Development study notes

DS 103
DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES

COURSE OUTLINE
• Course Description
• This course focuses on the concept of
development, development theories and aspects
of practices in the real world.
• Also the course exposes students to problems and
contemporary issues of development in general.
• Equally important is the interplay between theory
and practice and the outcome of this relationship

• The course provides a comprehensive
survey of development thinking from
‘classical’ development ideas to alternative
and post-development theories.
• The course then attempts to critically
review contemporary debates about
development, including the link between
modernity and development, participation,
empowerment, gender and the role of the
development practitioner.

• Contemporary practical themes that arise in
this course, such as trade, food sovereignty,
and corporate social responsibility will be
explored in greater detail in this course.
Course objective
• To develop a critical and creative thinking,
problem solving, interdisciplinary research
and inquiry collaboration and leadership skill

Learning outcomes
Upon completion of the course, the student
should be able to:
• Analyze social economic theories and their
implications to the development in Africa and
Tanzania in particular
• Analyze the dynamics of Tanzania
development plans/strategies and
implementation in development processes
• Describe the challenges and opportunities as
raised in the global development agendas
(MDGs and SDGs)

Course Policies
Punctual attendance is required at all
classes.
All assignments and class tests must be
handed in at the designated date.
• Late assignments will only be accepted if
lateness is due to poor health or other
emergencies that must be documented.
Plagiarism and other forms of academic
dishonesty will not be tolerated, and could
result in a fail grade for the course.

Course Content
INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENT AND
DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
What is Development?
Development in Africa
What is poverty?
What is Development Studies?

THEORIES OF SOCIAL ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
What is Theory?
Marxist Theory and Conflict
Bourgeois/Orthodox/Modernization Theory
of development
Rostow’s Theory of Underdevelopment
Nurkses Vicious Circle of Poverty
Modernization Theory Vs Dependency
Theory

DEVELOPMENT ETHICS
Ethics and Development Ethics
Development Ethics in the Public Arena
Ethical development policy and practice
Poverty, Powerlessness and Voiceless
Development and Human Security
Pro Poor Development Development
Ethics in Health Services Provition

GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT AGENDA
(GOALS): NEW AND EMERGING ISSUES
IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Why do we need Goals and who needs the Goals?
Strategies and Plans in Tanzania
Millennium Development Goals (MGDs)
Major Changes since 2000
Post 2015 Global Development Goal (Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs)
Challenges for Sustainable Development in Tanzania
Measures Implemented to Address New and
Emerging Challenges

GOOD GOVERNANCE AND
DEVELOPMENT
Governance and Good governance
Characteristics of Good Governance
Good Governance and Development
Public Service Governance
Principles of Governance in Public
Services
Civil Society Organization and Good
Governance

PEACE, CONFLICT AND DEVELOPMENT
• Conflict and Peace
• Conflict Prevention and Peace Building
• The Linkages between Development, Peace-
building and Conflict Prevention
• Conflict Resolution: Judicial Settlement or
Legal Method of Dispute Resolution
(Litigation) Vs Alternative Dispute Resolution
(ADR)
• International, Continental, and Regional
Organisations in the Pursuance of World
Peace

DECENTRALIZATION AND
PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT
Devcentralization and Development
Types of Decentralization
Decentralization and Participation

GLOBALIZATION, TRADE
LIBERALIZATION AND PRIVATIZATION
Defining and Conceptualizing
Globalization and Development
Privatization and Development
Aid and Development Aid

GENDER AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
Basic Gender concept
Schools of thought in Gender and
Development
Policy Approaches to to Women’s Projects
in Third World Countries
Development and HIV/AIDS

INTRODUCTION
TO
DEVELOPMENT
AND
DEVELOPMENT
STUDIES

What is Development?
• For almost every writer a different
definition of development exists
• Important to first distinguish between:
a) Development as a state or condition-
static
b) Development as a process or course
of change- dynamic

Defining development
In a simplest definition development is about social change
that allows people to achieve their human potential.
Development is a political term: it has a range of meanings
that depend on the context in which the term is used, and it
may also be used to reflect and to justify a variety of different
agendas held by different people or organizations.
The idea of development articulated by the World Bank, for
instance, is very different from that promoted by Greenpeace
activists. This point has important implications for the task of
understanding sustainable development, because much of the
confusion about the meaning of the term 'sustainable
development' arises because people hold very different ideas
about the meaning of 'development' (Adams 2009).

Definition Cont….
Development is a process rather than an outcome: it is
dynamic in that it involves a change from one state or
condition to another.
Ideally, such a change is a positive one - an
improvement of some sort (for instance, an
improvement in maternal health).
Development is often regarded as something that is
done by one group (such as a development agency) to
another (such as rural farmers in a developing
country).
Development is a political process, because it raises
questions about who has the power to do what to
whom.

• According to Todaro, defined
• Development is not purely an economic
phenomenon but rather a multi-
dimensional process involving
reorganization and reorientation of entire
economic and social system
• Development is process of improving
the quality of all human lives with three
equally important aspects.

• These are:
1. Raising peoples’ living levels, i.e.
incomes and consumption,
levels of food,
medical services,
education
• through relevant growth processes

2. Creating conditions conducive to the
growth of peoples’ self-esteem/respect
through the
establishment of social, political and
economic systems and institutions which
promote human dignity and respect
3. Increasing peoples’ freedom to choose
by enlarging the range of their choice
variables, e.g. varieties of goods and
services

Alternative Interpretations of
Development (Mabogunje)
Development as Economic Growth
• Too often commodity output as opposed to
people is emphasized-measures of growth
in GNP.
Development as Modernization
• Emphasizes process of social change
which is required to produce economic
advancement;
• Examines changes in social, psychological
and political processes;

• Many Geographers now link to Social
Conditions and improvements in Human
Welfare e.g. greater wealth, better education,
health etc.
• Environmental issues are also important. E.g.
Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro 1992 examined
the whole issue of Environmental
Sustainability in relation to development.

Therefore development can be concluded that
• As a Vision: a vision or description of how
desirable a society is. The visions of
development briefing explores these further.
• As a historical process: social change that
takes place over long periods of time due to
inevitable processes.
• As Action: deliberate efforts to change things
for the better.

Indicators of Development
There are hundreds of indictors but are
condensed into:
1. Economic,
2. Political and
3. Social indicators of development

Indicators… Cont
• Economic growth may be one aspect of
economic development but is not the
same
• Economic growth:
–A measure of the value of output of
goods and services within a time period
• Economic Development:
–A measure of the welfare of humans in a
society

Economic Growth
• Using measures of economic performance in terms of the
value of income, expenditure and output
• GDP – Gross Domestic Product
– The value of output produced within a country during a
time period
• GNP – Gross National Product
– The value of output produced within a country plus net
property income from abroad (or income from foreign
investments)
• GDP/GNP per head/per capita
– Takes account of the size of the population

Social Indicators
• Social measures of development use
a wide range of information and
include health, education, gender
equality and access to democracy.
• The most commonly used measure of
social development is the Human
Development Index (HDI) produced
by the United Nations Development
Programme.

