The areas of ESL teaching and learning are not an exception.
This chapter summarizes the results of a thorough review of literature pertaining
to educational technology in ESL education. The related background information,
24

25
including the current situation of CALL application in universities in China is also
presented. In addition, the second part of this chapter will focus on attitudes. The specific
areas that have been addressed include:
1. Utilization of computer technology in ESL education ,
2. The application of CALL,
3. The advantages of using computer technology in ESL education ,
4. The concerns about using computer technology in ESL education ,
5. Future trends in using computer technology in ESL education,
6. The current situation of using CALL in universities in China,
7. Attitudes toward using computers in language learning.
The literature review provides the reader with a clear idea about the theoretical
foundation for the study.
Utilization of Computer Technology in ESL Education
Historically, Deal (2002) said teaching and learning were confined to classroom
settings with few instructional strategies including lecture, discussions, and field trips to
stimulate the learning process. This method of knowledge delivery has been used for
many years. The classroom today is similar to even Aristotle's in his age. With the social,
economic, and technology changes and some critical programs that relate to education in
recent years, educators are thinking of new ways to deliver knowledge.
Computer technology as a tool was introduced for use in the transformation of
education. Computer technology is appropriate to use for various fields in education (Abu
Bakar, Tarmizi, & Ayub, 2010). Bruess (2003) said "the use of technology in ESL
settings is not a new application and has sparked keen interest among researchers and

26
practitioners since 1970, when computers were used to support second and foreign
language learning" (p. 12-13). Because English is one of the most important languages
used to communicate internationally, especially in business, people around the world are
eager to learn English. Beckett et al. (2006) said effective education and computer
literacy skills for English language learners have gained increasing importance in several
areas of the United States including Arizona, California, and Massachusetts.
During the 1960s and 1970s, the most prominent technological device for second
language instruction was the language learning laboratory, which used a series of audio
devices (Angelis, 1973). In the 1980s, the application of technology in language
classrooms included the use of film, radio, television, language labs with audio and
videotapes, computers and interactive video (Cunningham, 1998). During the 1980s,
various types of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) also became commonplace
(Iandoli, 1990). Into the mid 1990s, the use of hypermedia, multimedia, the Internet, and
various forms of distance learning became widespread (Macy & Flache, 2002). Presently,
the analysis by Song (2006) showed the rapid growth and development of the web has
become an important issue in recent computer-assisted language learning (CALL)
research and practice. Coniam (2004) said if CALL can be integrated into teaching in a
worthwhile manner, it can impact teaching and learning in a good way.
The precise definition of CALL is an issue that has been debated since the field's
birth because CALL is a relatively new field in language learning. After the first
appearance as the specific term 'CALL' at the TESOL conference in Toronto in 1983,
controversy has existed in defining "CALL". Al-Shammari (2007) said "researchers have
set broad definitions that consider the current situation of the field and approximately try

27
to cover all technology use in language learning" (p. 20). Davies (2007) defines CALL as
the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and
learning. Beatty (2003) defines CALL as "any process in which a learner uses a computer
and, as a result, improves his or her language" (p. 7). Levy (1997) defines CALL as "the
research for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning"
(p. 1). All three definitions encompass three main words of the term CALL: "computer",
"language", and "learning". In this study, CALL refers to the integration of the computer
into college level ESL learning in a university in China.
The Application of CALL
Computers can be used in different ways in the field of education. In terms of
CALL, Jia (2007) summarized "it can be a cover term to include Computer-Aided
Instruction (CAI), Computer-Assisted Learning (CAL), Computer-Assisted Language
Instruction (CALI), Computer-Assisted Language Teaching (CALT) or even other
teaching media involving high technology by means of the computer"(p. 60). Warschauer
(1996) divided CALL typology and applications in language learning into three parts:
computer as tutor, computer as stimulus, and computer as tool. Computers as a tutor
mean that the computer offers tutoring to students. For example, the computer provides
learning material, gets the responses from students, assesses those responses, and then
decides what to present next based on the learners' responses (Taylor, 1980). Computers
as a stimulus means that the computer is used to help learners generate discussions,
synthesize information, critical thinking, and discussion. Computers as a tool mean that
students seek help from computers. For example, grammar checking, word processing,
reference, collaborative writing, Internet, and authoring programs are typical uses.

28
Beatty (2003) provided a wider range of CALL applications that meet different
learner needs in language skills. These applications are found in nearly all the recent
CALL labs:
1. Microsoft Office package: Word processing is one of the most useful software
in the Microsoft Office package. It comes under the category of the computer used as a
tool. The usage of word processing is one of the basic applications of CALL. It can
enhance learners' motivations toward writing. With the help of word processing software,
students are willing to spend more time practicing.
2. Games: The purpose of using games for pedagogical purpose in second
language learning is to make learners unaware of the objectives, which means that
learning is regarded as an activity that is peripheral to play (Beatty, 2003). Azriel, Erthal,
and Star, (2005) said that games give learners a creative environment which helps them
to work with their peers, solve problems, and also communicate with each other. As a
result, learners become involved in an active way in the learning process that improves
their motivation.
Jones (1997) recognized two types of games in ESL including strategy games and
twitch games. Strategy games require higher-order thinking skills and problem-solving
skills for successful completion. In this type of game, they require users to perceive the
larger problems and to plan strategies to solve them. Alessi and Trollip (1991) classified
under strategy games, (1) adventure and role-playing games, (2) board games, and (3)
logic games. Twitch games require users to react quickly to stimuli. Felix (2002) said the
advantage of these games is that movement is quick and feedback is immediate. Alessi

