1. DR. JAMES M. ALO, RN, MAN, MAPsycho., Ph.D.

2.  is the processes by which information is
encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding
allows information that is from the outside
world to reach our senses in the forms of
chemical and physical stimuli.
The process of acquiring information
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3.  1. first stage we must change the information so
that we may put the memory into the encoding
process.
 2. Storage is the second memory stage or
process.
 This entails that we maintain information over
periods of time.
 3. Finally, the retrieval.
 This is the retrieval of information that we have
stored.
 We must locate it and return it to our consciousness.
 Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the
type of information.
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4.  Encoding or registration
 (receiving, processing and combining of
received information)
 Storage (creation of a permanent record
of the encoded information)
 Retrieval, recall or recollection
 (calling back the stored information in
response to some cue for use in a
process or activity)
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5.  Sensory memory: referring to the
information we receive through the senses
 Short term memory: is the storage
mechanism that temporarily holds current
or recent information for immediate or
short term use.
 Long term memory: is relatively permanent
and practically unlimited in terms of its
storage capacity
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6.  Short term  Long Term
Memory: Memory :
 Limited capacity .  Unlimited capacity
 Limited duration .  Very long duration
 Limited storage .  Permanent
 Forgetting occur by  subjected to
decay or distortion or
displacement . replacement .
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7.  Corresponds approximately to the initial
200–500 milliseconds after an item is
perceived.
 The ability to look at an item, and
remember what it looked like with just a
second of
 Example of sensory memory:
 observation
 Memorization
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8.  Iconic memory
 briefly stores an image which has been perceived
for a small duration.
 Echoic memory
 briefly stores sounds which has been perceived
for a small duration.
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9.  allows recall for a period of several seconds
to a minute without rehearsal.
 Its capacity is also very limited
 rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing
information,
 lesser extent a visual code.
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10.  issupported by transient patterns of
neuronal communication
 dependent on regions of the frontal lobe
(especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex)
and the parietal lobe.
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11.  are maintained by more stable and
permanent changes in neural connections
widely spread throughout the brain.
 The hippocampus is essential (for learning
new information) to the consolidation of
information from short-term to long-term
memory,
 Without the hippocampus, new memories are
unable to be stored into long-term memory
 regulated by DNA methylation
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12.  Atkinson-Shiffrin model (1968)
 Aka (Multi-Store Model)
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13.  Multi-Store Model
 is believed to be actually made up of
multiple subcomponents, such as:
 episodic and
 procedural memory.
 proposes that rehearsal is the only
mechanism by which information
eventually reaches long-term storage
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15.  Consistof three basic stores:
 1. central executive
 Act as attention
 Channels information
 2. phonological loop
 stores auditory information by silently
rehearsing sounds or words
 3.visuo-spatial sketchpad.
 stores visual and spatial information.
 In 2000 this model was expanded with the
multimodal episodic buffer
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16.  dedicatedto linking information across
domains to form integrated units of
 visual,
 spatial,
 verbal information and
 chronological ordering (e.g., the memory of a
story or a movie scene).
 assumedto have links to long-term memory
and semantical meaning.
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17.  1. Recognition memory tasks require individuals
to indicate whether they have encountered a
stimulus
 such as a picture or a word
 2. Recall memory tasks require participants to
retrieve previously learned information.
 For example, individuals might be asked to
produce a series of actions they have seen
before or to say a list of words they have heard
before.
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18.  1. Declarative memory
 requires conscious recall, in that some conscious
process must call back the information.
 It is sometimes called explicit memory, since it
consists of information that is explicitly stored
and retrieved.
 2. Procedural memory
 Aka “implicit memory”
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19.  semantic memory, which concerns facts
taken independent of context
 episodic memory which concerns information
specific to a particular context, such as a
time and place.
 Autobiographical memory - memory for
particular events within one's own life - is
generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a
subset of, episodic memory.
 Visual memory is part of memory preserving
some characteristics of our senses pertaining
to visual experience.
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20.  Aka. implicit memory
 is primarily employed in learning motor skills
 involved in motor learning depends on the
cerebellum and basal ganglia
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21.  isthe ability to orient oneself in space, to
recognize and follow an itinerary, or to
recognize familiar places
 The disorder could be caused by multiple
impairments, including difficulties with
perception, orientation, and memory
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22.  are clear episodic memories of unique and
highly emotional event. Remembering where
you were or what you were doing when you
first heard the news
 President Kennedy’s assassination or about 9/11
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23.  Retrospective memory
 as a category includes semantic, episodic and
autobiographical memory.
 Prospective memory
 is memory for future intentions, or remembering
to remember.
 Time-based prospective memories
 are triggered by a time-cue.
 can be further broken down into event- and
time-based prospective remembering.
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24.  Visual
paired comparison procedure (relies
on habituation):
 infants are first presented with pairs of visual
stimuli
 Operant conditioning technique:
 infants are placed in a crib and a ribbon that is
connected to a mobile overhead is tied to one of
their feet
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25.  Deferred imitation technique:
 an experimenter shows infants a unique
sequence of actions (such as using a stick to push
a button on a box) and then, after a delay, asks
the infants to imitate the actions.
 Elicited imitation technique:
 is very similar to the deferred imitation
technique; the difference is that infants are
allowed to imitate the actions before the delay
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26.  Paired associate learning - when one learns
to associate one specific word with another.
