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1. Molecular Basis ofMolecular Basis of
Craniofacial GrowthCraniofacial Growth
INDIAN DENTAL ACADEMY
Leader in continuing dental education
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3. GROWTHGROWTH
It is the physiochemical process by which anIt is the physiochemical process by which an
organism becomes larger.organism becomes larger.
[Salzmann][Salzmann]
Growth usually refers to an increase in size orGrowth usually refers to an increase in size or
number. It is largely an anatomic phenomenon.number. It is largely an anatomic phenomenon.
[Proffit][Proffit]
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4. A normal process of increase in size of anA normal process of increase in size of an
organism as a result of accretion of tissueorganism as a result of accretion of tissue
similar to that originally present.similar to that originally present.
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6. DIFFERENTIATIONDIFFERENTIATION
Cellular differentiationCellular differentiation is a concept fromis a concept from
developmental biology describing thedevelopmental biology describing the
process by which cells acquire a "type".process by which cells acquire a "type".
The morphology of a cell may changeThe morphology of a cell may change
dramatically during differentiation, but thedramatically during differentiation, but the
genetic material remains the same.genetic material remains the same.
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8. A cell that is able to differentiate into manyA cell that is able to differentiate into many
cell types is known ascell types is known as pluripotentpluripotent..
These cells are calledThese cells are called stem cellsstem cells inin
animals.animals.
A cell that is able to differentiate into all cellA cell that is able to differentiate into all cell
types is known astypes is known as totipotenttotipotent.. In mammals,In mammals,
only the zygote and early embryonic cellsonly the zygote and early embryonic cells
areare totipotenttotipotent..
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9. Embryonic stemEmbryonic stem
cellscells are stem cellsare stem cells
derived from thederived from the
inner cell mass of aninner cell mass of an
early stage embryoearly stage embryo
known as aknown as a
blastocyst.blastocyst.
Human embryos reach the blastocyst stageHuman embryos reach the blastocyst stage
4-5 days post fertilization, at which time they4-5 days post fertilization, at which time they
consist of 50-150 cells.consist of 50-150 cells.
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11. Adult stem cellsAdult stem cells are undifferentiated cellsare undifferentiated cells
found throughout the body that divide tofound throughout the body that divide to
replenish dying cells and regeneratereplenish dying cells and regenerate
damaged tissues. Also known asdamaged tissues. Also known as somaticsomatic
stem cells.stem cells.
Umbilical cord bloodUmbilical cord blood is human blood fromis human blood from
the placenta and umbilical cord that is rich inthe placenta and umbilical cord that is rich in
hematopoietic stem cells.hematopoietic stem cells.
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12. MORPHOGENESISMORPHOGENESIS
Derived from the GreekDerived from the Greek
wordword morphêmorphê shape andshape and
genesisgenesis creationcreation
It is one of three fundamental aspects ofIt is one of three fundamental aspects of
developmental biology along with the control ofdevelopmental biology along with the control of
cell growth and cellular differentiation.cell growth and cellular differentiation.
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13. Morphogenesis is concerned with theMorphogenesis is concerned with the
shapes of tissues, organs and entireshapes of tissues, organs and entire
organisms and the positions of the variousorganisms and the positions of the various
specialized cell types.specialized cell types.
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14. MOLECULAR BASIS OFMOLECULAR BASIS OF
CRANIOFACIAL DEVELOPMENTCRANIOFACIAL DEVELOPMENT
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15. The development of theThe development of the
craniofacial region is ancraniofacial region is an
amalgamation of complexamalgamation of complex
processes that need to beprocesses that need to be
coordinated to produce acoordinated to produce a
working unit such as aworking unit such as a
calvarium, cranial base, orcalvarium, cranial base, or
palate.palate.
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16. A common theme in the earlyA common theme in the early
development of craniofacialdevelopment of craniofacial
structures is balancing the level ofstructures is balancing the level of
progenitor populations by growthprogenitor populations by growth
factor signaling.factor signaling.
This is to form a large enoughThis is to form a large enough
population of progenitor cells beforepopulation of progenitor cells before
differentiation, or that thedifferentiation, or that the
proliferation is maintained for theproliferation is maintained for the
outgrowth of the element.outgrowth of the element.
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17. What is the MolecularWhat is the Molecular
basis of growthbasis of growth
?
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18. Several types of molecules are particularlySeveral types of molecules are particularly
important during growth, differentiation andimportant during growth, differentiation and
morphogenesis.morphogenesis.
MorphogensMorphogens are soluble molecules that canare soluble molecules that can
diffuse and carry signals that control celldiffuse and carry signals that control cell
differentiation decisions in adifferentiation decisions in a concentration-concentration-
dependent fashion.dependent fashion.
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19. MORPHOGENSMORPHOGENS typically acttypically act
through binding to specificthrough binding to specific
protein receptors. Anprotein receptors. An
important class of moleculesimportant class of molecules
involved in morphogenesisinvolved in morphogenesis
are transcription factorare transcription factor
proteins that determine theproteins that determine the
fate of cells by interacting withfate of cells by interacting with
DNA.DNA.
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20. These can be coded for byThese can be coded for by master regulatorymaster regulatory
genesgenes and either activate or deactivate theand either activate or deactivate the
transcription of other genes and, in turn,transcription of other genes and, in turn,
these secondary gene products can regulatethese secondary gene products can regulate
the expression of still other genes in athe expression of still other genes in a
regulatory cascade.regulatory cascade.
Another class of molecules involved inAnother class of molecules involved in
morphogenesis are molecules that controlmorphogenesis are molecules that control
cell adhesioncell adhesion..
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21. For all intents and purposes, craniofacialFor all intents and purposes, craniofacial
development is initiated as soon as thedevelopment is initiated as soon as the
anteroposterior axis of an embryo is establishedanteroposterior axis of an embryo is established
The ability to specify aThe ability to specify a head structurehead structure, rather than, rather than
reiterate another body segment, was a crucial step inreiterate another body segment, was a crucial step in
vertebrate evolution that corresponded to thevertebrate evolution that corresponded to the
acquisition of two cell populations:acquisition of two cell populations: the neural crestthe neural crest
and the ectodermal placodesand the ectodermal placodes
(reviewed by Basch et al., 2004(reviewed by Basch et al., 2004 ; McCabe et al.,; McCabe et al.,
20042004 ).).
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22. In recent years, new data have begun toIn recent years, new data have begun to
reveal how the neural crest cell population isreveal how the neural crest cell population is
actually generated, what types of controls areactually generated, what types of controls are
in place to modifyin place to modify neural crest cell migrationneural crest cell migration
and, ultimately, the role that this celland, ultimately, the role that this cell
population plays in establishing the pattern ofpopulation plays in establishing the pattern of
the craniofacial skeleton.the craniofacial skeleton.
Although the neural crest receives aAlthough the neural crest receives a
significant amount of attention, it is not thesignificant amount of attention, it is not the
only craniofacial tissue with patterningonly craniofacial tissue with patterning
information.information.
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23. This seminar today focuses on innovativeThis seminar today focuses on innovative
studies that have addressed these issues,studies that have addressed these issues,
sometimes with new and unexpectedsometimes with new and unexpected
results.results.
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24. In the beginningIn the beginning ……
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25. Although the postnatalAlthough the postnatal
vertebrate head exhibitsvertebrate head exhibits
an exceedingly intricatean exceedingly intricate
and varied morphology,and varied morphology,
the craniofacial complexthe craniofacial complex
initially has a much moreinitially has a much more
simple geometry.simple geometry.
It consisting of a series of swellings or that undergoIt consisting of a series of swellings or that undergo
growth, fusion and expansion.growth, fusion and expansion.
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26. There are seven prominences that comprise theThere are seven prominences that comprise the
vertebrate face.vertebrate face.www.indiandentalacademy.comwww.indiandentalacademy.com
27. Until recently, it was thought that the ventralUntil recently, it was thought that the ventral
region of the first pharyngeal (branchial) archregion of the first pharyngeal (branchial) arch
gave rise to the mandibular prominence andgave rise to the mandibular prominence and
therefore the lower jaw.therefore the lower jaw.
