Existentialism

1. Existentialism
Existentialism is a philosophy that emphasizes individual
existence, freedom and choice.
Existentialism is the view that humans define their own meaning in life, and try to
make rational decisions despite existing in an irrational universe. It focuses on the
question of human existence, and the feeling that there is no purpose or explanation at
the core of existence. It holds that, as there is no God or any other transcendent force,
the only way to counter this nothingness (and hence to find meaning in life) is
by embracing existence.
Thus, Existentialism believes that individuals are entirely free and must take personal
responsibility for themselves (although with this responsibility comes angst, a profound
anguish or dread). It therefore emphasizes action, freedom and decision as fundamental,
and holds that the only way to rise above the essentially absurd condition of humanity
(which is characterized by suffering and inevitable death) is by exercising our
personal freedom and choice (a complete rejection of Determinism).
Often, Existentialism as a movement is used to describe those who refuse to belong
to any school of thought, repudiating of the adequacy of any body of beliefs or systems,
claiming them to be superficial, academic and remote from life.
Although it has much in common with Nihilism, Existentialism is more a reaction against
traditional philosophies, such as Rationalism, Empiricism and Positivism, that seek to
discover an ultimate order and universal meaning in metaphysical principles or in the
structure of the observed world. It asserts that people actually make decisions based on
what has meaning to them, rather than what is rational.
Existentialism originated with 19th Century philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich
Nietzsche, although neither used the term in their work. In the 1940s and 1950s, French
existentialists such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus (1913 - 1960), and Simone de
Beauvoir (1908 - 1986) wrote scholarly and fictional works that popularized existential
themes, such as dread, boredom, alienation, the absurd, freedom, commitment and
nothingness.
Unlike René Descartes, who believed in the primacy of consciousness, Existentialists
assert that a human being is "thrown into" into a concrete, inveterate universe that cannot
be "thought away", and therefore existence ("being in the world") precedes
consciousness, and is the ultimate reality. Existence, then, is prior to essence (essence
is the meaning that may be ascribed to life), contrary to traditional philosophical views
dating back to the ancient Greeks. As Sartre put it: "At first [Man] is nothing. Only afterward
will he be something, and he himself will have made what he will be."
Kierkegaard saw rationality as a mechanism humans use to counter their existential
anxiety, their fear of being in the world. Sartre saw rationality as a form of “bad faith”, an
attempt by the self to impose structure on a fundamentally irrational and random world of
phenomena (“the other”). This bad faith hinders us from finding meaning in freedom,
and confines us within everyday experience.

2. Kierkegaard also stressed that individuals must choose their own way without the aid
of universal, objective standards. Friedrich Nietzsche further contended that the
individual must decide which situations are to count as moral situations. Thus, most
Existentialists believe that personal experience and acting on one’s own convictions are
essential in arriving at the truth, and that the understanding of a situation by
someone involved in that situation is superior to that of a detached, objective observer
(similar to the concept of Subjectivism).
According to Camus, when an individual’s longing for order collides with the real
world’s lack of order, the result is absurdity. Human beings are therefore subjects in an
indifferent, ambiguous and absurd universe, in which meaning is not provided by the
natural order, but rather can be created (however provisionally and unstably) by
human actions and interpretations.
Existentialism can be atheistic, theological (or theistic) or agnostic. Some Existentialists,
like Nietzsche, proclaimed that “God is dead” and that the concept of God is obsolete.
Others, like Kierkegaard, were intensely religious, even if they did not feel able to justify it.
The important factor for Existentialists is the freedom of choice to believe or not to believe.
History of Existentialism
Existentialist-type themes appear in early Buddhist and Christian writings (including those
of St. Augustine and St.Thomas Aquinas). In the 17th Century, Blaise Pascal suggested
that, without a God, life would be meaningless, boring and miserable, much as later
Existentialists believed, although, unlike them, Pascal saw this as a reason for
the existence of a God. His near-contemporary, John Locke, advocated individual
autonomy and self-determination, but in the positive pursuit of Liberalism
and Individualism rather than in response to an Existentialist experience.
Existentialism in its currently recognizable form was inspired by the 19th Century Danish
philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, the German philosophers Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin
Heidegger, Karl Jaspers (1883 - 1969) and Edmund Husserl, and writers like the
Russian Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821 - 1881) and the Czech Franz Kafka (1883 - 1924). It
can be argued that Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Arthur Schopenhauer were also
important influences on the development of Existentialism, because the philosophies
of Kierkegaard and Nietzsche were written in response or in opposition to them.
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, like Pascal before them, were interested in
people's concealment of the meaninglessness of life and their use of diversion to escape
from boredom. However, unlike Pascal, they considered the role of making free
choices on fundamental values and beliefs to be essential in the attempt to change
the nature and identity of the chooser.
In Kierkegaard's case, this results in the "knight of faith", who puts complete faith in
himself and in God, as described in his 1843 work "Fear and Trembling". In Nietzsche's
case, the much maligned "Übermensch" ( "Superman") attains superiority and
transcendence without resorting to the "other-worldliness" of Christianity, in his
books "Thus Spake Zarathustra" (1885) and "Beyond Good and Evil" (1887).