Social Indicators Cont…..
• This considers the three most important
measures of development to be
 Longevity (average life expectancy –
years)
Education (2/3 adult literacy); 1/3 combined
school enrollment rate
GDP per capita (PPP US$)

Political Indicators
• Political freedom,
• Human rights
• Labor rights,
• Democratization
• Political participation

Development in Africa
• Africa is Huge & Diverse Continent 2nd
Largest in World, 54 countries, over 1000
Languages/ethnic groups, with rich natural
resources
• African Regions (5-categories- East, West,
Central, North, and Southern, the Horn of
Africa
• According to World Bank, Africa is divided into
5 categories based into income classification -
• Colonial Experience- see table 2.6-All African
States were former colonies of Europe, except
Ethiopia

Economic Diversity in Africa
• Basic indicators of development show income
diversity ranging from per capita income of $10,600
in Seychelles and about $8,000 in Botswana, and
$448 in Rwanda in terms of PPP measure.
• GDP is highly correlated with other indicators of
human development such as life expectancy, infant
mortality, and Education. How?
• Africa’s economies are poor due to bad or misguided
policies, aid dependence, and high population
growth, in spite of potential in natural resources.

• Most of the problems in Africa are human-
made problems with very few are natural
Mostly these problems are the results of
• tribalism, superstition, gender inequality, the
education system, poverty, lack of self-
confidence,
• economic dependence, corrupt leadership,
disease and lack of health care, complex, and
arms and militarism.

• misappropriation of public funds,
colonialism and neo-colonialism, religion,
selfishness, genocide, ethnic cleansing
and wars, fear and lack of identity,
inferiority
• With this regard development should
encompasate;
People;
Their cultures
their potentials

Development in Africa seems to
be ‘Development Without’
• According to the 1993 UNICEF State of the
World’s Children, there are seven deadly sins
of development, most of which have been
committed in the previous decades of
development:

Development in africa is seems to be
• development without infrastructure
• development without participation
• development without women
• development without empowerment
• development without the poor
• development without the do-able
• development without mobilization.

Development Discourse
The argument here is that
• Development has been defined as
synonymous with ‘modernity’ which is
presented in the discourse as a superior
condition.
• This means development constructed in
the North as ‘modernity’ and imposed on
the South.
• Thus, it is argued, the South is viewed as
‘inferior’.

• For example, ‘traditional’ or non-
modern/non-Western approaches to
medicine, or other aspects of society, are
perceived as ‘inferior’.
• Edward Said,
• who has developed some of these ideas,
argues that
• political–intellectual representations of the
‘Third World’ have been integral to
subordinating the Third World through the
concept of ‘Orientalism’

What is Development Studies
• A development study is a multidisciplinary
branch of social science which addresses
issues of concern to developing countries.
• It has historically placed a particular focus
on issues related to social and economic
development, and
• its relevance may therefore extend to
communities and regions outside of the
developing world.

• The initial emphasis falls on the rather
diverse concept of poverty and all its
manifestations.
• This subject addresses the numerous
global challenges that are faced in the
developing world and identifies the
possible solutions
• Development Studies deals with
development efforts through reform,
capacity building and empowerment
(Kamanzi, 2010).

Why Development Studies
• Development studies is a course which uses
an interdisciplinary approach to examine
development processes.
• Development studies course is aimed at
providing us with an analytical tool to carry
out a critical and in-depth analysis of our
situation.
• Highlights the increasing reality that an
effective understanding of the process of
development is vital.

• This subject endeavours to create "new
professionalism" among those involved in
development that will enable people at the
grassroots level to take responsibility for
their own development.
• Finally, this subject can give context and
understanding for the person not directly
involved in development, but nonetheless
fulfilling a function in developing countries.

The subject matter of
Development Studies
• Previously Development Studies was a
shared interest in ‘less developed
countries’, or ‘developing countries’, or ‘the
South’, or ‘post-colonial societies’,(1950’s
and 1960’s) formerly known as ‘the Third
World’,.
• Currently the concerns of Development
Studies extend beyond developing
countries.

• This is because development studies
deals with issues such as:
Poverty and wealth is in every country.
Economic growth
Inequalities
Life expectancy
Dependence ratio etc….
• Of which every country in the world is of
concern

CHAPTER TWO
THEORIES OF SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
 What is Theory?
 Marxist Theory and Conflict
Bourgeois/Orthodox/Modernization Theory
of development
Rostow’s Theory of Underdevelopment
Nurkses Vicious Circle of Poverty
Modernization Theory Vs Dependency
Theory

Theory of Social development
What is a Theory
 A Theory is a statement or group of
statements established by reasoned argument
based on known facts, intended to explain a
particular fact or event.
 OR a formal idea or set of ideas that is
intended to explain something (Collins English
Dictionary, 2010).

Social Development Theory
cont…….
 In this regard, a theory of social development
is aimed at explaining the process of social
development.

Social Development Theory
……cont
 As social scientists we need a set of working
assumptions to guide us in our study of
understanding the dynamics of social
development.
 These assumptions will help in determining
and suggesting which problems are worth
investigating and they offer a framework for
interpreting the results of our findings on
development.
•

Marxist Theory of Social
Development
• Marxist theory is commonly known as
Marxism
• The founder of Marxist theory was Karl Marx,
a German philosopher who lived during the
nineteenth century in Europe.
What is Marxism?
• Marxism is a philosophy of history as well as
an economic doctrine.

The Marxist Theory of Social
Development cont….
• The founder of Marxist theory was Karl Marx,
a German philosopher who lived during the
19thC in Europe.
• Marx lived during a period when the
overwhelming majority of people in industrial
societies were poor.
• This was the early period of industrialization in
such nations as England, Germany, and the
United States.

• Those who owned and controlled the factories
and other means of production exploited the
masses that worked for them.
• The rural poor were forced or lured into cities
where employment was available in the
factories and workshops of the new industrial
economies.
• In this way the rural poor were converted into
urban poor.
• In the United States, children some as young
as five or six years old, were employed in the
cotton mills of the of the South.

• They worked 12 hours a day at the machines,
six and seven days a week (Lipsey and Steiner,
1975), and received only a subsistence wage.
• The "iron law of wages”-the philosophy that
justified paying workers only enough money
to keep them alive-prevailed during this early
period of industrialization.
• Meanwhile, those who owned the means of
production possessed great wealth, power,
and prestige.

• Marx tried to understand the institutional
framework that:.
- Development of society, may be seen as
the history of class conflict:
- the conflict between those who own and
control the means of production and
those who work for them-the exploiters
and the exploited.

• According to Marx ownership of the means of
production in any society determines the
distribution of wealth, power, and even ideas
in that society.
• The power of the wealthy is derived not just
from their control of the economy but from
their control of the political, educational, and
religious institutions as well.

Main Elements within Marxism
1. The dialectical Approach: This is a class
struggle to knowledge and society defines
the nature of reality as dynamic and
conflictual.
• Changes are due to class struggle and the
working out of contradictions inherent in
social and political phenomena. .

2. Materialist Approach to History: The
development of productive forces and
economic activities is central to historical
change and operates through the class
struggle.
• Struggle over distribution of the social
product/surplus- The primacy of class
struggle.
• Thus Marx made class domination central to
his conception of social order, and class
conflict a defining feature of change in society.

To Marx, the fundamental division in every
society is that:
• between the exploiters and the exploited,
• between the owners of the means of
production those who have to sell their labor
to the owners to earn a living.
• Society is more and more splitting up into two
hostile camps, directly facing each other:
• bourgeoisie and proletariat.