It was also believed that the dorsal region ofIt was also believed that the dorsal region of
the first arch gave rise to the maxillarythe first arch gave rise to the maxillary
prominences, which form the sides of theprominences, which form the sides of the
middle and lower face, the lateral borders ofmiddle and lower face, the lateral borders of
the lips, and the secondary palate.the lips, and the secondary palate.
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28. Two new studies, carried out in avians andTwo new studies, carried out in avians and
axolotls, contest this view and demonstrateaxolotls, contest this view and demonstrate
that at least part of this is incorrect.that at least part of this is incorrect.
Both groups show that the ventral region ofBoth groups show that the ventral region of
the first arch actually gives rise to boththe first arch actually gives rise to both
maxillary and mandibular skeletal elements,maxillary and mandibular skeletal elements,
rather than to only the mandibular elements,rather than to only the mandibular elements,
as previously thought.as previously thought.
(Cerny et al., 2004(Cerny et al., 2004 ; Lee et al., 2004; Lee et al., 2004 ))
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29. When considering the origami-like process ofWhen considering the origami-like process of
tissue folding, flexure and growth that ultimatelytissue folding, flexure and growth that ultimately
results in a face, one must also bear in mind thatresults in a face, one must also bear in mind that
the cells comprising the face have undergone athe cells comprising the face have undergone a
massive relocation.massive relocation.
This relocation occurs owing to both activeThis relocation occurs owing to both active neuralneural
crest cell migrationcrest cell migration and the passive displacementand the passive displacement
of tissue that is associated withof tissue that is associated with neurulationneurulation andand
headhead flexureflexure..
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31. It is the process of development of theIt is the process of development of the
NEURAL PLATENEURAL PLATE – results from the– results from the
thickening of the ectoderm overlying thethickening of the ectoderm overlying the
Notochord.Notochord.
NEUROECTODERMNEUROECTODERM – cells comprising the– cells comprising the
neural plate.neural plate.
Folding to produceFolding to produce NEURAL TUBENEURAL TUBE – lateral– lateral
edges of the neural plate get elevated to formedges of the neural plate get elevated to form
the neural foldsthe neural foldswww.indiandentalacademy.comwww.indiandentalacademy.com
33. Neurulation begins with a unified layer ofNeurulation begins with a unified layer of
ectoderm, underneath which lies theectoderm, underneath which lies the
endoderm.endoderm.
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34. • EctomeresEctomeres are discrete regions of superficialare discrete regions of superficial
ectoderm that exhibit a segmented pattern ofectoderm that exhibit a segmented pattern of
gene expression.gene expression.
• Together with neural crest and neuroTogether with neural crest and neuro
ectoderm, they define a largerectoderm, they define a larger
developmental unit .developmental unit .
(Couly and Le Douarin, 1999).(Couly and Le Douarin, 1999).
• Later, these tissues act on signaling centersLater, these tissues act on signaling centers
in thein the facial prominencesfacial prominences
(Hu et al., 2003(Hu et al., 2003 ).).
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35. The ectoderm begins to fold upwards, giving rise toThe ectoderm begins to fold upwards, giving rise to
the neural folds. During this process, interactionsthe neural folds. During this process, interactions
between signaling molecules begin to delineate thebetween signaling molecules begin to delineate the
medial ectoderm as being neural (green) and themedial ectoderm as being neural (green) and the
lateral regions of ectoderm as being non-neural (blue).lateral regions of ectoderm as being non-neural (blue).
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36. The neural tube forms upon fusion of the neural folds,The neural tube forms upon fusion of the neural folds,
giving rise to discrete neuroectoderm (green) andgiving rise to discrete neuroectoderm (green) and
surface ectoderm (blue). Around the same time, thesurface ectoderm (blue). Around the same time, the
border region between the neuroectoderm and surfaceborder region between the neuroectoderm and surface
ectoderm gives rise to neural crest cellsectoderm gives rise to neural crest cells..www.indiandentalacademy.comwww.indiandentalacademy.com
37. Neurulation completes upon formation of the neuralNeurulation completes upon formation of the neural
tube, and neural crest cells (nc) lie sandwichedtube, and neural crest cells (nc) lie sandwiched
between the facial (surface) ectoderm and thebetween the facial (surface) ectoderm and the
neuroectoderm.neuroectoderm. www.indiandentalacademy.comwww.indiandentalacademy.com
38. Sagittal section through neural tube of aSagittal section through neural tube of a
chick embryo, showing neural crest (nc)chick embryo, showing neural crest (nc)
located between surface ectoderm (se) andlocated between surface ectoderm (se) and
neuroectoderm (ne). L, lateral; M, medial.neuroectoderm (ne). L, lateral; M, medial.
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39. The neural tube is the primodium of the C.N.S . TheThe neural tube is the primodium of the C.N.S . The
anterior region forms the Fore brain, Hind brainanterior region forms the Fore brain, Hind brain
AND Mid brain. Eight bulges form in the hind brainAND Mid brain. Eight bulges form in the hind brain
known asknown as RHOMBOMERESRHOMBOMERES..
Neural crest cell which arise from the neural foldsNeural crest cell which arise from the neural folds
migrate through out the body to form variedmigrate through out the body to form varied
structures. They migrate from each rhombomere tostructures. They migrate from each rhombomere to
a specified location.a specified location.
Neural crest cells needed for development of faceNeural crest cells needed for development of face
and first pharyngeal arch structures arise from –and first pharyngeal arch structures arise from –
MID BRAIN and RHOMBOMERES 1,2 & 3.MID BRAIN and RHOMBOMERES 1,2 & 3.
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41. As the closed neural tube begins to differentiateAs the closed neural tube begins to differentiate
into the central nervous system, the neuralinto the central nervous system, the neural
crest begins to migrate anteriorly from specificcrest begins to migrate anteriorly from specific
rhombomeres (r1-r3) into discrete regions ofrhombomeres (r1-r3) into discrete regions of
the face.the face. www.indiandentalacademy.comwww.indiandentalacademy.com
42. During this process, the neuroectoderm (ne)During this process, the neuroectoderm (ne)
and surface ectoderm (se) components of theand surface ectoderm (se) components of the
ectomeres continue to remain aligned (yellowectomeres continue to remain aligned (yellow
arrows in C).arrows in C). www.indiandentalacademy.comwww.indiandentalacademy.com
43. As neural crest migration nears completion, theAs neural crest migration nears completion, the
neuroectoderm and facial ectoderm are noneuroectoderm and facial ectoderm are no
longer aligned.longer aligned.
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45. One of the first crucial steps in craniofacialOne of the first crucial steps in craniofacial
development occurs when head ectodermdevelopment occurs when head ectoderm
is subdivided into non-neural and neuralis subdivided into non-neural and neural
regionsregions
This effectively establishes which headThis effectively establishes which head
epithelium will lie outside of the cranialepithelium will lie outside of the cranial
neural crest and which will lie inside it.neural crest and which will lie inside it.
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46. A subset of epithelial cells located at thisA subset of epithelial cells located at this
neural/non-neural boundary separate fromneural/non-neural boundary separate from
the epithelium, adopt a mesenchymalthe epithelium, adopt a mesenchymal
character and come between these twocharacter and come between these two
epithelia as they start their migration.epithelia as they start their migration.
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47. The epithelial-mesenchymal transition thatThe epithelial-mesenchymal transition that
marks the birth date of the neural crest, thismarks the birth date of the neural crest, this
shift is upon bone morphogenetic proteinshift is upon bone morphogenetic protein (Bmp)(Bmp)
signaling.signaling.
WhenWhen BmpBmp signaling is inhibited by thesignaling is inhibited by the
overexpression of noggin, a Bmp antagonist,overexpression of noggin, a Bmp antagonist,
this transition is blocked and neural crest cellsthis transition is blocked and neural crest cells
are no longer generated from the margins ofare no longer generated from the margins of
the neural foldsthe neural folds
(Burstyn-Cohen et al., 2004(Burstyn-Cohen et al., 2004 ).).