 Free recall - during this task a subject would
be asked to study a list of words and then
sometime later they will be asked to recall
or write down as many words that they can
remember.
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27.  Detection Paradigm- Individuals are shown a
number of objects and colors samples, during
a certain period of time.
 Recognition - subjects are asked to
remember a list of words or pictures, after
which point they are asked to identify the
previously presented words or pictures from
among a list of alternatives that were not
presented in the original list.
 Detection Paradigm- Individuals are shown a
number of objects and colors samples, during
a certain period of time.
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28. Brain areas involved in the neuro-
anatomy of memory such as:
• Hippocampus
• Spatial learning and declarative learning
• Amygdala
• Emotional memory
• striatum
• mammillary bodies
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29. Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as
• Retention
• Reactivation
• reconstruction of the experience-independent internal
representation
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30.  internal representation = implies that such
definition of memory contains two
components: the expression of memory at
the behavioral or conscious level, and the
underpinning physical neural changes.
 engram or memory traces
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31.  Encoding
 working memory
 episodic memory
 synaptic transmission
 long-term potentiation
 Working memory
 medial temporal lobe (MTL), a brain area
strongly associated with long-term memory, and
prefrontal cortex
 Consolidation and reconsolidation
 Short-term memory (STM)
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32. 6 months old
 could not encode, retain, and retrieve
information.
 only recall one step of a two-step sequence
 need approximately six exposures in order to be
able to remember it.
 14-month-olds
 can recall a three-step sequence after being
exposed to it once.
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33.  Memory loss is qualitatively different in
normal aging from the kind of memory loss
associated with a diagnosis of Alzheimer's
(Budson & Price, 2005).
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34.  Amnesia = memory loss
 Parkinson's disease
 Alzheimer disease = neurological d’r
affecting memory/cognition
 Hyperthymesia = affects autobiographical
memory
 Korsakoff's syndrome = amnesic
confabulatory syndrome
 tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
 Anomic aphasia = temporary failure of word
retrieval
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35.  Influence of odors and emotions
 Interference from previous knowledge
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36.  Recall:to recall means to supply or
reproduce facts or information.
 Recognition: is usually superior to recall.
E.g. multiple-choice test because you
recognize correct answer.
 Relearning: is typically the most sensitive
measure of memory. It may seem that
learning algebra, history, or a foreign
language is wasted if you don't use the
knowledge immediately
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37.  Knowledge of results: learning proceeds best
when feedback, that allows you to check
your progress.
 Recitation: recitation means summarizing
aloud while you are learning.
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38.  Selection: if you boil down the paragraphs in most
textbooks to one or two important terms or ideas, your
memory will be more manageable.
 Rehearsal: the more you rehearse as you read, the
better you will remember it.
 Cues the best memory cues (stimuli that aid retrieval)
are those that were present during encoding.
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39.  Whole versus part learning: Generally, it is better
to practice whole packages of information rather than
smaller parts.
 Organization: simple reordering or organizing can be
helpful.
 Serial position whenever you must learn something
in order, be aware of the serial position effect.
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40.  Spaced practice: to keep boredom and fatigue
to a minimum, try alternating short study sessions
with brief rest period.
 Over learning: after you have learned material
well enough to remember it once without error,
you should continue studying.
 Extend how long you remember: when you are
learning new information, test yourself repeatedly.
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41.  Hunger: People who are hungry almost always
score lower on memory tests.
 Sleep: remember that sleeping after study
reduces interference.
 Review : if you have spaced your practice and
overlearned, reviewing shortly before an exam help to
remember details.
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42.  Encoding Failure
 Decay
 Cue-dependent forgetting
 Interference
 Repression
 Suppression
 Amnesia
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43.  Encoding - transforming incoming information into a usable form
 state-dependent learning - fact that a bodily state that exists
during learning can be a strong cue
 Elaborative rehearsal – concentrates on the meaning of
information you want to remember
 proactive interference -The tendency for prior learning to inhibit
recall of later learning
 Echo - Things that are briefly heard in the sensory register.
 Recognition –
 Implicit memory – memories outside of conscious awareness.
 Icon - image that persists for about one-half second after being
seen.
 Hippocampus - part of the brain that functions as a "switching
station" between the STM and LTM.
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44.  Limitless - storage capacity of long-term memory.
 Psychologists have concluded that long-term memories fall
into the following two categories - procedural memory and
fact memory.
 Decay theories of memory loss seem to be most
appropriate for: short-term memory and sensory memory.
 sensory memory - first step in placing information into
memory storage.
 semantic memory - general knowledge section of the
intelligence test for adults
 Storage - process of holding information
 Working memory is associated with short term memory
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46.  Carlson, Neil R. (2010). Psychology: the Science of Behaviour. Pearson.
 Sperling, G (1963). "A Model for Visual Memory Tasks".
http://hfs.sagepub.com/content/5/1/19.short#cited-by 5 (1): 19–31.
 Cowan, N. (2001). "The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A
reconsideration of mental storage capacity". Behavioral and Brain
Sciences 24: 97–185.
 Miller, G.A.(1956), The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two:
Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Information. Psychological
Review, 63, 81-97..
 Conrad, R. (1964). "Acoustic Confusions in Immediate Memory". British
Journal of Psychology 55: 75–84.
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