29
and Trollip (1991) identified as twitch games: (1) arcade games, (2) gambling games, (3)
combat games, and (4) psychomotor games.
3. Corpus linguistics: Corpus linguistics refers to the study of the body of texts
(Beatty, 2003). It is the study of the language as expressed in samples (corpora) or "real
world" text. Chapelle (2001) said "corpus linguistics tends to focus on the result that can
be obtained through observation of a large database comprised of text"(p.36). Originally
done by hand, corpora are now largely derived by an automated process. The first
computerized corpus of transcribed spoken language was constructed in 1971 by the
Montreal French Project, which contained one million words (Sankoff & Sankoff, 1973).
The purpose of corpus linguistics is to understand the models of authentic
language use through actual usage analysis (Krieger, 2003). The application of corpus
linguistics helps teachers develop their learning material by offering learners an analysis
of their systematic errors (Beatty, 2003). Chapelle (2001) considered corpora as a central
area for computer applications in second language acquisition that helps learners create
their own profile of words, meanings, and uses. For the benefit of students, they could
also be given a window to use authentic language that is derived from real contexts rather
than constructed for pedagogical purposes (Krieger).
4. Computer mediated communication (CMC): Warschauer (1996) said CMC is
seen as one of the computer applications that has the greatest potential impact on the field
of language learning. McQuail (2005) defined CMC as any communicative transaction
that occurs through using two or more networked computers. To be more specific, the
term refers to those communications that occur via computer-mediated formats (e.g.

30
instant messages, emails, and chat rooms) and also refers to other applied forms of text-
based interaction such as text messages (Thurlow, Lengel, & Tomic, 2004).
There are two kinds of CMS, synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous CMC
means that the interaction is taking place in real time. The best example is the online chat
room via Internet. Smith, Alvarez-Torres, and Zhao, (2003) said "Internet Relay Chat
(IRC) exemplifies synchronous communication" (p. 705). Asynchronous communication
is the opposite of synchronous and means that interactions do not take place in real time.
This type of CMS gives a learner the opportunity to receive instant feedback from
teachers. Smith, et al. (2003) said Bulletin Board System (BBS) and email are good
examples of asynchronous communication. One advantage of this type is to give learners
the time to think carefully about the language they will use because, for the second
language learner, it is necessary to spend time in checking the writing before sending.
Another advantage for BBS boards or forums is that everyone in the group can share
information. The feedback from peers sometimes is more helpful than that from teachers.
CMC is widely discussed in language learning because CMC provides opportunities for
language learners to practice their language (Abrams, 2006). Peterson (1997) stated that
email and asynchronous conferencing are the most common applications of CMC that are
found in the language classroom. Gillespie and McKee (1999) said there was strong
acceptance of email, which is used to communicate with tutors, instructors, and other
class members, and it became the means of social communication within the class. For
example, Warschauer (1998) conducted several case studies on using email or discussion
boards in different language classes. The claim was that information and communications
technology bridge the historic division between speech and writing. As a result,

31
considerable concern has arisen over reading and writing research in second language (L2)
due to the booming of the Internet (Warschauer, 2006).
5. World Wide Web (WWW) resources: Silc (1998) said "the World Wide Web is
an immense library of authentic materials for the language learning classroom." (p.5).
Compared with traditional ESL learning with textbooks, Mosquera (2001) also said that
the language that students can learn through the WWW is more real and authentic.
Students found great enjoyment in using the World Wide Web, both during and outside
class (Gillespie & McKee, 1999). To be more specific, Yang and Chen (2007) illustrated
that through the WWW platform, learners are able to learn and practice all language
skills including reading, listening, and writing.
The Advantages of Using Computer Technology in ESL Education
The advantages of using computer technology in ESL education were mentioned
by researchers in their reports. Administrators, teachers, and students can benefit from
different advantages as describing in the following detailed analysis.
From the perspective of school administrators, Kearsley (1990) said educational
administrators were responsible for managing their schools or school systems. To
perform their duty as administrators, they needed information and facts upon which
decisions and actions can be based.
One of the most important ways that the computer can improve school
productivity is to make information more available, faster to obtain, or
easier to understand. Over the past two decades, a large number of
computer programs have been developed and used for a variety of school
functions including accounting, scheduling, attendance, grading, inventory,