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48. NogginNoggin is a polypeptide that binds to membersis a polypeptide that binds to members
of the TGF-β superfamily of proteins. It is a Boneof the TGF-β superfamily of proteins. It is a Bone
morphogenetic protein inhibitor.morphogenetic protein inhibitor.www.indiandentalacademy.comwww.indiandentalacademy.com
49. Bmp signaling achieves this effect in part byBmp signaling achieves this effect in part by
regulatingregulating Wnt1Wnt1 genegene
In turn,In turn, WntWnt signaling appears to be essentialsignaling appears to be essential
for the generation of neural crest cells asfor the generation of neural crest cells as
inhibition of its activity can block theinhibition of its activity can block the
production of neural crest cells (Garcia-Castroproduction of neural crest cells (Garcia-Castro
et al 2005)et al 2005)
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50. In addition toIn addition to BmpBmp andand WntWnt proteins, severalproteins, several
new molecules have also been implicated innew molecules have also been implicated in
the generation or early migration of neuralthe generation or early migration of neural
crest cells.crest cells.
Sox transcription factorsSox transcription factors, which are well, which are well
known for their roles in skeletogenic cell fateknown for their roles in skeletogenic cell fate
and sex determination, are also involved inand sex determination, are also involved in
generating neural crest cellsgenerating neural crest cells (Cheung and(Cheung and
Briscoe, 2003 ; Perez-Alcala et al., 2004Briscoe, 2003 ; Perez-Alcala et al., 2004 ).).
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51. These studies indicate that the overexpressionThese studies indicate that the overexpression
ofof Sox genesSox genes lengthens the developmentallengthens the developmental
window during which cranial and trunk neuralwindow during which cranial and trunk neural
crest cells can be induced, and then promotescrest cells can be induced, and then promotes
neural crest-like characteristics in those cells.neural crest-like characteristics in those cells.
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53. Which tissue controls facial patterning?Which tissue controls facial patterning?
The answer to this question continues to beThe answer to this question continues to be
debated. In two recent studies, the contributiondebated. In two recent studies, the contribution
of the neural crest to facial patterning wasof the neural crest to facial patterning was
assessed byassessed by swapping neural crest cellsswapping neural crest cells
between ducks and quails.between ducks and quails.
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54. It was found that switchingIt was found that switching frontonasalfrontonasal
neural crestneural crest cells between ducks andcells between ducks and
quails resulted in alterations to such anquails resulted in alterations to such an
extent that ducks with quail frontonasalextent that ducks with quail frontonasal
neural crest cells had a quail-like beak,neural crest cells had a quail-like beak,
and quails carrying duck neural crest cellsand quails carrying duck neural crest cells
had a duck-like beak.had a duck-like beak.
(Schneider and Helms, 2003(Schneider and Helms, 2003 ).).
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55. Tucker and Lumsden reached a near-Tucker and Lumsden reached a near-
identical conclusion when they independentlyidentical conclusion when they independently
performed the same types of inter-speciesperformed the same types of inter-species
transplants.transplants.
They, too, found that the capacity to formThey, too, found that the capacity to form
species-specific skeletal elements in thespecies-specific skeletal elements in the
head is an inherent property of thehead is an inherent property of the neuralneural
crest cells.crest cells.
(Tucker and Lumsden, 2004(Tucker and Lumsden, 2004 ))
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56. It should be emphasized that in both theseIt should be emphasized that in both these
studies,studies, the extent to which facial featuresthe extent to which facial features
were transformed was directly proportionalwere transformed was directly proportional
to the number of transplanted neural crestto the number of transplanted neural crest
cells.cells.
In other words, the transformation was aIn other words, the transformation was a
``population-dependentpopulation-dependent' effect, as was' effect, as was
reported in much earlier transplantationreported in much earlier transplantation
studiesstudies (Andres, 1949(Andres, 1949 ).).
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57. So it seems that only when theSo it seems that only when the contingencycontingency
isis largelarge enough do neural crest cells followenough do neural crest cells follow
molecular cues that are generated andmolecular cues that are generated and
maintained by the assemblage itself,maintained by the assemblage itself,
disregarding signals emanating from thedisregarding signals emanating from the
local environment.local environment.
When the numbers ofWhen the numbers of transplanted cellstransplanted cells areare
below some crucial threshold, then theybelow some crucial threshold, then they
appear to respond to local cues from theappear to respond to local cues from the
surrounding epithelia.surrounding epithelia.
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58. Just what these population-dependent cuesJust what these population-dependent cues
are, and how many cells are required toare, and how many cells are required to
maintain them, ismaintain them, is unknown.unknown.
What we do know, however, is that facialWhat we do know, however, is that facial
morphogenesis is the cumulative result ofmorphogenesis is the cumulative result of
reciprocal signaling between and among all ofreciprocal signaling between and among all of
these tissues, and that the debatable issue ofthese tissues, and that the debatable issue of
which tissue contains patterningwhich tissue contains patterning
information becomes a question of timinginformation becomes a question of timing..
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59. Preview of next seminar:Preview of next seminar:
Epithelial contribution to craniofacial patterningEpithelial contribution to craniofacial patterning
Oral ectoderm and tooth patterningOral ectoderm and tooth patterning
Pharyngeal endoderm and arch patterningPharyngeal endoderm and arch patterning
Neural and surface ectoderm: patterning the middleNeural and surface ectoderm: patterning the middle
and upper faceand upper face
Molecular mediators of craniofacial morphogenesisMolecular mediators of craniofacial morphogenesis
A sonic boomA sonic boom
HOX genesHOX genes
Fgfs and craniofacial patterning: a question ofFgfs and craniofacial patterning: a question of
timingtiming
Bmp proteins and craniofacial patterningBmp proteins and craniofacial patterning
Bmp4 and craniofacial patterningBmp4 and craniofacial patterning
Patterning of the jawPatterning of the jaw
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60. THANK YOU . . .THANK YOU . . .
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61. Molecular Basis ofMolecular Basis of
Craniofacial GrowthCraniofacial Growth
Presented by :Presented by :
Dr. MahimaDr. Mahima
NandaNandawww.indiandentalacademy.comwww.indiandentalacademy.com
62. No region of our anatomy more powerfullyNo region of our anatomy more powerfully
conveys our emotions nor elicits moreconveys our emotions nor elicits more
profound reactions when disease orprofound reactions when disease or
genetic disorders disfigure it than the face.genetic disorders disfigure it than the face.
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63. Recent progress has beenRecent progress has been
made towards defining themade towards defining the
tissue interactions andtissue interactions and
molecular mechanisms thatmolecular mechanisms that
control craniofacialcontrol craniofacial
morphogenesis.morphogenesis.
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64. Some insights have comeSome insights have come
from genetic manipulationsfrom genetic manipulations
and others from tissueand others from tissue
recombination andrecombination and
biochemical approaches,biochemical approaches,
which have revealed thewhich have revealed the
molecular underpinningsmolecular underpinnings
of morphogenesis.of morphogenesis.
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65. Changes in craniofacial architecture alsoChanges in craniofacial architecture also
lie at the heart of evolutionary adaptation,lie at the heart of evolutionary adaptation,
as new studies in attest.as new studies in attest.
Together, these findings reveal muchTogether, these findings reveal much
about molecular and tissue interactionsabout molecular and tissue interactions
behind craniofacial development.behind craniofacial development.
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66. Sometimes, the mechanisms that regulateSometimes, the mechanisms that regulate
normal development are best appreciatednormal development are best appreciated
by studying cases of abnormalby studying cases of abnormal
development.development.
Human craniofacial malformations haveHuman craniofacial malformations have
been avidly catalogued since thebeen avidly catalogued since the
Aristotelian era but only lately haveAristotelian era but only lately have
researchers pinpointed some of the genesresearchers pinpointed some of the genes
responsible.responsible.
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67. The next hurdle is to understand the function ofThe next hurdle is to understand the function of
the encoded proteins in craniofacialthe encoded proteins in craniofacial
morphogenesis.morphogenesis.
This aim is complicated by the fact that theseThis aim is complicated by the fact that these
genes are invariably expressed in multiplegenes are invariably expressed in multiple
tissues and at multiple times during facialtissues and at multiple times during facial
development, and so separating their numerousdevelopment, and so separating their numerous
functions becomes a difficult task.functions becomes a difficult task.
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68. The importance of genes on developmentThe importance of genes on development
has been know for a long time.has been know for a long time.