3. Martin Heidegger was an important early philosopher in the movement, particularly his
influential 1927 work "Being and Time", although he himself vehemently denied being an
existentialist in the Sartrean sense. His discussion of ontology is rooted in an analysis of
the mode of existence of individual human beings, and his analysis
of authenticity and anxiety in modern culture make him very much an Existentialist in the
usual modern usage.
Existentialism came of age in the mid-20th Century, largely through
the scholarly and fictional works of the French existentialists, Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert
Camus (1913 - 1960) and Simone de Beauvoir (1908 - 1986). Maurice Merleau-
Ponty (1908 - 1961) is another influential and often overlooked French Existentialist of the
period.
Sartre is perhaps the most well-known, as well as one of the few to have
actually accepted being called an "existentialist"."Being and Nothingness" (1943) is his
most important work, and his novels and plays, including "Nausea" (1938) and "No Exit
(1944), helped to popularize the movement.
In "The Myth of Sisyphus" (1942), Albert Camus uses the analogy of the Greek myth of
Sisyphus (who is condemned for eternity to roll a rock up a hill, only to have it roll to the
bottom again each time) to exemplify the pointlessness of existence, but shows that
Sisyphus ultimately finds meaning and purpose in his task, simply by continually applying
himself to it.
Simone de Beauvoir, an important existentialist who spent much of her life
alongside Sartre, wrote about feminist and existential ethics in her works, including "The
Second Sex" (1949) and "The Ethics of Ambiguity" (1947).
Although Sartre is considered by most to be the pre-eminent Existentialist, and by many to
be an important and innovative philosopher in his own right, others are much less
impressed by his contributions. Heidegger himself thought that Sartre had merely taken his
own work and regressed it back to the subject-object orientated philosophy
of Descartes and Husserl, which is exactly what Heidegger had been trying
to free philosophy from. Some see Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908 - 1961) as a better
Existentialist philosopher, particular for his incorporation of the body as our way of being in
the world, and for his more complete analysis of perception (two areas in
which Heidegger's work is often seen as deficient).
Criticism of Existentialism
Herbert Marcuse (1898 - 1979) has criticized Existentialism, especially Sartre's "Being and
Nothingness", for projecting some features of living in a modern oppressive
society (features such as anxiety and meaninglessness) onto the nature of existence
itself.
Scruton (1944) has claimed that both Heidegger's concept of inauthenticity and Sartre's
concept of bad faith are both self-inconsistent, in that they deny any universal moral
creed, yet speak of these concepts as if everyone is bound to abide by them.

4. Logical Positivists, such as A. J. Ayer and Rudolf Carnap (1891 - 1970), claim that
existentialists frequently become confused over the verb "to be" (which is meaningless if
used without a predicate) and by the word "nothing" (which is the negation of existence
and therefore cannot be assumed to refer to something).
Marxists, especially in post-War France, found Existentialism to run counter to their
emphasis on the solidarity of human beings and their theory of economic determinism.
They further argued that Existentialism's emphasis on individual choice leads to
contemplation rather than to action, and that only the bourgeoisie has the luxury to make
themselves what they are through their choices, so they considered Existentialism to be
a bourgeois philosophy.
Christian critics complain that Existentialism portrays humanity in the worst possible
light, overlooking the dignity and grace that comes from being made in the image of God.
Also, according to Christian critics, Existentialists are unable to account for the moral
dimension of human life, and have no basis for an ethical theory if they deny that humans
are bound by the commands of God. On the other hand, some commentators have
objected to Kierkegaard's continued espousal of Christianity, despite his inability to
effectively justify it.
In more general terms, the common use of pseudonymous characters in existentialist
writing can make it seem like the authors are unwilling to own their insights, and
are confusing philosophy with literature.
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