32
student information systems, library use, guidance, transportation
management, food service, energy monitoring, and decision support
systems. (Kearsley, 1990, P.52)
From a teacher's perspective, computer technology can improve the teaching
effectiveness during class delivery. Waters (2007) concluded that teachers are broadening
their ESL programs with the one tool that translates into all dialects as computer
technology.
Computer technology, like the Internet, facilitates ESL teaching. Hirvela (2006)
said it is safe to say that the advent of the personal computer and the Internet in the 1990s
revolutionized language teaching. Eastment (2007) in her website review said there is a
wealth of video-based material which can be used for language teaching purposes.
The teacher's responsibility is to create an effective learning environment which
can facilitate students in their learning process. Hirvela (2006) said real life situations are
as good as we expected for improving language learning. He implied it is not always easy
to achieve this goal in a conventional classroom setting, where learning is confined to the
time allotted for class sessions and is dependent upon the willing, active involvement of
students under circumstances not always conductive to full participation. Educational
technology is a tool that can be utilized by teachers to approach this goal of connecting
language learning to real life situations. Nunan (1999) said technology can help teachers
make links between the decontextualized knowledge of the textbook and the realities of
one's work situation.
Another advantage for a faculty member helped by educational technology is that
it gives a chance for faculty members to collaborate with each other. Kamhi-Stein (2000)

33
found that technology allowed teachers to develop knowledge as a social, rather than an
individual, activity. He also pointed out in the same article that it has the potential to
promote cooperation among teachers-in-preparation and to reduce the isolation felt by
novice teachers. Kamhi-Stein's research proved that new teachers can have more benefits
if computer technology is introduced into ESL program design.
Some computer software can facilitate teaching during the teaching process.
Hincks (2003) said in her book that one of the problems that a non-native English speaker
always encountered is pronunciation. She said even the teacher sometimes cannot give
correct guidance to students about accurate pronunciation. Some ESL computer software,
for example, ELLIS (English Language Learning Information Software) which is one of
the most respected language learning software programs, can help teachers correct
students' pronunciation as they learn English. Mansoor (1993) also mentioned using the
computer to teach ESL and literacy. He said there was software on the market that can
enable a teacher to customize it for their own K-12 ESL courses. Such programs allowed
a teacher to create crossword puzzles, cloze exercises, vocabulary drills, and even
pronunciation exercises. Maurer and Davidson (1998) found the learning benefits
included attitudes of excitement and a boosting of self-esteem for students who take an
ESL writing class which incorporates using Microsoft Word.
From the perspective of students, Claybourne (1999) said computer technology is
the ideal tool to help students learn English as a second language. First, Claybourne said
that because of the Internet, students can learn ESL from students around the globe.
Research showed that students can learn best when they use the language in context and
not just through role repetitions of the language. The Internet gives an ESL learner a great

34
opportunity to keep in touch with native speakers via email and voice chatting. Hirvela
(2006) also emphasized computer networks and their influence on ESL learning.
Computer networks were allowing students to transcend boundaries of classroom walls
and to learn in new ways. Moreover, he said learners are no longer confined to the
traditional types of classroom-based activities and interaction with their peers that they
may find unappealing and counterproductive in the 'wired' realm of the 21st
century. Son
(2007) also mentioned the usefulness of the Internet as a database around the world. His
research demonstrated that the web is a useful tool and a supplementary resource for
learning ESL. In ESL learning, the Internet also creates an environment that students can
use to visualize their partners in other places. CMC (computer-mediated communication)
is a concept that is widely accepted by the foreign language learner in their language
learning process, especially for the oral practice. Jerram (1995) predicted that the future
of video conferencing would increase, especially as equipment and line costs became
cheaper and resources got easier to use. His predications have come true through the use
of free text-based and audio chat supported by webcam visuals.
Second, Claybourne (1999) also mentioned that computer software gives students
another approach to learning language skills. Waters (2007) pointed out that ESL
software provides privacy to English language learners. In other words, the software
gives students a safe and non-threatening environment for learning without interruption
from others. Some audio and video clips on DVD or online can provide students with real
life examples of conversation among native speakers. Some pictures can give visual
learners the opportunity to more easily acquire the knowledge that they need.

35
Third, according to personality theory (Rodgers, 1951), Simon (2008) did a study
about individual personalities. In her report, she said that different persons should be
treated in different ways in the learning process. Computer technology, if used
appropriately, not only can motivate, but also can include both introverted and
extroverted students.
In terms of motivation, a student with a different personality should be taught in
different ways which can be realized with technology. Introverted students in an ESL
class feel nervous and uncomfortable if they are assigned to do a presentation or do
public speaking in front of the whole class. Graziadei (1996) pointed out the computer
seemed to minimize the risks involved in communication in a foreign language. In his
research, he found in a networked environment students will 'say' things to a computer
terminal that they will not say in the classroom environment. The student performance in
computer technology courses shows introverted students can be motivated as well when it
is hard for them to succeed in a face-to-face classroom. Kamhi-Stein (2000) also found
educational technology, especially communication technologies in ESL programs, can
reduce anxiety, in particular among non-native-English-speaking students. Payne and
Whitney (2002) noted one of the three primary themes in the research about technology
in the classroom was that participation increased online with 'quieter' students
participating as much or even more than those individuals who normally dominate
classroom discussion.
In terms of cooperation, Steinberg (1992) expressed his thought that by
integrating technology into ESL teaching, the technology can enhance interpersonal and
communication skills. Johnson, Johnson, and Stanne (1986) and Schlechter (1990) added