In Drosophila a class ofIn Drosophila a class of Master regulatoryMaster regulatory
genesgenes were know to exist long beforewere know to exist long before
molecular basis was known.molecular basis was known.
Genes known to control segmentGenes known to control segment
differentiation were calleddifferentiation were called HomeoticHomeotic
GenesGenes..
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69. Mutations of these genes caused parts toMutations of these genes caused parts to
develop in inappropriate places.develop in inappropriate places.
This process of transformation was calledThis process of transformation was called
HOMEOSISHOMEOSIS by Bateson back in theby Bateson back in the
1940s.1940s.
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70. Here, a mutation of theHere, a mutation of the AntennapediaAntennapedia genegene
causes a leg to develop in place of thecauses a leg to develop in place of the
antenna. Note the littleantenna. Note the little HaltereHaltere (balancer) on(balancer) on
the segment behind the wing.the segment behind the wing.
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71. The next slide shows homeotic mutationThe next slide shows homeotic mutation
that results in transformation of this halterethat results in transformation of this haltere
into a second wing.into a second wing.
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73. A sonic boomA sonic boom
HOX genesHOX genes
Fgfs and craniofacial patterning: aFgfs and craniofacial patterning: a
question of timingquestion of timing
Bmp proteins and craniofacialBmp proteins and craniofacial
patterningpatterning
Bmp4 and craniofacial patterningBmp4 and craniofacial patterning
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74. A SONIC BOOMA SONIC BOOM !!!!!!!!
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75. The hedgehog geneThe hedgehog gene ((hhhh)) was first identifiedwas first identified
in the classic Heidelberg screens of Ericin the classic Heidelberg screens of Eric
Wiechaus and Christiane Nusslein-Volhard,Wiechaus and Christiane Nusslein-Volhard,
as published in 1978.as published in 1978.
These screens identified genes that controlThese screens identified genes that control
the segmentation pattern ofthe segmentation pattern of DrosophilaDrosophila
melanogastermelanogaster (fruit fly) embryos.(fruit fly) embryos.
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76. TheThe hhhh loss of functionloss of function
mutant phenotypemutant phenotype
causes the embryos tocauses the embryos to
be covered withbe covered with
denticles (small pointydenticles (small pointy
projections), much likeprojections), much like
a hedgehog.a hedgehog.
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77. Investigations aimed at finding aInvestigations aimed at finding a hedgehoghedgehog
equivalent in mammals revealed threeequivalent in mammals revealed three
homologous genes.homologous genes.
The first two discovered,The first two discovered, desert hedgehogdesert hedgehog andand
Indian hedgehogIndian hedgehog, were named for species of, were named for species of
hedgehogs.hedgehogs. www.indiandentalacademy.comwww.indiandentalacademy.com
78. Sonic hedgehogSonic hedgehog
was named afterwas named after
Sega's video gameSega's video game
character Sonic thecharacter Sonic the
Hedgehog.Hedgehog.
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79. PROCESSINGPROCESSING
SHH undergoes a series of processingSHH undergoes a series of processing
steps before it is secreted from the cell.steps before it is secreted from the cell.
Newly synthesised SHH is referred to asNewly synthesised SHH is referred to as
thethe PREPROPROTEINPREPROPROTEIN..www.indiandentalacademy.comwww.indiandentalacademy.com
80. As a secreted protein it contains aAs a secreted protein it contains a shortshort
signalsignal sequencesequence at its N-terminus, which isat its N-terminus, which is
recognised by therecognised by the signal recognition particlesignal recognition particle
during the translocation into theduring the translocation into the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER).endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Once translocation is complete, the signalOnce translocation is complete, the signal
sequence is removed by signal peptidase insequence is removed by signal peptidase in
the ER.the ER.
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81. There SHH undergoes autoprocessing toThere SHH undergoes autoprocessing to
generate a N-terminal signaling domaingenerate a N-terminal signaling domain
(SHH-N) and a C-terminal domain with no(SHH-N) and a C-terminal domain with no
known signaling role.known signaling role.
The cleavage is catalysed by a proteaseThe cleavage is catalysed by a protease
within the C-terminal domain. During thewithin the C-terminal domain. During the
reaction, a cholesterol molecule is addedreaction, a cholesterol molecule is added
to the C-terminus of SHH-N.to the C-terminus of SHH-N.
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82. Thus the C-terminal domain acts as anThus the C-terminal domain acts as an inteinintein
and a cholesterol transferase.and a cholesterol transferase.
Another hydrophobic moiety, a palmitate, isAnother hydrophobic moiety, a palmitate, is
added to the alpha-amine of N-terminaladded to the alpha-amine of N-terminal
cysteine of SHH-N.cysteine of SHH-N.
This modification is required for efficientThis modification is required for efficient
signaling, resulting in 30-fold increase insignaling, resulting in 30-fold increase in
potency over the non-palmitylated formpotency over the non-palmitylated form
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86. When SHH reaches its target cell, it binds toWhen SHH reaches its target cell, it binds to
thethe Patched-1 (PTCH1)Patched-1 (PTCH1) receptor.receptor.
In the absence of ligand, PTCH1 inhibitsIn the absence of ligand, PTCH1 inhibits
Smoothened (SMO),Smoothened (SMO), a downstream proteina downstream protein
in the pathway.in the pathway.
The binding of SHH relieves SMO inhibition,The binding of SHH relieves SMO inhibition,
leading to activation of the GLI transcriptionleading to activation of the GLI transcription
factors: the activatorsfactors: the activators Gli1Gli1 andand Gli2Gli2 and theand the
repressor[repressor[Gli3Gli3].].
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87. ActivatedActivated GLIGLI accumulates in the nucleusaccumulates in the nucleus
and controls the transcription of hedgehogand controls the transcription of hedgehog
target genes.target genes.
Overexpression of mutated PTCH1 playsOverexpression of mutated PTCH1 plays
a role ina role in basal cell carcinomabasal cell carcinoma..
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88. FUNCTIONFUNCTION
Of theOf the hhhh homologues,homologues, shhshh has beenhas been
found to have the most critical roles infound to have the most critical roles in
development, acting as a morphogendevelopment, acting as a morphogen
involved in patterning many systems,involved in patterning many systems,
including the limb and midline structures inincluding the limb and midline structures in
the brain and spinal cord.the brain and spinal cord.
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89. Members of the hedgehog family play keyMembers of the hedgehog family play key
roles in a wide variety of developmentalroles in a wide variety of developmental
processes.processes.
One of the best studied examples is theOne of the best studied examples is the
action of Sonic hedgehog duringaction of Sonic hedgehog during
development of thedevelopment of the vertebrate limbvertebrate limb..
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90. One of the best studied craniofacial abnormalitiesOne of the best studied craniofacial abnormalities
isis holoprosencephaly (HPEholoprosencephaly (HPE), a syndrome that is), a syndrome that is
associated with perturbations in a handful ofassociated with perturbations in a handful of ShhShh--
related genes.related genes.
At one end of the HPE spectrum, fetuses exhibitAt one end of the HPE spectrum, fetuses exhibit
cyclopia, a condition characterized by a single,cyclopia, a condition characterized by a single,
central eye and no discernable nose, but acentral eye and no discernable nose, but a
relatively normal-looking middle and lower facerelatively normal-looking middle and lower face
(Chiang et al., 2001(Chiang et al., 2001 ).).
At the other extreme, obligate HPE carriers canAt the other extreme, obligate HPE carriers can
have a normal facial appearance (have a normal facial appearance (McKusick, 2000McKusick, 2000
).).
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91. In an effort to explain this remarkable phenotypicIn an effort to explain this remarkable phenotypic
variation, Traiffort and colleagues recentlyvariation, Traiffort and colleagues recently
examined how specific human HPE mutationsexamined how specific human HPE mutations
affected the structure and function of the SHHaffected the structure and function of the SHH
protein.protein.
The researchers found that most HPE mutationsThe researchers found that most HPE mutations
fall into one of three classes:fall into one of three classes:
1.1. mutations that influencedmutations that influenced binding of the proteinbinding of the protein
2.2. those that affect thethose that affect the auto-processing of SHHauto-processing of SHH
3.3. and those thatand those that adversely alter SHH stabilityadversely alter SHH stability
(Traiffort et al., 2004(Traiffort et al., 2004 ).).