Marx's 5 Stages of Development
of Society
Marx identified 5 stages of development of society.
1. Primitive Communalism/Communal Mode of
Production:
• It marks the rise of society from sheer animal to
human society.
• Productive Forces: The instruments of labour
were crude, underdeveloped.
• Due to this the primitive man was unable to
engage in production alone i.e.

• without the help of others.
Ownership of the means of production was
communal owned.
Relations of production were collective; people
lived together and jointly conducted their
economy for survival.
Labour productivity: Was low with no surplus.
• There was equal distribution of the products

Organization: No classes and therefore no
states, kingdoms etc. People organized
themselves in clan or family.
It is notable that at this stage there are no
classes and no class struggles.

2. Feudalism/Feudal Mode of Production
• Emergence of surplus in production and the
emergence of classes
• This mode of production was based on class
antagonism- Conflict/struggle between
opposing classes.
• Was based on private property in land, it
consisted of two classes: the landowners and
the serfs.
• Serfs were not slaves because they had a land
holding to build their shelters.

• They rented this land holding from the
landlord.
• However, the serfs owned their means of
labour
• The landlords exploited the serfs and the serfs
struggled to free themselves from this
exploitative relationship.
• Contradictions and growing class struggle led
to the disintegration of feudalism.

3. Capitalism.
• Emerged as the result of the Industrial
revolution in Europe
• Capitalism led to the emergence of
commodity production.
• Under capitalist commodity production, all
products became commodities being
produced for exchange.
• Human labour also became a commodity.
• Private ownership of means of production is a
basic characteristic of capitalism

• Relations of production are exploitative:
• capitalists- who are owners of means of
production, exploit the workers.
• The working class is exploited by selling their
labour power.
• According to Marxists, capitalist economies
expand through export of capital and this
become a driving force for imperialist
expansion
• The contradictions between capital and labour
lead to the downfall of capitalism.

4. Socialism
• Logical stage of social development after
mature capitalism.
• It is the consequence of the growth of
productive forces.
• Socialism establishes the dictatorship of
the proletariat/working class
• Public ownership and control of the
major means of production and
distribution.

• All means of production are in the hands of the
working class
• Relations of production are non-
antagonistic/non-exploitative relations.
• There is no exploitation of any man’s labour by
any other man.

5. Communism
• This is the highest level of social development
• Absence of exploitative relations of
production
• In a communist or socialist economy,
investment and consumption are primarily
determined by the national plan.

Criticisms to Marxist Theory of
Social Development
• Marxist theory is criticized for concentrating
too much on conflict - class struggle and
change and too little on what produces
stability in society.
• They are also criticized for being too
ideologically based.
• Marxist theory is descriptive and predictive of
social life

Bourgeois/Orthodox/Modernization
Theories of Development
• Most Bourgeois theorists argue that countries
pass through phases during the course of
development.
• To most bourgeois theorists development is
commonly defined as gradual advance or
growth through progressive changes.
• In other words to develop implies a move
from one stage to another- a higher stage
than the previous stage (Rostow, 1960)).

• The basic argument of this theory is that the
society changes from a traditional form to a
modern form
• Thus, development means striving towards a
modern society.
• Western Europe and the U.S.A has come to
this

Major Features of Modernization
Theories
• Development i.e. modernization
• Path to development- only through capitalism
and industrialization
• Development- essentially (linear process)
• Development process-stage by stage
• Development can be stimulated either by
“internal dynamics or “external forces”
• Economic growth is both the means and end
in this process.

Cont…..
• Examples of the bourgeois theories of
development include
- Rostow’s Stages of economic growth
- Nurkse's Vicious Circle of Poverty and

Rostow’s Stages of Economic
Growth
• Rostow’s stage of growth model is the best
known bourgeois view of historical
development.
• In his book, The Stages of Economic Growth
in 1960 presents a political theory

Rostow’s stages are distinguished by
consideration of the stages
• Productive capacity and technology
• Manufacturing industry
• Transport
• Savings and investment and trade

Rostow’s 5 Stages of Growth
1. The “traditional society”
2. The emergence of the pre-conditions for take-
off
3. The “take-off' (transitional stage) – The “take –
off” is meant to be the central notion in
Rostow’s schema and has received the most
attention.
• The drive to maturity
• The age of high mass consumption

I: The Traditional Society
• A traditional society is one whose structure is
developed within limited production function
characterized by;
- Very little production.
- Men had little knowledge of the outside
world
- Low level of science and technology

- their resources was devoted to agriculture.
-A high proportion of the workforce is
also engaged in agriculture
- Family and clan/tribal connections played
a large role in social organization.
- The unit of production was the family.

2: Emergence of the Pre-Conditions for
“Take-off” (Transitional Stage)
• The stage between traditonal and take-off
Rostow calls the transitional stage and
characterized by the following:
- level of investment should be raised to at
least 10 per cent of national income to
ensure self-sustaining growth.
- Advance of modern science
- Improvement of infrastructures

2. Emergence of the Pre-Conditions for
“Take-off” (Transitional Stage

3. The “Take-Off”:
• The Take-off is a decisive transition in a
society’s history
• The Take-off is a period “when the scale of
productive economic activity reaches a critical
level
• The Take-off is a period leads to a massive and
progressive structural transformation in
economies and the societies of which they are
part.

Take off ….Cont…
• The Take-off may also come about through a
technological
• The Take-off may take the form of a newly
favorable international environment

4. The Drive to Maturity
• Is characterized by continual investments
• New forms of industries emerge e.g electrical
engineering, chemical or mechanical
engineering
• As a consequences of this transformation
social and economic prosperity increases.
• Generally the “Drive to Maturity” stage starts
60 years later after the “Take-off” stage in
Europe

• Import decreases and replace by home
indigenous production.
• Reduction in poverty and rising standard of
living.

5. Age of High Mass Consumption
• This is the final step in Rostow’s five stage of
economic development
• Here most of parts of the society lives in
prosperity and persons living in this societies
are offered both at abundance and multiplicity
of choices .

5. Age of High Mass Consumption

Age of High Mass Consumption
Cont…….
• Large number of persons gained command
over consumption which transcended basic
foods, shelter, and clothing.
• Use of automobiles, electric powered
household gadgets, luxurious goods increases.
• Structure of working force changed.

Age of High Mass Consumption
Cont…….
• Increase in urbanization.
• Skill oriented jobs .
• Allocation of resources for welfare of the
society and environment concerns.

Criticism on the Rostow’ Model
• Rostow’s theory assumes that the conditions,
which allowed western countries to
industrialize (and thus develop), would be
identical to young independent states
• Necessity of a financial infrastructure to
channel any savings that are made into
investments
• Will such investment yield growth? Not
necessarily

Criticism on Rostow’ Model
• Efficiency of use of investments – in
productive activities?
• Need for other infrastructure – human
resources (education), roads, rail,
communications networks
• Rostow argued economies would learn from
one another and reduce the time taken to
develop – has this happened?

Criticism on Rostow’Model
• The characteristics that Rostow distinguishes
for his different stage are not unique to those
stages

Criticism on Rostow’Model
Critics of Kuznets
• First, there is the difficulty of empirically
testing the theory.
• Rostow's description of the characteristics of
some of the stages are not sufficiently specific
to define the relevant empirical evidence even
if data were available.

Critics of Kuznets
• Kuznets seems to be calling into question the
whole of Rostow's scientific method and is
claiming as unscientific
• This, of course, goes on in many branches of
economics and the social sciences, making
propositions tautological.