36
that technology provides opportunities for cooperative learning which not only increase
instructional effectiveness and efficiency, but also promote positive social interactions.
Fourth, based on a survey on students' perspectives on attending a computer
technology-based classroom, it is said that the majority of students feel the technology
can motivate their learning. Son (2007) said that student engagement in the suggested
activities was observed and their attitudes toward the activities were found to be positive.
Meskill, Mossop, and Bates (1998) did a research study on English as second language
learners. They found integration of technology into instruction can enhance motivation.
To be more specific, Roblyer, Edwards, and Havriluk (2000) also mentioned
computer technology and its power to motivate students to engage in drill and practice
activities. They said many students refused to do the practice they need on paper, either
because they failed so much that the whole idea is abhorrent, they had poor handwriting
skills, or they simply dislike writing. In these cases, computer-based practice may
motivate students to do the practice they need. Computers did not get impatient or give
disgusted looks when a student gave a wrong answer.
Fifth, John Dewey's philosophy in pragmatism portrayed the student as the center
of education (Hickman, 1992). In the field of foreign language learning, Bailey, Daley,
and Onwuegbuzie (1999) suggested benefits in considering a move toward more learner-
centered approaches to language learning. In a computer-based foreign language
environment, students can find their own approaches to learning the content with
facilitation from the instructors. Beckett et al., (2006) proved the concept that
technology-based activities can transform the classroom into a rich learning environment.

37
Sixth, a computer technology-based classroom gives students the opportunity to
follow their own paths of learning which is more appropriate for individuals who are not
comfortable with the setting of a face-to-face class. Hirvela (2006) concluded after his
research that in the "anytime, anywhere" configuration of a computer-based learning
environment, students have more time and space to think in a deeper way. His research
showed that students take more time and ponder carefully what they want to say so as to
make a genuine contribution to the negotiation of common understandings and feel
empowered in the process.
Finally, Daud and Husin (2004) found that the students' critical thinking abilities
are improved in computer aided ESL reading classes. Critical thinking is one of the core
purposes for student success as well as in other subjects like English and mathematics.
The Concerns about Using Computer Technology in ESL Education
The concerns about using computer technology in ESL teaching as well as its
advantages are considered by researchers. Hirvela (2006) said specifically for his
research on computer use in an ESL course that it is not without flaws. Gillespie and
McKee (1999) said "it is not surprising that the effective integration of CALL into the
languages curriculum is a question which is being addressed by many teachers and
institutions at the present time" (p.442).
Chinese educators should be concerned about flaws in the process of using
technology in high school ESL courses. First, there is a lack of hard evidence on the
effectiveness of utilizing computer technologies in ESL courses. Although Al-Musawi
(2007) found by his studies that there is a modest but positive relationship between
technology and achievement at all level of education and subject areas, Roblyer et al.,

38
(2000) said it is difficult to propose expensive technology with hypothetical rather than
proven benefits.
The next concern is the cost of initial implementation and the cost of a sustained
commitment of resources (Mansoor, 1993). Remarkably general agreement exists that
adequate funding can determine the success or failure of even the best technology plans
(Bullough & Beatty, 1991). Maughan (2001) summarized the major expenses for
building the infrastructure of computer technology in schools which included capital
expenses and operating expenses. Operating expenses include personnel, bandwidth,
expendable equipment, equipment maintenance and repair, software licensing and
maintenance, research and development, and finally college and university administrative
overhead.
Kearsley (1990) made a sample annual computer technology budget for a school.
According to the price back in 1990, the total budget based on Kearsley's template was
$ 182,400. Pliss (2008), who is the department director of information & instructional
technology in the Ithaca City school district in Ithaca, New York, made a presentation
about the Information & Instructional Technology (IIT) budget. In the budget trend detail
chart, it showed the grand total budget per year for technology in the school was about 2
million dollars, with an increasing rate of about 10 percent per year. According to the
school proposed budget, which is approved by the Board of Education, the total budget
was 90 million dollars. The cost of educational technology was a major portion of the
total budget, which has a tendency to increase. Pliss (2008) said it was always a tough
decision to decide to invest in technology because one must consider the cost of not only
the technology equipment, but also of the follow up expenses. Roblyer et al., (2000) said

39
there was both a high initial cost and the cost of keeping current with technology.
Educators often were surprised at how quickly their equipment became out-of-date, its
lack of incompatibility with newer models, and how quickly the perspective on "best
applications" changed. This is the predominant reason that universities in China hesitate
to introduce computer technology into the classroom.
The university studied in this dissertation is one of the biggest and most famous
universities in China, with approximately 2,400 staff including administrators and faculty
members and about 30,000 students. The fiscal budget for the school is less than 100
million dollars which is less than the budget for the Ithaca city school district which has
12 schools, 5,506 students, and 506 teachers. Even investing the same percentage of the
total budget in the university in China on technology, which is considered to be ideal,
would not make teachers and students feel satisfied.
Mansoor (1993) said another concern is to evaluate the learning especially in an
online class. He said that unfortunately the software, which can monitor the learner's
activities "online," was not widely available for ESL educational programs. The creation
of comprehensive ESL software with the capability to evaluate students might be more
difficult than we would expect. However, with the increased university enrollment in
China, state funding for higher education has increased sharply. The funding increased
from four billion in 1999 to over 10 billion in 2003 (Wu, 2005).
A shortage of time, role changes, and lack of training for teachers to adjust
themselves to classrooms facilitated with technology are other problems in implementing
computer technology effectively. Jin (2004) assumed that some teachers in China may
not be comfortable with high technology, since unlike so many of their students, they