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92. HoloprosencephalyHoloprosencephaly is a type of cephalic disorder.is a type of cephalic disorder.
This is a disorder characterized by the failure of theThis is a disorder characterized by the failure of the
prosencephalon (the forebrain of the embryo) toprosencephalon (the forebrain of the embryo) to
develop.develop.
During normal development the forebrain is formedDuring normal development the forebrain is formed
and the face begins to develop in the fifth and sixthand the face begins to develop in the fifth and sixth
weeks of human pregnancy.weeks of human pregnancy.
Holoprosencephaly is caused by a failure of theHoloprosencephaly is caused by a failure of the
embryo's forebrain to divide to form bilateral cerebralembryo's forebrain to divide to form bilateral cerebral
hemispheres.hemispheres.
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93. Alobar holoprosencephalyAlobar holoprosencephaly - the most- the most
serious form in which the brain fails toserious form in which the brain fails to
separate, is usually associated with severeseparate, is usually associated with severe
facial anomalies.facial anomalies.
Semilobar holoprosencephalySemilobar holoprosencephaly - in which- in which
the brain's hemispheres have a slightthe brain's hemispheres have a slight
tendency to separate, is an intermediatetendency to separate, is an intermediate
form of the disease.form of the disease.
Lobar holoprosencephalyLobar holoprosencephaly - in which there- in which there
is considerable evidence of separate brainis considerable evidence of separate brain
hemispheres, is the least severe form.hemispheres, is the least severe form.www.indiandentalacademy.comwww.indiandentalacademy.com
96. However, none of these mutation types couldHowever, none of these mutation types could
be linked to a specific phenotypebe linked to a specific phenotype
(Traiffort et al., 2004(Traiffort et al., 2004 ))
If there is no clear genotype-phenotypeIf there is no clear genotype-phenotype
correlation, then what explains the variablecorrelation, then what explains the variable
expressivity of this craniofacial malformation?expressivity of this craniofacial malformation?
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97. One appealing hypothesis is that environmentalOne appealing hypothesis is that environmental
agents act in conjunction with an autosomalagents act in conjunction with an autosomal
dominant mutation to compromise Shhdominant mutation to compromise Shh
signaling.signaling.
(Cordero et al., 2004(Cordero et al., 2004 ; Edison 2003; Edison 2003 ).).
If this scenario were true, then varying the timeIf this scenario were true, then varying the time
in which an embryo was exposed to anin which an embryo was exposed to an
environmental teratogen could elicit differentenvironmental teratogen could elicit different
disease phenotypes.disease phenotypes.
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98. Testing this hypothesis…Testing this hypothesis…
Chen et al., 2002Chen et al., 2002
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99. They exposedThey exposed avianavian embryosembryos toto cyclopaminecyclopamine,,
a potenta potent inhibitorinhibitor of the Hedgehog signalingof the Hedgehog signaling
pathway …..pathway …..
and found that by varying the delivery time soand found that by varying the delivery time so
that it coincided withthat it coincided with ShhShh induction in theinduction in the
forebrain and later in the face, we couldforebrain and later in the face, we could
reproduce the spectrum of HPE phenotypes.reproduce the spectrum of HPE phenotypes.
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100. Although this is unlikely to be the sole, orAlthough this is unlikely to be the sole, or
even the predominant, explanation foreven the predominant, explanation for
variations in HPE phenotype, experimentsvariations in HPE phenotype, experiments
such as these indicate thatsuch as these indicate that Shh has aShh has a
variety of functions in facial development.variety of functions in facial development.
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101. Molecular Basis ofMolecular Basis of
Craniofacial GrowthCraniofacial Growth
Presented by :Presented by :
Dr. MahimaDr. Mahimawww.indiandentalacademy.comwww.indiandentalacademy.com
102. Molecular mediators ofMolecular mediators of
craniofacial morphogenesiscraniofacial morphogenesis
continued . . .continued . . .www.indiandentalacademy.comwww.indiandentalacademy.com
104. The central dogma ofThe central dogma of
molecular biologymolecular biology
describes the two-stepdescribes the two-step
process, transcriptionprocess, transcription
and translation, byand translation, by
which the informationwhich the information
in genes flows intoin genes flows into
proteins:proteins:
DNA → RNA → proteinDNA → RNA → protein
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105. The basic building block of a protein isThe basic building block of a protein is
the amino acid.the amino acid.
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108. Fgfs and craniofacial patterningFgfs and craniofacial patterning
: a question of timing: a question of timing
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109. Fibroblast growth factorsFibroblast growth factors, or, or FGFsFGFs, are a, are a
family of growth factors involved in woundfamily of growth factors involved in wound
healing and embryonic development.healing and embryonic development.
The FGFs areThe FGFs are heparin-binding proteinsheparin-binding proteins andand
interactions with cell-surface associatedinteractions with cell-surface associated
heparan sulfate proteoglycans have beenheparan sulfate proteoglycans have been
shown to be essential for FGF signalshown to be essential for FGF signal
transductiontransduction
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110. Fibroblast growth factor was found in aFibroblast growth factor was found in a
cow brain extract by Gospodarowicz andcow brain extract by Gospodarowicz and
colleagues and tested in a bioassay whichcolleagues and tested in a bioassay which
caused fibroblasts to proliferate (firstcaused fibroblasts to proliferate (first
published report in 1974).published report in 1974).
In humans, 20 members of the FGF familyIn humans, 20 members of the FGF family
have been identified all of which arehave been identified all of which are
structurallystructurally related signaling molecules:related signaling molecules:
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111. 1.1. MembersMembers FGF1FGF1--1010 all bind fibroblast growthall bind fibroblast growth
factor receptors (FGFRs). FGF1 is alsofactor receptors (FGFRs). FGF1 is also
known as "Acidic", andknown as "Acidic", and FGF2FGF2 is also knownis also known
as basic FGF.as basic FGF.
2.2. MembersMembers FGF11-14FGF11-14 are involved inare involved in
intracellular processes unrelated to theintracellular processes unrelated to the
FGFsFGFs
3.3. MembersMembers FGF16FGF16 throughthrough FGF23FGF23 are newerare newer
and not as well characterized.and not as well characterized.
4.4. FGF15 is the mouse ortholog of humanFGF15 is the mouse ortholog of human
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115. One of the most important functions ofOne of the most important functions of
bFGF (FGF2) is the promotion ofbFGF (FGF2) is the promotion of
endothelial cell proliferationendothelial cell proliferation and theand the
physical organization of endothelial cellsphysical organization of endothelial cells
into tube-like structures.into tube-like structures.
It thus promotesIt thus promotes angiogenesisangiogenesis, the growth, the growth
of new blood vessels from the pre-existingof new blood vessels from the pre-existing
vasculature.vasculature.
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116. bFGF is an important player inbFGF is an important player in woundwound
healinghealing. It stimulates the proliferation of. It stimulates the proliferation of
fibroblasts that give rise tofibroblasts that give rise to granulationgranulation
tissuetissue, which fills up a wound space/cavity, which fills up a wound space/cavity
early in the wound healing process.early in the wound healing process.
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117. It has also been demonstrated that fibroblastIt has also been demonstrated that fibroblast
growth factors are associated with manygrowth factors are associated with many
developmental processes in the craniofacialdevelopmental processes in the craniofacial
region.region.
This has been well illustrated in recentThis has been well illustrated in recent
studies evaluating the consequences of Fgfstudies evaluating the consequences of Fgf
perturbation at four separate points inperturbation at four separate points in
craniofacial development.craniofacial development.