Rostow’s Theory on Underdevelopment
• Application of Rostow's model as a framework
to development the developed countries were
once underdeveloped and that all countries
move through all these stages of growth.
• This, as historical experience indicates is not
the case for many third world countries,
particularly African countries that suffered
from slavery and colonialism.

Rostow’s Theory on Underdevelopment
• The persistence of underdevelopment in the
world economy poses some problems that
were absent in earlier cases of successful
development.
• It is difficult to situate African countries in
Rostow’s stages of development
N.B: Do you think Rostow’ stages of economic
growth relevant to development in the context
of Tanzania?

Nurkse's Vicious Circle of Poverty
• Ragnar Nurkse (1907 – 1959) was a prominent
economist professor who attempted to examine
problems of capital formation in
underdeveloped countries.
• Nurkse’s theory expresses the circular
relationships that afflict both the demand and
the supply side of the problem of capital
formation in economically backward areas.

• Nurkse stresses the role of savings and capital
formation in economic development.
.
• According to Nurkse a society is poor because
it is poor.
• A society with low income has both levels of
savings and low levels of consumption.

Nurkse's Vicious Circle of Poverty
Low Savings
Low
Consumption
Low
Investment
Lack of
markets
Inability to
productive
capacity
Low Income

Relevance of Nurkse’s Theory
• Third world countries, particularly those in
Africa, are locked in a vicious circle of poverty
the historical causes of poverty are not
underlined by Nurkse’s theory.
• Thus Nurkse's theory, like that of Rostow, only
succeeds in indicating the extent of
poverty/backwardness of the underdeveloped
countries

What is Poverty?
Oxford English Dictionary
• The condition or quality of being poor.
• The condition of having little or no wealth or
material possessions;
• Deficiency, lack, scantiness, dearth, scarcity;
smallness of amount.
• Want of or deficiency in some property, quality, or
ingredient; the condition of being poorly supplied
with something.
• Poor condition of body; leanness or feebleness
resulting from insufficient nourishment, or the like.

• Poverty is multidimensional
 Deprivation in income, illiteracy, malnutrition,
mortality, morbidity, access to water and
sanitation, vulnerability to economic shocks.
 Income deprivation is linked in many cases to
other forms of deprivation, but do not always
move together with others.
•

Poverty is defined in different ways as
follows:
 According to World Bank (2000) poverty is
pronounced deprivation of people’s wellbeing.
 Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-
being, and comprises many dimensions.
• According to Mahatma Gandhi poverty is the
worst form of violence where people have
been deprived of their security and wellbeing
including social services such as food,
clothing, shelter, education and health

Poverty Cont……
• According to WHO poverty is defined as a
disease that eats people’s mind, erodes their
thinking capacity and drives individuals into
total despair.
• It is a disease that blocks individual’s ability to
enjoy their well-being, erodes humanity and
turns them into mere animals.

Critique of Bourgeois /Modernization
Theories
• Bourgeois/modernization theories fail to
explain the structure and development of
the capitalist system as a whole and to
account for its simultaneous generation of
underdevelopment in some parts and of
economic development in others

Critique of Bourgeois /Modernization
Theories
• They look at the symptoms but do not
adequately explain the causes of these
symptoms and consequently they are unable to
come out with any meaningful solution to the
problem of underdevelopment/absence of
development.

Bourgeois Theorists and Marxists
Theories: A Comparative Analysis
Similarities.
• Both attempts to interpret the evolution of
whole societies primarily from an
economic perspective.
• Both recognize that economic change has
social, political and cultural consequences

Differences between Rostow and Marxist
analysis:
Marxist Rostow
Marx highlights the problems of class conflicts,
exploitation and inherent stresses within the
capitalist process.
Rostow and other bourgeois theorists ignore
these aspects
The Marxists development involves people,
class relations/class struggle.
Rostow avoids the Marxian assertion that the
behavior of societies is uniquely determined
by economic considerations.
Karl Marx also did not give particular attention
to the African situation i.e. what kinds of
classes existed in Africa, the nature of the
relations of production, the class struggle in
Africa
In general Rostow and other bourgeois
theorist's outlook of development is that
many things are involved in the process of
development: markets, resources,
infrastructures, organization,
Entrepreneurship and investments. These
are related to one another.

Dependency Theories of Development
and Under Development
Basic Features of Underdevelopment:
• Different authors have described the process of
dependency.
• These include Frank (1969), Palma (1978),
Evans (1979), Szentes (1970), Gilbert and
Haralambidis (1973) and others pointed out the
basic features of underdevelopment:

• The economic system of the
underdeveloped countries is dependent
upon foreign trade and foreign
investment.
• Dependency on imported technology and
finance is very great and is, furthermore,
increasing at a rapid rate.
• Underdevelopment expresses a particular
relationship of exploitation.

• General features of underdevelopment include
poverty, low labour productivity, backward
technology, inadequate equipment, science,
technology and a heavy dependence upon a
primitive agrarian sector.
• Underdevelopment also manifests itself in
cultural, military and economic aspects.

Arguments of Dependency Theorists on
Underdevelopment:
• Dependency theorists are concerned with the whole
relationship between advanced countries and third
world.
• Dependency theorists concentrate on explaining the
fundamental specific flows of modernization
approaches.
• A central argument of the dependency school is that
dependence generates underdevelopment

Arguments cont…..
• Dependency theorists argue that the
underdeveloped state of third world countries
was attributed not to the fact that they were at
an earlier stage of history than the advanced
countries, but to the fact that the impact of the
advanced countries on the third world had
caused their underdevelopment.

Critique of Dependency Theory
• The theory neglecting the role of contemporary
internal political and economic conditions.
• The ultimate causes of underdevelopment are
not identified apart from the thesis that they
originate in a c.
• So much stress is put on the external obstacles
to development that the problem of how to
initiate a development process, once these
obstacles were removed, was rather neglected

Critique Cont….
• Dependency analysis neglects the
anthropological level of analysis, i.e. the local
community. What happens at the local level is
in dependency theory a reflection of processes
going on in a remote center.

Changing Theoretical Approaches to the
Study of African Development
• Goran Hyden (1994) points out that one of the
most striking things about the development
debate in Africa is how little it has been
shaped by political leaders and persons

• Goran argues that it is the international
community that has helped set the African
development agenda.
• It is to the ideological perspective of the donor
community that Africa has to respond.
• Goran Hyden identifies four shifts in
development theory during the past forty years
or so.

1: Structural Functionalism
• Pulling together various threads in non-
Marxist social science,
• This theory implied that societies regardless of
their peculiarities inherently perform the same
basic functions, but they are differentiated in
terms of which structures perform these
functions.

• Structural functionalism was built on the
assumption that development is a linear
evolution, involving structural differentiations
and cultural secularization.

• Structures were the facilitators of
development.
• Structural functionalism was meant to be a
counter point to the Universalist ambitions of
Marxist theory.
• By the second part of the 1960s, the critique of
structural functionalism had grown to such an
extent that its leading role was in question.
• A careful scrutiny of its basic premises
suggested that they were untenable.
• Future development theory had to seek its
inspiration from other sources.

2: Neo-Marxist Political Economy
• Are leading advocates of the dependency
theory.
• Neo Marxists attempt to apply Marxism to
advance Marxist political economy on a “new’
framework to suit existing conditions.
• Neo Marxists provide a critique to structural
functionalism.
• They argue that structural functionalism was
naive in assuming that development is the best
pursued in conditions of social harmony or
equilibrium.