40
have not grown up with computers. Knupfer (1993) also said many teachers have refused
even free training, due to lack of time. Moreover, specific challenges that teachers face
include not only technical training, but also a shift in attitude. Kunpfer found reasons that
teachers were reluctant to accept technology in their classrooms included fear of changes
in the existing pedagogy and in their roles as teachers, and a lack of confidence in their
abilities to master the technology. Time and effort are required to persuade a majority of
teachers to use the technology they have in the teaching process.
For foreign language teachers, the challenges in utilizing computer technology in
a classroom setting were also addressed by Tedick and Walker (1996). They stated that
the emphasis on technology for foreign language learning and teaching requires teachers
to stay informed about new technologies and their instructional uses.
Last but not least, students' technical problems are a constraint when integrating
technology in education. Because of financial reasons, a majority of university students
nowadays are not acquainted with technology in their lives. Also, computer literacy
training for students in China is underevalued by educators. To initiate a computer
technology-based classroom for which students are not prepared is not reasonable.
Future Trends in Using Computer Technology in ESL Education
The future of computer technology and its impact on the field of education is
difficult to predict. Limited research exists on trends in computer technology in ESL
education especially in China because there is only a short history of acceptance and
development for this concept. Akkoyunlu (2002) predicted the future is ambiguous for
today's student in a rapidly changing world. The speed and uncertainty of this change
makes it impossible to predict with any precision what skills students will need to

41
function as adults. The need for students to be able to cope with daily problems in a
dynamic world has led many educators to conclude that technology integration into
education will enrich the learning environment in schools.
It is obvious that technology has brought widespread and fundamental changes in
education. Therefore, major developments in the use of technology must take place in
schools. Newby, Stepich, Lehman, and Russell (2000) envisioned a future of education
where teachers and learners embrace and integrate instructional technology and use it to
improve both teaching and learning. They even said without instructional technology, it
would be difficult for educators to achieve their goals.
Maurer and Davidson (1998) said that educational technology in the future will
continue to get easier for the average person to understand and operate, and their
capabilities will continue to increase concerning emerging technologies. Norton and
Sprague (2001) said there are technologies that will continue to emerge and develop.
Educational technology in the future is a question that is mentioned by some
educators in different areas and disciplines. In terms of areas that are related to foreign
language teaching and learning, Charp (1994) listed wireless communication and the
information highway. Roblyer et al., (2000) focused on three technologies: personal
digital assistants (PDAs), artificial intelligence, and virtual reality. As a result, digital
natives, who come from Generation X and Y (also known as the Millennial Generation),
would feel familiar with educational technology and easily accept using it in their
classrooms.
Computer technology will play an important role in education based on research
about ESL as one of the major subjects. The potential of the impact from computer

42
technology is difficult to predict, but the fact is that there will be more and more
computer technologies that can facilitate both teachers in their teaching and students in
their learning.
The Current Situation of Using CALL in Universities in China
There are limited research articles about educational technology, especially
computer technology in ESL education in China, although there have been over 40 years
of systematic ESL education from elementary to university level. The importance of
English learning was emphasized by educators as well as politicians.
In China, the mainstream of higher education carries aspects both of the United
States and the United Kingdom systems with a stronger affiliation to the US system
(Brandenburg & Zhu, 2007). To be more specific, Brandenburg and Zhu said:
Two- and three-year colleges which are referred to as short-cycle colleges,
typically awarding associate degrees, exist next to typical four-year
colleges and universities which offer academic as well as vocational
courses leading to bachelor degree or higher. Master's degrees and PhDs
are offered by universities and research institutions which are accredited
by the State Council, (p. 18)
There are some major reasons for ESL teaching and learning in China. First and
foremost, Brandenburg and Zhu (2007) said "students should pass the National College
Entrance Examination (NCEE) and then be admitted to study at a higher education
institution, if the results fit the requirement of the institution" (p.7). ESL, Chinese, and
math are the three core courses in the NCEE.

43
As far as learning English as a foreign language, a job seeker with English
communication abilities has more opportunities than one without English skills. The
employee who understands English usually is paid at a different rate, which is usually ten
percent more than normal. Also, the student who is fluent in English can choose to study
abroad in some advanced countries like the United States or England where the native
language is English. Teaching English as a foreign language provides students with the
ability to open their minds and broaden their knowledge through Internet searching, as 90%
of the information online is written in English. China currently is not the most powerful
and prosperous country in the world. The best way to empower itself is to learn from the
strongest countries including the United States and European countries in which most are
native English-speaking countries in terms of business, education, marketing, and other
activities.
Beckett et al. (2006), in staff development said that students need opportunities to
develop computer literacy and information technology skills. Unfortunately computer
literacy learning in China was emphasized by Chairman Deng 30 years ago, but not
implemented. He said we should give all children the opportunity to learn computer
technology because it will become an important tool that everyone should have in the
near future. The growth of computer literacy learning among children did not meet his
expectations. The reasons for this are: First, the personal computer (PC) was introduced
to China at the beginning of 1990 which means the students who are now in higher
educational institutions including universities and vocational academies lacked basic
computer literacy education during their childhood. As a result, they feel embarrassed or
at least uncomfortable in the learning processes associated with computer technologies.