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118. Early in craniofacial development, Fgf signalingEarly in craniofacial development, Fgf signaling
is crucial in establishing the midbrain-hindbrainis crucial in establishing the midbrain-hindbrain
boundaryboundary
(Scholpp et al., 2003)(Scholpp et al., 2003)
Later in development, Fgf signaling from ventralLater in development, Fgf signaling from ventral
forebrain and pharyngeal endoderm is requiredforebrain and pharyngeal endoderm is required
for pharyngeal skeletogenesis, as inhibiting thisfor pharyngeal skeletogenesis, as inhibiting this
pathway prevents the formation of the secondpathway prevents the formation of the second
arch skeletonarch skeleton
(Creuzet et al., 2004(Creuzet et al., 2004 ; Mason, 2003 ); Mason, 2003 )
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119. Later still, blocking Fgf signaling from theLater still, blocking Fgf signaling from the
surface ectoderm disrupts outgrowth of thesurface ectoderm disrupts outgrowth of the
frontonasal skeletonfrontonasal skeleton
(A. Abzhanov, D. Hu, J. Sen, C. J)(A. Abzhanov, D. Hu, J. Sen, C. J)
Finally, just before birth, disruptions in FgfFinally, just before birth, disruptions in Fgf
signaling cause premature osteogenesis insignaling cause premature osteogenesis in
the sutures.the sutures.
(Moore et al.; Sarkar et al.(Moore et al.; Sarkar et al. ))
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120. FGF-5FGF-5 in the embryo is notable for its highlyin the embryo is notable for its highly
specific pattern of expression, first in pre-specific pattern of expression, first in pre-
gastrulation embryonic ectoderm and later in agastrulation embryonic ectoderm and later in a
small patch of mesoderm through which thesmall patch of mesoderm through which the
hepatic bud will penetrate.hepatic bud will penetrate.
Ectodermally-derivedEctodermally-derived FGF-8FGF-8 is suggested tois suggested to
be important in driving the proliferation of thebe important in driving the proliferation of the
underlying mesenchyme, thus adding lengthunderlying mesenchyme, thus adding length
to the limb.to the limb.
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121. Clearly then, Fgfs play multiple, fundamentalClearly then, Fgfs play multiple, fundamental
roles in craniofacial morphogenesis, butroles in craniofacial morphogenesis, but
unraveling this complicated molecularunraveling this complicated molecular
machinery will have to await better geneticmachinery will have to await better genetic
and molecular tools that permit a more preciseand molecular tools that permit a more precise
regulation of gene activity.regulation of gene activity.
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122. What is a homeobox?What is a homeobox?
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123. AA homeoboxhomeobox is a DNA sequence foundis a DNA sequence found
within genes that are involved in thewithin genes that are involved in the
regulation of development (morphogenesis)regulation of development (morphogenesis)
of animals, fungi and plants.of animals, fungi and plants.
Genes that have a homeobox are calledGenes that have a homeobox are called
homeobox geneshomeobox genes and form theand form the homeoboxhomeobox
gene familygene family..
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124. DiscoveryDiscovery
They were discovered independently inThey were discovered independently in
1983 by Walter Jakob Gehring and his1983 by Walter Jakob Gehring and his
colleagues at the University of Basel,colleagues at the University of Basel,
Switzerland.Switzerland.
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125. Since their discovery in 1983,Since their discovery in 1983, homeoboxhomeobox
genesgenes, and the proteins they encode, the, and the proteins they encode, the
homeodomain proteinshomeodomain proteins, have turned out to, have turned out to
play important roles in the developmentalplay important roles in the developmental
processes of many multicellular organisms.processes of many multicellular organisms.
While certainly not the only developmentalWhile certainly not the only developmental
control genes, they have been shown to playcontrol genes, they have been shown to play
crucial roles from the earliest steps incrucial roles from the earliest steps in
embryogenesisembryogenesis to the very latest steps into the very latest steps in cellcell
differentiation.differentiation.
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126. HOX GENESHOX GENES
Hox genes are aHox genes are a subgroupsubgroup of homeoboxof homeobox
genes.genes.
In vertebrates these genes are found inIn vertebrates these genes are found in
gene clusters on the chromosomes.gene clusters on the chromosomes.
In mammals four such clusters exist,In mammals four such clusters exist,
calledcalled Hox clustersHox clusters..
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127. The gene name "Hox" has been restrictedThe gene name "Hox" has been restricted
to name Hox cluster genes in vertebrates.to name Hox cluster genes in vertebrates.
Only genes in the HOX cluster should beOnly genes in the HOX cluster should be
named Hox genes.named Hox genes.
So note: homeobox genes are NOT HoxSo note: homeobox genes are NOT Hox
genes, Hox genes are a subset ofgenes, Hox genes are a subset of
homeobox genes.homeobox genes.
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128. HOX clusterHOX cluster
The term Hox cluster refers to a group ofThe term Hox cluster refers to a group of
clustered homeobox genes, namedclustered homeobox genes, named HoxHox
genesgenes in vertebrates, that play importantin vertebrates, that play important
roles in pattern formation along the anterior-roles in pattern formation along the anterior-
posterior body axis.posterior body axis.
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129. HomeodomainHomeodomain:: a DNA-binding domain,a DNA-binding domain,
usually about 60 amino acids in length,usually about 60 amino acids in length,
encoded by the homeobox.encoded by the homeobox.
HomeoboxHomeobox:: a fragment of DNA of abouta fragment of DNA of about
180 basepairs (not counting introns),180 basepairs (not counting introns),
found in homeobox genes.found in homeobox genes.
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130. Here a rotating view of the homeodomainHere a rotating view of the homeodomain
bound to DNAbound to DNA
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132. If we look at the CNS earlier in embryogenesis, shortlyIf we look at the CNS earlier in embryogenesis, shortly
after neurulation, and during somitogenesis,after neurulation, and during somitogenesis,
segmentation is obvious in the rhombencephalon, whichsegmentation is obvious in the rhombencephalon, which
is the CNS precursor of the hindbrain.is the CNS precursor of the hindbrain.
In this structure and at this time there is a segmentalIn this structure and at this time there is a segmental
periodicity to the expression of the most anteriorlyperiodicity to the expression of the most anteriorly
expressed genes.expressed genes.
So, each rhombomere has its own hox code as wellSo, each rhombomere has its own hox code as well
(i.e., except R1 and R2, which do not express hox(i.e., except R1 and R2, which do not express hox
genes. .genes. .
Hox Gene Expression andHox Gene Expression and
EmbryogenesisEmbryogenesis
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133. Key Features of this are :Key Features of this are :
1) The vertebrate homeotic complex comprises four1) The vertebrate homeotic complex comprises four
distinct Hox gene clusters (Hox A, B, C, D).distinct Hox gene clusters (Hox A, B, C, D).
2) The chromosomal organization of the genes in2) The chromosomal organization of the genes in
each Hox cluster reflects its anterior-posterioreach Hox cluster reflects its anterior-posterior
expression in the body plan (spatial colinearity).expression in the body plan (spatial colinearity).
3) Homeotic genes are expressed within segmented3) Homeotic genes are expressed within segmented
and unsegmented structures within the body plan. Hoxand unsegmented structures within the body plan. Hox
gene expression in some unsegmented structuresgene expression in some unsegmented structures
arise from segmented precursors.arise from segmented precursors.
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134. Bmp proteins andBmp proteins and
craniofacial patterningcraniofacial patterning
Initial discovery of bone morphogeneticInitial discovery of bone morphogenetic
proteinprotein activityactivity was published inwas published in 19651965
by Marshall Rby Marshall R
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135. Bone Morphogenetic ProteinsBone Morphogenetic Proteins ((BMPsBMPs) are a) are a
group of growth factors known for their abilitygroup of growth factors known for their ability
to induce the formation ofto induce the formation of bone and cartilagebone and cartilage..
TYPESTYPES
Originally, seven such proteins wereOriginally, seven such proteins were
discovered, 6 of them (BMP2 through BMP7)discovered, 6 of them (BMP2 through BMP7)
belong to the Transforming growth factor betabelong to the Transforming growth factor beta
superfamily of proteins.superfamily of proteins.
Since then, nine more BMPs have beenSince then, nine more BMPs have been
discovered, bringing the total to sixteen.discovered, bringing the total to sixteen.
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136. FUNCTIONFUNCTION
BMPs interact with specific receptors on the cellBMPs interact with specific receptors on the cell
surface, referred to as bone morphogenetic proteinsurface, referred to as bone morphogenetic protein
receptors (BMPRs).receptors (BMPRs).