• To the neo-Marxists, development grows out
of conflict, notably those stemming from
changes in the material conditions of life.
• Furthermore, structures are not only
facilitating but are also constraining, holding
back human potential.
• Neo-Marxists stressed the international
character of these structural constraints, and
• hence the need for the poor countries of the
world to emancipate themselves from their
dependence on the richer countries.

• Class analysis, in its orthodox form (Marxism),
was also brought back into development
theory.
• Drawing much of its inspiration from Frantz
Fanon’s scathing critique of the new leaders in
third world countries (1963), this analysis
focused primarily on the weakness of ruling
classes in these countries.
• An example of this analysis is Issa Shivji’s
account of the class struggles in Tanzania
(1975), where he ridicules the ‘petty-
bourgeoisie’ and makes heroes of the
country’s suppressed workers and peasants.

3: Neo-Liberal Political Economy
• Foremost of these was the neo-liberal ‘rational
choice’ theory which began its impact on
development theory in the latter part of the
1970s.
• Contrary to both structural functionalism and
neo-Marxist political economy, this new theory
stressed the importance of individual actors.
• To them development is the aggregate outcome
of a multitude of individual decisions.

• Operating in a market context, people make
their own decisions in a voluntary fashion.
Samuel Popkin (1979) and Robert Bates
(1981) are among the leading neo-liberals.
• Theirs is essentially a theory of the market.

4: The New Institutionalism
• This theoretical approach is concerned with
‘institutions’, the layer between individual
actors and societal structures.
• The theory retains what is largely a voluntarist
perspective, but argue that social action is
primarily integrative, aimed at going beyond
self -interest.
• This theoretical perspective corresponds to the
ideological concern with an ‘enabling
environment’.

TOPIC THREE
DEVELOPMENT ETHICS

DEVELOPMENT ETHICS
By the end of the topic you should be able to
give :
• The meaning of Development Ethics
• Source of Development Ethics
• Area of Consensus in Development Ethics
• Controversies in Development Ethics

WHAT IS ETHICS
• Moral philosophy
• These are code of moral principles which set
standards of good, bad, right and wrong.
• It is a principle values and belief that define
right and wrong decisions and behavior
• The achievement of wisdom, choosing actions
that are benefical and acceptable long term; or
sustainable. This implies a society focus.

What is Ethics………..Cont
• Therefore Ethics
is considered as a
philosophical
study of moral
judgments and
about what is right
and what is wrong

What is Morals
These are beliefs and behaviour of group. The
group can be:
• Nation, or geographical area
• Group of nations
• Religious or life view groups, and subgroups
• Profession or similar
• Other organisation, e.g. sports, clan, NGO...
N.B: In an international organisation there can be
many morals

Forms of Ethics
1. Metaethics (what is good? etc)
2. Normative ethics (what should we do?)
3. Applied ethics (how do we apply ethics to
work and lives?)
4. Moral psychology (the biological and
psychological bases)
5. Descriptive ethics (what morals people
follow)

Codes of ethics
Applying ethics to a profession or discipline,
examples:
• ICT
• Engineering
• Medicine
• Law
• Journalism
• Psychology

1: Symmetrical Ethics
• Do to others what you want them to do to you.
• If you demand from others, demand the same
from yourself (perhaps more if you are a
leader).
• See yourself as the other (good even for
design!).

2: Assymetrical Ethics
• When one party has more
resources, knowledge,
power
• Often in professions
(engineering, nursing,
law...)
• Need to be careful
(professional!)
• Need to be considerate

3: Instrumental Ethics
• Ethics an instrument for achieving something
else.
• Not based on principles or conviction.
• Include values such as honest, forgiving,
courageous, intelectual, cheerful, capable,
broadminded

4: Principle Based Ethics
Based on principles like:
• We want to deliver first class design
• We want to be best in our discipline
• We will contribute to society
• We consider ecological impact
• We contribute to environmentalism

5: Compliance Ethics
• Within existing laws, standards, guidelines,
morals
• May need a ”compliance officer” in large
organisations- e.g. what does it mean to
«follow standard»?
• Ensures that organisation ”does no wrongs”,
but difficult

5: POSITIVE ETHICS
Contributing positively to:
• Organisation
• Profession
• Society
• Environment
• and other stakeholder

ETHICS APPLIES TO:
• Development practioners
• Professional duties
• Employee care
• Customer care, and supplier responsibilities
• Environment care
• Ownership (price, value, opportunities..)
• Financing

WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT ETHICS
1. Development ethics’ can be seen as a
field of attention, an agenda of
questions about major value choices
involved in processes of social and
economic development.
• What is good or 'real’ development?

• How are those benefits and corresponding
costs to be shared, within the present
generation and between generations?
• Who decides and how? What rights of
individuals should be respected and
guaranteed?

2. Development ethics is the body of work that
has tried to address such questions, and the
sets of answers that are offered.
3.Development ethics is the stream of work that
has in addition highlighted a development
ethics agenda and tried to institutionalize the
field, in publications, scholarly associations,
networks and courses.

DEVELOPMENT ETHICS
• The International Development Ethics
Association was formed in 1987
(http://www.development-ethics.org/).

Source of Development Ethics
There are four sources of development ethics
which include:
1. Beginning from 1940: Activists and
social critics – such as Mohandas
Gandhi in India , Raul Prebisch in Latin
America and Frantz Fanon in Africa-
criticized colonial and orthodox
economic development

SOURCES OF DEVELOPMENT ETHICS
CONT…..
2. In the early 1960s- American Denis Goulet-
influenced by French economist Louis- Joseph
Lebret and social scientists such as Gunner
Myrdal- has argued that development needs to
be redefined demystified and thrust into the
arena of moral debate.
3. Efforts of Anglo-American moral philosophers
to deepen and broaden philosophical debate
about famine relief and food aid.

SOURCES CONT……..
• In the early 1970s in response to Poter
Siuger’s useful arguments for famine
relief (1972) and Gurrett Hardins “
lifeboat ethics” (1974).
• Many philosophers debated on whether
affluent nations (or their citizens) have
moral obligations to aid starving people
in poor countries and they do.

SOURCES…….
• In the early 1980s moral philosophers
such as Nigel Dower, Onora O’Neill and
Jerome M. Segal had come to agree with
those development specialists who for
many years had believed that famine
relief and food aid were only one part of
solution to the problems of hunger,
poverty, underdevelopment and
international injustice

SOURCES CONT….
4.The work of Paul Streeten and Amartya Sen.
Both economist have addressed the causes of
global economic inequality, hunger and
underdevelopment and addresses these
problems with among other things, a
conception of development explicitly based on
ethical principles.

Area of Consensus in Development
Ethics
Development ethicists typically ask the
following related questions:
• What should count as (good) development?
• What are clear examples of good development
and bad development.
• How well are various regions and societies are
doing in achieving development.
• Should we continue using the concept of
development instead of “progress”, “economic
growth”, “transformation”, “liberation” etc

Area of Consensus cont…..
In addition to accepting the
importance of these questions,
most development ethicists
share at least TEN beliefs or
commitments about their fields
and the general parameters for
ethically based development

Area of Consensus cont…….
1. Development ethicists (DE)typically
agree that, in spite of the global progress
there are still serious deprivation in the
society.
2. Development ethicists contend that
development practices and theories have
ethical and values dimensions and can
benefit from explicitly ethical analysis,
criticism, and construction.