44
Second, the price of the personal computer was so expensive that the common Chinese
customer could not afford it. Third, there are no computer literacy courses in elementary,
junior high, high school, or even the university. In other words, for a student, it is not an
academic requirement to be educated in computer literacy from the beginning to the end
of his or her schooling. Last, computer ability is not emphasized by educators in the
classroom. As complete obedience of students is one of the classroom rules in China,
students are confined to learning what teachers are interested in teaching or what appears
on the test. Because computer literacy is not a core or even an elective course, this subject
is not considered important.
The concept of using educational technology, especially computer technology,
was introduced and applied in educational institutions in China at the end of 1990s,
which was far behind countries like the United States and European countries. Like every
new idea in the field of education, the effectiveness of educational technology in
classroom and curriculum design was questioned by educators. The effectiveness and
questioning about whether educational technology can be adapted by the Chinese
educational system was discussed among educators. The lecture teaching method usually
does not co-exist well with educational technology.
More time and effort is required in China than other countries to implement
educational technologies in a classroom setting. Cai and Guo (2006) said that compared
to the advanced industrial countries, the use of technology in Chinese education came
relatively late. The first real usage of technology was in universities. Universities with
financial support adopted the ideas from administrators and faculty members who had the
experience of studying abroad or had the knowledge after investigating the success of

45
some real life examples. The addition of educational technology made governors, school
administrators, faculty members, parents, and students feel that it was important. As a
result, governors from the educational bureau gave more financial support to different
levels of schools for equipment purchasing and faculty training. School administrators
paid more attention to technology enforcement on campus and also gave opportunities to
faculty members to be trained by experts in the field of educational technology. Faculty
members spent time developing their skills in educational technology. Parents decided to
purchase laptops for students because they believed the computer could facilitate their
children in the learning process. Students were given a core course in educational
technology, which would be used by teachers in the classroom. During the past decade in
China, CALL has increased dramatically. "As a new resource to help promote, enhance
and facilitate learning, the computer has fostered high expectations of a more effective,
more motivating and more innovative new learning experience." (p. 61)
Research by Chinese educators can prove the possibility of using computer
technology successfully in the college level ESL classroom. Liang (2001) did research
about the benefits for Chinese students in the ESL classroom, which was integrated with
computer technology. He pointed out the recent pedagogy for ESL teaching in Chinese
universities emphasizes language itself like vocabulary and grammar. The computer-
based class can be designed to explore the potential of the right brain, and the
development of students in learning ESL through the stimulation of video, audio, and
pictures delivered by computer technology.
Professor Hu (1997) said in his book "R^MM^, , M ^ ^ ^ i I W W l * l S ^ ¥
^2?^I4n &5". Translated in a simple way, it means it is impossible to learn a foreign

46
language without understanding the culture. American linguist Sapir (1949) said
language was born in the environment with culture, tradition, and faith. Chinese linguist
Hu (2004) said " ^ - # i f = , #S!l^*H3££ij^~&7]c¥ , MffrmtfteW^g-
#£ito -$&*, &¥?in=ftmwmj)tetit&, îtmm^mmm^w&®0
MM^ttlWiA , £ffcSÂ<I^HRl£®3fejffiHJ3S" (p. 1). This means it is important to
understand the influence of culture on foreign language learning.
Fan (2004) in a speech about using technology in college level ESL classes said
computer and Internet technology has the power to connect culture to language in ESL
teaching and learning. "ÎJffiiimftTR , SsfflqT&fc '&£' ^ & ± ^ D / f H B I t A $ l $ l
^J^Jn" (p. 1). He used an example of watching a video clip on a computer of the T have
a dream' speech by Martin Luther King which can give students a better idea about this
speech than does traditional reading. Teachers can also analyze their own teaching
method to illustrate King's ideas better.
Fan (2004) also said "ffl|*l ^ M f c f c ^ l i m ^ t t t e ^ S S S T i & ^ l l M S t o

47
#"(p. 1). His idea was that the root of the problems of Chinese students in ESL learning
is that there is no English learning environment in China. Computer technology can
create an English learning environment in the classroom, something which has been
desired by several generations of ESL educators for Chinese students.
Xue (2006) summarized his applications of computer technology in ESL courses.
He said the revolution of ESL education was associated with the development of
computer technology in terms of four abilities that are necessary for ESL learning
including listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The result proved that students
showed improvement in all aspects of ESL learning.
Some problems also occurred in computer assisted ESL programs. Xie (2004)
found some problems in computer assisted university ESL classes in China after
observing computer assisted ESL classrooms for several years.
Incorrect and out-dated concepts: In some teachers' minds, the more computer
technologies were used in class, the more effectively students learned.