Signal transduction through BMPRs results inSignal transduction through BMPRs results in
mobilization of members of the SMAD family ofmobilization of members of the SMAD family of
proteins.proteins.
The signaling pathways involving BMPs, BMPRsThe signaling pathways involving BMPs, BMPRs
and SMADS are important in the development ofand SMADS are important in the development of
the heart, central nervous system, and cartilage, asthe heart, central nervous system, and cartilage, as
well as post-natal bone development.well as post-natal bone development.
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137. They have an important role during embryonicThey have an important role during embryonic
development on the embryonic patterning anddevelopment on the embryonic patterning and
early skeletal formation.early skeletal formation.
As such, disruption of BMP signaling can affectAs such, disruption of BMP signaling can affect
the body plan of the developing embryo. Forthe body plan of the developing embryo. For
example,example, BMP4BMP4 and its inhibitorsand its inhibitors nogginnoggin andand
chordinchordin help regulate polarity of the embryohelp regulate polarity of the embryo
(i.e. back to front patterning).(i.e. back to front patterning).
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138. Mutations in BMPs and their inhibitorsMutations in BMPs and their inhibitors
(such as(such as sclerostinsclerostin)) are associated with aare associated with a
number of human disorders which affectnumber of human disorders which affect
the skeleton.the skeleton.
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139. Tabin and co-workers set out to understandTabin and co-workers set out to understand
how such morphological variations mighthow such morphological variations might
arise due to BMPs.arise due to BMPs.
(2004)(2004)
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140. They evaluated two finch species - the groundThey evaluated two finch species - the ground
and cactus finches - that represent theand cactus finches - that represent the
extremes in Galapagos finch beakextremes in Galapagos finch beak
morphology (Grant, 1986 ).morphology (Grant, 1986 ).
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141. At the time when ground and cactus finchAt the time when ground and cactus finch
embryos appear similar, in situ hybridizationembryos appear similar, in situ hybridization
analyses by these investigators revealed aanalyses by these investigators revealed a
difference in the patterns ofdifference in the patterns of Bmp4Bmp4 expression.expression.
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146. When regions of facial ectoderm areWhen regions of facial ectoderm are
transplanted to ectopic sites in the avian face,transplanted to ectopic sites in the avian face,
the developmental fate of underlying frontonasalthe developmental fate of underlying frontonasal
neural crest cells is altered and the result is aneural crest cells is altered and the result is a
duplication of upper beak structures (Hu et al.,duplication of upper beak structures (Hu et al.,
20032003 ).).
This same bit of facial ectoderm can elicit similarThis same bit of facial ectoderm can elicit similar
duplications when transplanted into the first,duplications when transplanted into the first,
Hox-negative, arch, but has no effect whenHox-negative, arch, but has no effect when
transplanted into the second, Hox-positive, archtransplanted into the second, Hox-positive, arch
(Hu et al., 2003(Hu et al., 2003 ).).
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147. This result indirectly illustrates how neuralThis result indirectly illustrates how neural
crest plasticity is balanced against a `pre-crest plasticity is balanced against a `pre-
pattern', owing in no small part to thepattern', owing in no small part to the
expression of Hox genes in the facialexpression of Hox genes in the facial
tissues (Creuzet et al., 2002tissues (Creuzet et al., 2002 ).).
What types of signals imbue this facialWhat types of signals imbue this facial
ectoderm with the ability to re-specify theectoderm with the ability to re-specify the
fates of neural crest cells?fates of neural crest cells?
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148. BothBoth ShhShh andand Fgf8Fgf8 are expressed in thisare expressed in this
region of tissue, but whether they are theregion of tissue, but whether they are the
molecules responsible for achieving thismolecules responsible for achieving this
effect, or simply molecular markers of aneffect, or simply molecular markers of an
important boundary domain in the face,important boundary domain in the face,
remains to be determined.remains to be determined.
Neural ectoderm is also a source ofNeural ectoderm is also a source of
patterning information for the middle andpatterning information for the middle and
upper face, as has recently been shown inupper face, as has recently been shown in
a series of experiments conducted ina series of experiments conducted in
zebrafish.zebrafish.
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149. In these experiments, it was found thatIn these experiments, it was found that
Shh emanating from anterior ventralShh emanating from anterior ventral
neuroectoderm directly patterned theneuroectoderm directly patterned the
ventral surface ectoderm, without requiringventral surface ectoderm, without requiring
an intermediate signal generated byan intermediate signal generated by
neural crest.neural crest.
The loss of neuroectodermal ShhThe loss of neuroectodermal Shh
prevented neural crest cells fromprevented neural crest cells from
aggregating into condensations andaggregating into condensations and
eventually from forming skeletal elements.eventually from forming skeletal elements.
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157. Preview of next seminar:Preview of next seminar:
Molecular mediators of craniofacial morphogenesisMolecular mediators of craniofacial morphogenesis
HOX genesHOX genes
Epithelial contribution to craniofacial patterningEpithelial contribution to craniofacial patterning
Oral ectoderm and tooth patterningOral ectoderm and tooth patterning
Pharyngeal endoderm and arch patterningPharyngeal endoderm and arch patterning
Neural and surface ectoderm: patterning the middle andNeural and surface ectoderm: patterning the middle and
upper faceupper face
Patterning of the jawsPatterning of the jaws
MaxillaMaxilla
MandibleMandible
palatepalate
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158. THANK YOU . . .THANK YOU . . .
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159. At the time when ground and cactus finch embryos appear similar,At the time when ground and cactus finch embryos appear similar,
in situ hybridization analyses by these investigators revealed ain situ hybridization analyses by these investigators revealed a
difference in the patterns ofdifference in the patterns of Bmp4Bmp4 expression (Abzhanov et al.,expression (Abzhanov et al.,
20042004 ) (see) (see Fig. 4Fig. 4). To test experimentally whether spatial and). To test experimentally whether spatial and
temporal changes intemporal changes in Bmp4Bmp4 expression could account for the relativeexpression could account for the relative
size and shape differences in these finches' beaks, the investigatorssize and shape differences in these finches' beaks, the investigators
mis-expressedmis-expressed Bmp4Bmp4 throughout the mesenchyme of a chickthroughout the mesenchyme of a chick
frontonasal prominence (frontonasal prominence (Fig. 4DFig. 4D). This misexpression converted the). This misexpression converted the
narrow short chick beak into a much broader bigger beak thatnarrow short chick beak into a much broader bigger beak that
resembled that of the large ground finch (Abzhanov et al., 2004resembled that of the large ground finch (Abzhanov et al., 2004 ) () (
Fig. 4DFig. 4D).).
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160. Vertebrates exhibit a marvelous range of craniofacialVertebrates exhibit a marvelous range of craniofacial
features that are designed to fit specialized niches andfeatures that are designed to fit specialized niches and
behaviors.behaviors.
These postnatal facial features are immediately obvious,These postnatal facial features are immediately obvious,
but during the embryonic period, vertebrate faces lookbut during the embryonic period, vertebrate faces look
remarkably similar (Haeckel, 1897remarkably similar (Haeckel, 1897 ).).
The proteins that establish this basic blueprint of theThe proteins that establish this basic blueprint of the
craniofacial region are still unidentified but likelycraniofacial region are still unidentified but likely
candidates are those same molecules that establishcandidates are those same molecules that establish
other developmental axes in vertebrates andother developmental axes in vertebrates and
invertebrates: Hedgehog and Wnt proteins, andinvertebrates: Hedgehog and Wnt proteins, and
members of the Bmp and Fgf families. Some newmembers of the Bmp and Fgf families. Some new
studies have begun to explore how different species usestudies have begun to explore how different species use
these pathways to create distinctive facial features.these pathways to create distinctive facial features.
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161. In the Galapagos finches, Darwin had noted that `aIn the Galapagos finches, Darwin had noted that `a
nearly perfect gradation may be traced from a beaknearly perfect gradation may be traced from a beak
extraordinarily thick to one so fine that it may beextraordinarily thick to one so fine that it may be
compared with that of a warbler.' (Darwin, 1859compared with that of a warbler.' (Darwin, 1859 ). We). We
now know that these species-specific morphologicalnow know that these species-specific morphological
variations are evident during embryogenesis, and arevariations are evident during embryogenesis, and are
first evident around Hamburger and Hamiltonfirst evident around Hamburger and Hamilton
(Hamburger and Hamilton, 1951(Hamburger and Hamilton, 1951 ) stage 22 (S.) stage 22 (S.