3. Development ethicists tend to see
development as a multidisciplinary field
that has both theoretical and practical
components that intertwine in various
ways.
4. Development ethicists are committed to
understanding and reducing human
deprivation and misery in poor countries
and regions

5. Development ethicists agree that development
institutions, projects and aid givers should seek
strategies in which both human well being and
a healthy environment jointly exist and are
mutually reinforcing
6. Development ethicists are aware that, what is
frequently called development for instance
economic growth has created as many
problems as it has solved

Development as “descriptively” and
“normatively”
7. Development ethicists agree that
development ethics must be conducted at
various levels of generality and
specificity e.g ethical principles, such as
justice, liberty, autonomy, solidarity and
democracy.

8. Development ethicists believe that their
enterprise should be international or
global in the triple sense that the ethicists
engaged in this activity many societies
including the poor
9. Development ethicists agree that
development strategies must be
contextually sensitive

10. Development ethicists accept two
models
• The maximatization of economic growth
in a society without paying any direct
attention to converting greater opulence
• An authoritarian egalitarianism in which
physical needs are satisfied at the the
expenses of political liberties.

Controversies in Development Ethics
In addition to the points of agreements
Development Ethicists have several division
and unsettled issues in development ethics.
These include:
1. The scope of development ethics
2. There is division on the status of moral norms
that they seek to justify and apply. Three
positions have emerged

Controversies in Development Ethics
I. Those who argue that, development goals and
principles are valid for all societies
II. Those who argue that, each nation or society
should draw only on its own traditions and
decide on its own development ethic and
path
III. Those who argue that, development should
forge a cross-cultural in which a society’s
own freedom to make development choices is
sensitive to differences in the society

Controversies in Development
Ethics
3. There is also an on-going debate about how
development’s benefits, burdens, and
responsibilities should be distributed within
poor countries and between rich and poor
countries

Ethics cont….
I. Some prescribe maximization of
individual utilities.
II. Others advocate that income and wealth
are to be maximized for the least well-
off.
III.Others content that a society should
guarantee no form of equality apart from
interference of government and other
people.

Ethics cont…..
iv. Others defend government
responsibility to enable everyone to
be able to advance to a level of
sufficiency.

Ethics……….. cont
5. There is some difference with
respect to whether societal
development should have as an
ultimate goal the promotion of
values other than the present and
future human good.

Ethics cont……..
I. Some development ethicists argue that
human beings are superior to other beings.
II. Others argue that non-human individuals and
species, as well as ecological communities
have equal and even superior value to human
individuals.
III. Those committed to eco-development or
sustainable development do not yet agree on
what should be sustained as such.

DEVELOPMENT ETHICS
• There is an assumption that societal,
world or personal development can be
equated to economic growth and wealth
but there is inadequate to this assumption
as the issues such as equity, security,
personal relationships, natural
environment, identity, culture and
meaningfulness.

Why do we need Goals?
• A natural first step in starting to think about
the SDGs is to ask
• “What do we hope the set of goals and targets
will achieve?”
• The answer to which, though simplistic, must
surely be
• “to help achieve global development.”
• We must then ask the altogether more
difficult questions,

• “What is global development?” and,
• “How do we hope these goals and targets will
bring this about?”
• The lack of understanding of how or even
whether the MDGs have had an impact
translates into a lack of clarity around how a
new set of GDGs could be useful post-2015.
• Some see the goals as a way to build
development consensus around the things
‘that really matter’.
• Here we may have sets of thinking;

• Others see
them as a way to raise attention about key
issues including incentivizing donor action and
so boost progress towards the goals.
Some see them as a tool to strengthen
accountability by empowering citizens
through data.
And still others see them as planning tools to
organize government action.

• Ultimately the purpose of a set of GDGs
should, we believe, be to foster equitable,
sustainable human development.
• A goal might be used by policy-makers to
focus attention and resources on addressing a
key concern;
it might be used by civil society to hold policy-
makers accountable;
it might be used to generate grass-roots
awareness of—and support for addressing—a
development challenge; or

• it might be used by commentators to
encourage a facts-based debate about
whether—and what—progress is really being
achieved by a nation or region.

... And who needs the Goals?
• To be truly global, the new international
development agenda apply to the whole
world, not just to developing countries, as in
practice since 2000.
• People all around the world continue to suffer
from poverty and insecurity:
• therefore, all countries should be committed
to making development progress, both
individually and collectively.”

• The components of a universal framework
(e.g., reduction of poverty, promoting equity
and sustainability) apply meaningfully to both
developed and developing countries, although
the details with regard to setting targets or
prioritizing policies will differ.
• By being universal, a post-2015 framework
encourage further commitment,
accountability and responsibility for its
achievement by developed and developing
countries alike, even if their responsibilities
are differentiated.

• The principle of universalism does not imply
that policies cannot be targeted or the most
vulnerable prioritized.
• Rather universalism requires that the criteria
for defining and evaluating human
development (e.g., the enhancement of
substantive freedoms) must not be
exclusionary.
• Nor does universalism preclude pluralism.
• The idea of universal goals must also
recognize that different countries occupy
different places on the development
spectrum, and

• that national targets need to recognize
national conditions.
• In 2015 the goals are much more likely to
reflect a shared vision for the globe that
comes from both the North and South, and
include goals that are important and relevant
to all countries, not just the poorest.
• The idea of ‘global goals and national targets’
is now gaining currency as a way to square the
circle, and this is explored later on.

Strategies and Plans in Tanzania
• The United Republic of Tanzania has continued
to make progress in implementing the
internationally agreed commitments on
sustainable development.
• Since the Rio Conference the United Republic
of Tanzania has made progress in various
areas to ensure that the country follows
sustainable development path.
• These include formulation and
implementation of the National
Environmental Action Plan of 1994,

• National Environmental Policy 1997 and
Environmental Management Act of 2004.
• The United Republic of Tanzania also
formulated its Tanzania Development Vision
2025 (URT, 1999) and the Zanzibar
Development Vision 2020 (RGoZ, 2011a) that
integrates sustainable development issues.
• The long-term development targets and goals
have been translated into strategies such as
the National Strategy for Growth and
Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP) I and II, from
2005 – 2010 and 2010 – 2015, respectively.

• Moreover various Sectors have mainstreamed
sustainable development issues in their
policies, legislations, strategies and plans.
• In addition, The United Republic of Tanzania
has adopted a national five year plan 2011-
2015 and 2015-2020 and the Kilimo Kwanza
strategy with the aim of improving agricultural
productivity.
• Also the establishment of National
Empowerment Fund and Agricultural Input
Trust Fund which provide loans particularly to
small farmers,

• for instance, ensures that farmers in
particular, the small holders have timely
access to essential agricultural inputs and
modern farm implements and machinery, in
adequate quantities and at affordable prices.
• The introduction of Agricultural Sector
Development Strategy (ASDS) through
Agriculture Sector Development Program
(ASDP) and
• District Agricultural Development Plans
(DADPs) in all Local Government Authorities
(LGAs) in Tanzania.

• The medium term objectives are aligned to
the National Strategy for Growth and Poverty
Reduction of Poverty (MKUKUTA/MKUZA) and
• the long term goals by the Tanzania
Development Vision 2025 and the Zanzibar
Development Vision 2020
• The United Republic of Tanzania also endorsed
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in
September 2000 as part of the internationally
agreed upon development goals at the
General Assembly of the United Nations.