48
fljl¥f£?#^Fi!> , ^I'JpJf^'ff PS. Less concentration on key points in teaching:
Some teachers only used technology to attract students through various audio
and video effects. Students could not learn what the syllabus required.
• %Lm^4L®k%.m&±.to&%Lo wte CALL T^mmi^^^mmmi mm,
mmp^-^&mmfcR , m%-im&Enterma n^xmmmftK*
was no communication between teacher and students. In a CALL class, some
teachers regarded themselves as clickers who only needed to click the mouse to
run the computer.
• cAisffl^nSo &mmm%® cAmfts&m^mnxm , ^^^mmp,
Pftm , EtiMft. , i®fcSE¥Cm-M^n* , # - | t f £ T Sherlock Holmes

49
& £ $ Noises in The Nighto •S^JsU&HJgjSaSftttJSfcft , S^JJ , M*£
^BWRig&^#J#to3£*I-J*ffl-ifia*TT£ , WmR^M^m®
^ / S AJJiff ftlo Using CAI in an inflexible way: Some teachers used the
existing CAI software or video clips without selecting those which were more
appropriate for their class. This lead to the result that students at different levels
lost their interest. Also, self-designed courseware by teachers was sometimes
unsatisfactory for students because teachers were not qualified to design
courseware.
£ # J £ , m%^±m%%m&^Ammi£®jfmm$i®L^0 Less time

and energy to think of using computers in education: Teachers always
complained about the pressure to guarantee academic success at the university.
Some teachers thought it was a waste of time to research how to use computer
technologies in a classroom setting.
During the development of educational technology, with the availability of more
powerful computers at lower less cost, more and more universities facilitated
technologies in their classroom. According to Xue's survey, an ESL class is the one
which has the most frequent usage of the technology because of the advantages referred
to in the survey.
Attitudes toward Using Computers in Language Learning
The word "attitude" is a term with different meanings in different fields. Mantle-
Bromley (1995) and other experts in psychology said attitude consists of three
components in general: (1) affect: which refers to that degree of like the person has; (2)
cognition: which refers to the person's knowledge about the attitudinal object; and (3)
behavior: which is related to reactions and intentions regarding the object.
Bruess (2003) said attitudes toward technology play an important role in the
adoption of instructional technology and the likelihood of influencing students' learning
in the classroom. Attitude is considered one of the affective variables that have a major
role in the second or foreign language learning process. In terms of factors that affect
attitudes toward computer use, computer anxiety, computer knowledge and gender are
the top three important ones (Al-Shammari, 2007).
Al-Shammari (2007) said students' attitudes toward using technology in the
classroom are of high importance in the success of implementing technology. Several

51
studies have been conducted to research students' attitudes toward using computers in the
ESL learning process. Ayres (2002) researched students' attitudes toward CALL in their
study at UNITEC Institute of Technology in Australia. The results showed that students
have positive attitudes toward using computers in their learning process. In addition, it
showed that 80% of the students believed that CALL is relevant to their needs, 77% of
the students agreed that CALL gives useful information, and 66% of the students thought
that more CALL should be used in their learning. Jabir and Omar (2000) investigated the
attitudes of learners in the Southern area of Jordan. The findings showed that learners
hold positive attitudes toward computer use and look forward to making more use of
computers in their classrooms.
For Chinese ESL students, several studies were done to investigate their attitudes
toward CALL and found there was a positive relationship between the students' attitudes
toward CALL and academic achievement. Chen (2004) did a study in order to investigate
the attitudes of ESL learners in National Cheng Kung University in Taiwan toward the
use of the computer in an ESL class. The participants in this study expressed their
positive attitudes toward the integration of the computer into their ESL study. Liu (1997)
conducted a study on Chinese students at the University of Tennessee on their preference
of selecting either a face-to-face or an online class. Chinese students in this study showed
positive attitudes toward the use of online class in their university studies.

CHAPTER 3
METHOD OF PROCEDURE
This study examined attitudes of ESL students toward the use of computer-
assisted language learning (CALL) in a university in China. Specifically, this study was
to investigate (a) the attitudes of ESL students in a university in China toward the use of
computer-assisted language learning (CALL), (b) the demographic characteristics of
students who are taking ESL courses at a university in China, (c) the relationship of some
of the demographic characteristics with ESL students' attitudes in China, and (d) the
demographic factors which can predict students' attitudes toward CALL. The specific
procedure included:
1. Development of the Survey Instrument
1.1 Survey Instrument: ESL student demographics and attitudes toward CAI
in ESL courses
1.1.1 Part One: Demographics
1.1.2 Part Two: Scale of Attitudes toward CALL (SACALL)
1.2 Validation of the Survey Instrument
1.3 Translation of the Survey Instrument
1.4 Reliability of the Survey Instrument
2. Selection of the Subjects
3. Collection of the Data
4. Treatment of the Data
52

53
Development of Survey Instrument
The survey instrument used for this study consisted of two parts. The items in part
one were developed by Tang (1995) in his dissertation Whole Language Instruction in the
CAI Setting. The items in part two were developed by Al-Shammari (2007) in his
dissertation Saudi English as Foreign Language Learners' Attitudes toward Computer-
Assisted Language Learning. The instrument was used to measure participants' attitudes
toward CALL. It included 30 statements to which participants provided answers by
circling a number indicating their level of agreement.
Part One: Demographic Data
The demographic survey was originally created by Tang in 1995. The survey had
13 items concerning the demographic background of each student who participated in the
research. The demographic survey asked the participants their gender, age, home country,
native language, class level, first time of being in the United States, their reason for being
in the United States, preference of using a computer, possession of a personal computer,
frequency of using a computer, and the most useful occasion for using a computer. The
participants for Tang's questionnaire were forty-eight international students attending the
intensive English as a Second Language Program (CESL) at Southern Illinois University
at Carbondale. The results provided support for demographic toward CAI as a practical
measure. Tang completed a pilot study to prove the reliability and validity for this
instrument. The reliability for the version with controlled sentences and vocabulary
was .67. The reliability for the version with controlled sentences and vocabulary pattern
was .85.