Brugmann and J.A.H., unpublished). Prior to that time,Brugmann and J.A.H., unpublished). Prior to that time,
the faces of different avian species are indistinguishablethe faces of different avian species are indistinguishable
from one another (Schneider and Helms, 2003from one another (Schneider and Helms, 2003 ). Tabin). Tabin
and co-workers set out to understand how suchand co-workers set out to understand how such
morphological variations might arise.morphological variations might arise.
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170. Basic research concerning craniofacialBasic research concerning craniofacial
development runs along 2 pathwaysdevelopment runs along 2 pathways
namely the molecular and thenamely the molecular and the
morphometric. This gap will now bemorphometric. This gap will now be
bridged in the initial part if this seminarbridged in the initial part if this seminar
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171. Pre natal craniofacialPre natal craniofacial
morphogenesis : 4-D visualizationmorphogenesis : 4-D visualization
of morphogenetic processesof morphogenetic processes
Orthod Craniofacial Res 6( sppl. 1), 2003;89-Orthod Craniofacial Res 6( sppl. 1), 2003;89-
9494
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172. Using histological sections of human fetusesUsing histological sections of human fetuses
computer aided 3-D reconstuctions werecomputer aided 3-D reconstuctions were
made with special focus given to allmade with special focus given to all
anatomical structures of orofacial region ofanatomical structures of orofacial region of
the orofacial region of the growing head.the orofacial region of the growing head.
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185. The hard tissues like the bones,The hard tissues like the bones,
cartilages, and teeth, play manycartilages, and teeth, play many
essential roles for our survival.essential roles for our survival.
Calvarial and cranial baseCalvarial and cranial base
bones protect the brain and thebones protect the brain and the
sense organs from externalsense organs from external
shocks. Three small bones inshocks. Three small bones in
the inner ear are needed for usthe inner ear are needed for us
to hear. Jaws allow us to talkto hear. Jaws allow us to talk
and along with the teeth allowand along with the teeth allow
us to chew.us to chew.
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Stem cells are primal cells found in all multi-cellular organisms that retain the ability to renew themselves through mitotic cell division and can differentiate into a diverse range of specialized cell types. The three broad categories of mammalian stem cells are: embryonic stem cells, derived from blastocysts, adult stem cells, which are found in adult tissues, and cord blood stem cells, which are found in the umbilical cord. In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all of the specialized embryonic tissues. In adult organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the body, replenishing specialized cells.
Cord blood is collected after the umbilical cord has been detached from the newborn, and utilized as a source of stem cells for transplantation.
The frontonasal prominence contributes to the forehead, the middle of the nose, the philtrum of the upper lip and the primary palate, while the lateral nasal prominence forms the sides (ala) of the nose (Larson, 2001 ) (Fig. 1). Until recently, it was thought that the ventral region of the first pharyngeal (branchial) arch gave rise to the mandibular prominence and therefore the lower jaw, and that the dorsal region of the first arch gave rise to the maxillary prominences, which form the sides of the middle and lower face, the lateral borders of the lips, and the secondary palate (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Development of the craniofacial primordia. (A-D) A frontal view of the prominences that give rise to the main structures of the face. The frontonasal (or median nasal) prominence (red) contributes to the forehead (A), the middle of the nose (B), the philtrum of the upper lip (C) and the primary palate (D), while the lateral nasal prominence (blue) forms the sides of the nose (B,D). The maxillomandibular prominences (green) give rise to the lower jaw (specifically from the mandibular prominences), to the sides of the middle and lower face, to the lateral borders of the lips, and to the secondary palate (from the maxillary prominences).
Any of several salamanders (genus Ambystoma) native to Mexico and the western United States that, unlike most amphibians, often retain their external gills and become sexually mature without undergoing metamorphosis.
The molecular mechanisms underlying the generation of segmental pattern are now beginning to be unravelled. To date most of our work has focused upon how segmental patterns of gene expression are translated into morphologically segmented cell groups.
Neurulation begins with a unified layer of ectoderm, underneath which lies the endoderm. A single ectomere is shown in yellow. Ectomeres are discrete regions of superficial ectoderm that exhibit a segmented pattern of gene expression. Fate-mapping experiments suggest that, together with neural crest and neuroectoderm, they define a larger developmental unit (Couly and Le Douarin, 1999). Later, these tissues act on signaling centers in the facial prominences (Hu et al., 2003 ).
(B) The ectoderm begins to fold upwards, giving rise to the neural folds. During this process, interactions between signaling molecules begin to delineate the medial ectoderm as being neural (green) and the lateral regions of ectoderm as being non-neural (blue). The prechordal plate mesendoderm (pcp) and the buccopharyngeal membrane (bpm) become evident at this stage.
(C) The neural tube forms upon fusion of the neural folds, giving rise to discrete neuroectoderm (green) and surface ectoderm (blue). Around the same time, the border region between the neuroectoderm and surface ectoderm gives rise to neural crest cells. The surface ectoderm and neuroectoderm of single ectomeres remain aligned during this process.
(D) Neurulation completes upon formation of the neural tube, and neural crest cells (nc) lie sandwiched between the facial (surface) ectoderm and the neuroectoderm. Again, the individual neuroectoderm and surface ectoderm components of the ectomere remain in register.
A genetic screen (often shortened to screen) is a procedure or test to identify and select individuals who possess a phenotype of interest A basic screen involves looking for a phenotype of interest in the mutated population. One might screen for obvious phenotypes such as fruit flies with no wings or an Arabidopsis flower with no petals..
In evolutionary biology, homology is any similarity between characters that is due to their shared ancestry. There are examples in different branches of biology. Anatomical structures that perform the same function in different biological species and evolved from the same structure in some ancestor species are homologous. In genetics, homology is measured by comparing protein or DNA sequences, and genes that share a high sequence identity or similarity support the hypothesis that they share a common ancestor and are therefore homologous.
Translation is the second process of protein biosynthesis (part of the overall process of gene expression). Translation occurs in the cytoplasm where the ribosomes are located. Ribosomes are made of a small and large subunit which surrounds the mRNA. In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA) is decoded to produce a specific polypeptide according to the rules specified by the genetic code. This is the process that converts an mRNA sequence into a chain of amino acids that form a protein. Translation is necessarily preceded by transcription. Transcription proceeds in four phases: activation, initiation, elongation and termination (all describing the growth of the amino acid chain, or polypeptide that is the product of translation).
An intein is a segment of a protein that is able to excise itself and rejoin the remaining portions (the exteins) with a peptide bond. Inteins have also been called "protein introns".
In chemistry, a ligand is an atom, ion, or molecule (see also: functional group) that generally donates one or more of its electrons through a coordinate covalent bond to, or shares its electrons through a covalent bond with, one or more central atoms or ions (these ligands act as a Lewis base). But in organic chemistry ligands are also used to protect functional groups, or to stabilize reactive compounds. The molecule resulting from the coordination of a ligand (or an array of ligands) to a central atom is termed a complex.
glioma-associated oncogene
Smoothened is a 7TM protein of the hedgehog pathway conserved from flies to humans. It is the molecular target of the teratogen cyclopamine.[1]
A protein-coding gene is transcribed into a pre-mRNA. Pre-mRNA is processed into a mature mRNA. mRNA exits the nucleus. mRNA is translated on ribosomes to produce the polypeptide chain.
Messenger Ribonucleic Acid (mRNA) is a molecule of RNA encoding a chemical "blueprint" for a protein product. mRNA is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries coding information to the sites of protein synthesis: the ribosomes. Here, the nucleic acid polymer is translated into a polymer of amino acids: a protein. In mRNA as in DNA, genetic information is encoded in the sequence of four nucleotides arranged into codons of three bases each. Each codon encodes for a specific amino acid, except the stop codons that terminate protein synthesis. This process requires two other types of RNA: Transfer RNA (tRNA) mediates recognition of the codon and provides the corresponding amino acid, while Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the central component of the ribosome's protein manufacturing machinery.