• In 2015 the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) come to the end of their term, and a
post-2015 agenda, comprising 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), takes their place.
• Sustainable development embraces the
concept of green economy/development that
primarily focuses on the intersection between
environment and
• economy and the ways in which a resource
efficient development can accelerate progress
in the context of sustainable development and
poverty alleviation.

Mullenium Development Goals
(MGDs)
• MDGs adopted by the United Nations General
Assembly on 8 September 2000 to recognize
major challenges facing the global community.
• Building on the different global summits in the
1990s and the principles of the UN charter of
1945,
• Member States affirmed their commitment to
the United Nations, and their resolution to
strive for peace, security, development,
poverty eradication,

• protection of the environment, human rights,
democracy, good governance and protection
of the vulnerable.
• The Declaration explicitly recognizes unequal
development, inequalities and persistent
poverty as major international concerns.
• They provided concrete targets around which
global resources and policies could be
mobilized, and have been the dominating
framework for international development
cooperation since 2000.

• The goals represented a step forward in
international development thinking, since
they went beyond an emphasis on growth
alone, and provided the first internationally
endorsed agreement to address poverty in its
multiple dimensions.
• By aiming for considerable improvements in
income generation, education and health,
they placed people at the centre of
development thinking, reflecting the concept
of human development (Human
Development, 2013).

• Substantial advances have been made in
reducing child mortality, .and preventing and
treating HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis.
• But the full picture is more complex, and
regional differences in progress can be stark.
• Much of the reduction in income poverty at
the global level has been concentrated in East
Asia (mainly China), while sub-Saharan Africa
and parts of South Asia lag behind.
• Moreover, improvements in income poverty
do not always translate into advancements in
other areas,

• such as providing decent work (particularly for
women and youth),
• improving food security and reducing
malnutrition, or enhancing environmental
sustainability,
• there has been relatively little or no progress.
• The design and implementation of the MDGs
has also been criticized, as has a lack of clarity
in their purpose.
• Criticisms include:

• Some argue that the MDGs are biased against
countries with low starting points—e.g.,
• halving numbers of people in poverty in a very
low-income country, like Madagascar, is a
much taller order than halving poverty in a
more developed economy, like Costa Rica.
• Others have pointed out that the MDGs have
been misused as a development planning tool
when they were really created to mobilize
donor support and to establish a new
normative framework.

• The MDGs are primarily targeted at
developing countries, locating global problems
of development in the least developed
countries and so excluding scrutiny of
outcomes and policies in high-income
economies.
• The data for the accurate monitoring of
progress towards reaching the MDGs may be
of poor quality or simply not available, while
many important issues, such as political and
civil rights or equity, remain largely
unmeasured.

• By highlighting aspects of human
development, such as education, health or
income generation, the simplicity of the
MDGs, often seen as an advantage, is also a
limitation.
• The MDGs do not address root causes of
poverty and inequalities.
• Values and principles, such as freedom,
universality, equity, human rights, non-
discrimination, justice, tolerance, solidarity or
shared responsibility are not explicitly
included.

• The focus of the MDGs is also insufficient in
addressing critical areas for sustainable
human development such as climate change,
environmental degradation,
• labour market challenges and decent work,
gender equality, governance, peace and
security, and growing inequalities, within and
among countries as well as between
generations.

Some Major changes since 2000
• Since the introduction of global development
goals in 2000 major changes occurred in the
world. Some changes include:

Changes in Global Economy
• One fundamental change reshaping
development thinking is that deepening
globalization means many developing
countries are having an increasing influence
on global markets, institutions and ideas.
• Indeed the current distinction between
‘developed’ and ‘developing’ countries is a
product of the pattern of global capitalist
development over the past two to three
centuries.

• And as this distinction changes it will influence
a post-2015 global development agenda.
• In 1700, Asia, Africa and Latin America
accounted for about three-quarters of global
population and two-thirds of world income.
• Indeed, just China and India together made up
about half the world’s population and income.
The economic decline of Asia relative to the
rest of the world, which began in 1820,
• continued apace as its share in the world gross
domestic product (GDP) dropped from 36
percent in 1870 to 15 percent in 1950.

• But by the end of the 20th century, the
resurgence of Brazil, China, India and others
was evident.
• These three countries alone are projected to
account for 40 percent of world output by
2050.
• In 1992, China’s trade with sub-Saharan Africa
was worth about US $1 billion.
• It exceeded $140 billion in 2011.
• Indian companies are investing in Africa’s
infrastructure and multiple industries, from
hospitality to telecommunications;

• Brazil has over 300 companies in Angola
alone.
• And large developing economies are also
investing in developed countries.
• New trade routes are flourishing:
• countries as diverse as Morocco, South Africa,
Thailand, Turkey and Viet Nam each have
substantial export and import relationships
with more than 100 economies.
• Within their borders, countries such as Mexico
and Thailand are making rapid progress
towards providing universal health care
coverage in innovative ways.

• Thus one of the most important changes since
the formulation of the MDGs is the rapid
growth of large developing countries such as
Brazil, China and India.
• New regional approaches are also emerging to
tackle major challenges.
• Trade policy represents a good example in
which the international stalemate has led to
bilateral and regional trade agreements, e.g.,
as in the Asia-Pacific region.
• Climate change negotiations are another
example where a lack of international
agreement and

• policy coherence triggers cooperation within
smaller and, at times, more like-minded,
groups.
• On one hand, this allows more voices to be
heard, but at the same time, these
developments can compromise the possibility
for international agreement and policy
coherence.
• Overall, insufficient multilateral as well as
highly pluralistic structures are posing ever
greater challenges to the global governance
system in the new century.

• Building blocks for greater global coordination
and cooperation exist at the regional level.
• Numerous regional groupings provide space
for countries to coordinate trade,
development, security, regulatory and other
economic policies.
• Regional groupings may also provide an
opportunity to address some of the inequities
that are evident in current global institutions.
• Smaller, less powerful states often have a
larger voice in regional bodies compared to
global institutions.

• Therefore, regional cooperation plays a
complementary role in facilitating global
coordination by providing greater scope for
participation and voice.

2. Demographic Shifts
• Another area in which there has been
considerable change and in which there will
be considerably more involves the shifting
demographic profiles of many countries and
the growing global population.
• These create enormous challenges in many
countries, although their nature varies from
place to place.
• They will have an impact on many areas of
human development, including economic
growth, poverty reduction and environmental
sustainability.

• Demographers see the 21st century as one
with higher population levels but slower
growth rates than the previous century.
• In developed countries, as well as in some
developing countries, particularly in East Asia
and the Pacific,
• a rising share of older people and upward
pressure on the dependency ratio raise
questions about income support, growing
health care costs, and the provision of care for
old people.

• Other countries, including many lower income
economies have more youthful populations.
• As the youth enter the labour force, they may
deliver a boost to economic growth in the
form of a demographic dividend (the benefit
generated when more people are employed in
economic activities).
• But the realization of the demographic
dividend depends on creating adequate
employment opportunities and insuring that
individuals are able to transition into more
productive activities.

• Countries with youthful populations need to
invest in the education and health of young
and working age people:
• failure to do so will hamper economic and
human development.
• Furthermore improvements in education and
health can benefit development through
lowering fertility and mortality rates.
• They also call for a global and humane
approach to migration that is concerned with
the plight of workers, and their families, in
order to deal which looming imbalances in
labor-markets of both poor and rich countries.