54
Tang's survey was modified by deleting and adding questions because the target
population was different. The instrument for the research gathered demographic data
from students who were enrolled in a college level ESL course with the integration of
CALL in a university in Middle Eastern China. The collected information included
gender, academic level, major in Arts or Science, access to computers, self-perception of
computer ability, prior experience in a course utilizing CALL, and frequency of computer
usage, all of which were used to test the null hypothesis.
Part Two: Scale of Attitudes toward CALL (SACALL)
Al-Shammari (2007) designed this attitude questionnaire by using a 5 - point
Likert scale (SA = Strongly Agree, A = Agree, U = Uncertain, D = Disagree, SD =
Strongly Disagree) in order to determine participants' perception toward language
instruction with CAI for learning ESL. The instrument designed for this section was a
questionnaire consisting of 30 questions. The questions asked for participants' opinions
about the efficacy of CAI in the process of learning ESL. The researcher translated the 5 -
Point Likert scales responses in the following way: Strongly Agree = 5, Agree = 4,
Uncertain = 3, Disagree = 2 and Strongly Disagree = 1. The higher the score, the more
positive attitudes the learner had toward CALL. Based on the translation method, a score
of 5 and 4 indicate positive attitudes, a score of 3 indicates a neutral attitude, and scores
of 2 and 1 indicate negative attitudes.
The participants for Al-Shammari's questionnaire were 1500 ESL learners on four
campuses in Saudi Arabia. SACALL consists of 30 items designed to measure the
learners' attitude toward CALL. These items were divided into three subscales. The first
two subscales focused on attitudes toward computers in general and the use of a computer

55
in language instruction (20 items). The last subscale concentrated on the attitudes toward
the CALL lab. The instrument adopted by Al-Shammari was based on two well-known
computer attitudes scales: the Computer Attitudes Scale (CAS) (Loyd & Gressard, 1984)
and the Scale of Educational Technology Attitude (SETA) (Chen, 2004). Respectively,
the CAS scale reported Cronbach-alpha reliability coefficients of .90, .89 and .82 for
subscales and .95 for the total (Loyd & Loyd, 1985), and the SETA reported Cronbach-
alpha reliability coefficients of .89 (Chen).
Validation of Survey Instruments
The combined survey was validated for the purpose of testing the instrument's
reliability. The demographic portion was previously validated by Tang with some
changes. The SACALL portion was previously validated by Al-Shammari with no
change. To ensure the validity of the combined instrument, a panel of three experts with
an established reputation in the fields of English and Educational Technology were
consulted. One expert worked in the secondary and higher education field and
specialized in using technology in the field of education at a state university in Louisiana.
This expert also held an EdD in secondary and higher education. The other two experts
worked in the English department in top universities in China and held their PhD's in
English literature and linguistics. The three experts each had at least 20 years experience
of teaching or researching ESL courses at the university level in China.
The survey validation package included a cover letter to explain the purpose of
this study, the importance of the survey to this study, demographic information, the
attitudes survey toward CAI in ESL courses (SACALL), and the form for those experts to
sign for the validation. The package was distributed to the three experts for them to judge

56
the clarity and the appropriateness of the survey questionnaire. Along with the validation
forms, instructions for grading each of the items in the two questionnaires were attached.
The panel of experts followed the instructions to evaluate each item in three
questionnaires by circling Yes or No for clarity and Definitely Yes, Somewhat Yes, No
opinion, somewhat No, and Definitely No for the appropriateness and importance of the
items. From the returned validation forms from the panel of experts, the items with two
or three of the panel experts rated Yes or Somewhat Yes for clarity and appropriateness
were retained. The items with one or two ratings of No or Somewhat No were modified
according to suggestions and recommendations provided in terms of grammar, structure,
tense, and the possibility for research. The items with three ratings of No or Somewhat No
were discarded without any modification. The modified questionnaire was sent to the
panel of experts again in order to ensure all the modifications reflected their corrections.
The results showed that all the items in the survey were understood by the panel
of experts. However, some items needed modification because the participants in Tang's
survey were international students who took CAI-based ESL courses in the United States.
In this study, the participants were Chinese students who took ESL courses in a
university in Middle Eastern China. The demographic items were modified according to
the research questions. The survey was revised based on some of the items
recommended by the panel members in order to be suitable for this research. For part one,
survey items 3 through 9 were deleted because they were not relevant to this research.
For part two, the survey questionnaire was found to be appropriate and understandable
for this research and was retained in its entirety.

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