Economic Instability and
Macroeconomic Management
• The 2008 global economic crisis provides a
clear example of the implications of financial
instability.
• The crisis undermined growth, public
resources and access to employment. The
global recession diminished the resources for
improving many of the aspects of life that
people value most, such as health, housing,
employment and education.

• Other recent crisis have also impacted human
development:
• including Mexico (1994), East Asia (1997),
Argentina (2001) and Turkey (2001).
• Within narrow policy settings that an
economic crisis can dictate,
• there is often no explicit link between the
conduct of macroeconomic policy and human
development outcomes.
• Relationships between macro-policy and
human development are frequently
presumed, rather than explored, e.g.,

• restrictive monetary policy is assumed to be
helpful to the poor.
• Even the connections between the goals of
macroeconomic policy (e.g., low inflation) and
economic growth are not firmly established
and may be contradictory.
• An emphasis on market liberalization,
including liberalization of financial markets
and cross-border flows,
• has contributed to the types of fragility and
instability associated with the global economic
crisis.

• With the growing global integration of
economies, the interdependencies that exist
among countries may limit policy space.
• Exchange rate strategies in one economy
affect the competitiveness of others.
Uncoordinated approaches to macroeconomic
management may use resources ineffectively
and constrain human development.
• For example, the accumulation of foreign
exchange reserves as an insurance policy
against financial volatility represents a
potential cost from uncoordinated policies.

Fighting Poverty in Richer
Countries
• Fighting poverty (broadly defined) remains a
key goal of a future development agenda.
However, this goal is rather different than it
was at the turn of the millennium.
• A post-2015 framework needs to recognize
that poverty and economic insecurity are
multidimensional and are found in all
countries:
• in those that are rich, poor and in the middle.

• Rapid economic growth in large emerging
countries means that almost three-quarters of
the poor currently defined as those living on
• less than $1.25 per person per day live in
countries now classified as middle income.
This trend will continue.
• Of these 72 percent that live in middle-income
countries, 61 percent are in stable countries
and 11 percent in fragile and conflict affected
countries (FCAS).
• Only 28 percent of the world’s poor live in
low-income countries, of which 12 percent are
in FCAS and 16 percent in stable countries.

Employment and Employment
Security
• Globalization, especially financial
globalization, has had a huge influence on
employment and employment security.
• The nature of work is changing, and there is
more flexible work in developing and
developed countries.
• Informal employment persists in many
developing countries, though in some of the
more dynamic developing countries there is
perhaps more work in the formal sector,

• but with increasing wage inequality and
insecurity.
• The crisis of 2008 had repercussions around
the world.
• Employment has not recovered as fast as GDP
growth.
• This impacted the poor, who did not benefit
from the boom years in the run up to the
crisis.
• Indeed poor workers and their families were
hurt threefold:

• first, they were left behind in the run-up to
the crisis;
• second, they were severely affected during
the crisis; and
• third, they are now suffering from reduced
government expenditure.
• This reduced expenditure is a consequence of
austerity budgets adopted to tackle public
debt which,
• in many cases, came from bailing out banks
and to stimulate the economy during the
crisis.

• Some developing countries took measures to
protect the poor.
• But the crisis of 2008 and the initial bold
measures taken could have been a strong
signal for an overhaul of financial globalization
and for arresting the trend of growing
inequality and precarisation in the labour
market.
• That did not happen.
• Governments, in some cases coordinated by
international organizations, acted in the 2008
crisis as a banker of last resort and

• orchestrated financial bailouts, but failed to
adequately protect existing jobs, and to
effectively address rising levels of joblessness
and precarious employment.
• Little or no progress has been made in
developing a global framework for migration

Equity and Inequality
• The MDGs, by emphasizing targets at global
and national levels, have not highlighted the
inequalities that averages conceal.
• Progress at the average level can often hide
worsening conditions for those at lower
income levels.
• Data on income inequality for 141 countries
since 1990 show that “the tendency is for
increasing inequality in growing economies,
unless actively counteracted by policy.”

• The increase has been most acute in the large
middle income countries, where most of the
world’s poor now live
• (it increased most in Eastern Europe and the
Former Soviet Union as well as Asia).
• Inequality, has, however, declined from an
extreme high in Latin America after 2000, and
in some of sub-Saharan Africa.
• Future reductions in inequality in middle- and
upper-income countries could potentially help
large numbers of people living in extreme
situations in a way that focusing only on the

Post 2015 Global Development
Goal (Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs)
• The post 2015 global development goals
named as Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs).
• The most widely quoted definition of
sustainability and sustainable development is
that of the Brundtland Commission of the
United Nations in 1987:

• “sustainable development is development
that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs.”
• At the 2005 World Summit it was noted that
this requires the reconciliation of
environmental, social and economic demands
the "three pillars" of sustainability.
• The Key components of sustainability
therefore include:
• Interconnection of social, economic and
environmental issues.

• Thinking long term and dealing cautiously
with risk, Equity global and between
generations and appropriately valuing nature
• The SDGs recognize that eradicating poverty
and inequality,
• creating inclusive economic growth and
preserving the planet are inextricably linked,
not only to each other,
• but also to population health; and that the
relationships between each of these elements
are dynamic and reciprocal.
• SDGs are;

1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere
2. End hunger, achieve food security and
improved nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being
for all at all ages
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality
education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all
5. Achieve gender equality and empower all
women and girls
6. Ensure availability and sustainable
management of water and sanitation for all

7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable,
sustainable and modern energy for all
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable
economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote
inclusive and sustainable industrialization and
foster innovation
10. Reduce inequality within and among
countries
11. Make cities and human settlements
inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable

12. Ensure sustainable consumption and
production patterns
13. Take urgent action to combat climate change
and its impacts
14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans,
seas and marine resources for sustainable
development
15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable
use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and
halt and reverse land degradation and halt
biodiversity loss

16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for
sustainable development, provide access to justice
for all and build effective, accountable and
inclusive institutions at all levels
17. Strengthen the means of implementation and
revitalize the global partnership for sustainable
development.
• The SDGs aim to be universal, integrated and
interrelated in nature.
• In order to take on such a wide range of cross-
cutting issues, it will be necessary to achieve far
greater intersectoral coherence, integration and
coordination of efforts than has hitherto been in

Challenges for sustainable
development in Tanzania
• There are several new and emerging challenges
that are likely to affect the prospects for
sustainable development in The United Republic
of Tanzania in the coming decade.
• With the addition to the global challenges as
discussed abbiodiversity and ecosystem loss;
water scarcity; climate change; food crisis;
desertification; energy crisis; global financial
and economic crisis; rapid urbanization and
youth unemployment.
• ove, others include:

Measures Implemented to
Address New and Emerging
Challenges
• The United Republic of Tanzania developed
some measures to address global financial and
economic crisis that are happening in the
world.
• These are future strategies to anchor
Tanzania’s economic stability and resilience to
crisis includes:

• pro-poor growth strategies, enhanced
management of macro-economic variables,
prudent management of the banking and
financial sector and mobilising domestic and
international support to mitigate crisis
impacts.
• This will entail maintaining fiscal stability via
both revenue mobilisation and prudent
expenditure management, and controlling the
money supply to meet inflation and economic
growth targets,
• as well as maintaining an adequate level of
foreign exchange reserves.

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