This document provides an overview of radiation safety. It discusses the history of radiation and natural and man-made background sources. It also covers fundamentals, exposure limits and regulations, detection of radiation, safe practices, and biological effects. Specific topics include types of radiation, radioactive sources, allowable exposure limits, ensuring compliance, detection methods, and a summary of biological effects. The goal is to educate about radiation safety practices and regulations.
1. Radiation SafetyRadiation Safety
HAN 476HAN 476
Stony Brook UniversityStony Brook University
School of Health Technology and ManagementSchool of Health Technology and Management
2. OutlineOutline
History of RadiationHistory of Radiation
Natural & Man-Made Background Sources ofNatural & Man-Made Background Sources of
RadiationRadiation
FundamentalsFundamentals
Exposure Limits & RegulationsExposure Limits & Regulations
Detection of RadiationDetection of Radiation
Safe Practices with RadiationSafe Practices with Radiation
Biological Effects of RadiationBiological Effects of Radiation
Where to Find Further InformationWhere to Find Further Information
3. First Known Human Use ofFirst Known Human Use of
UraniumUranium
79 A D79 A D
Roman artisansRoman artisans
produce yellowproduce yellow
colored glass incolored glass in
mosaic mural nearmosaic mural near
Naples, ItalyNaples, Italy
4. Radium Effects ConfirmedRadium Effects Confirmed
19251925
Suspicions developSuspicions develop
around watch dialaround watch dial
painters’ jaw lesionspainters’ jaw lesions
Dentists diagnose lesionsDentists diagnose lesions
as jaw necrosis due toas jaw necrosis due to
radium deposits in jawradium deposits in jaw
bonebone
Doctor notes boneDoctor notes bone
changes and anemia inchanges and anemia in
dial paintersdial painters
5. What is Radiation?What is Radiation?
Radiation: energy in motion
Radioactivity: spontaneous emission of radiation from the
nucleus of an unstable atom
Isotope: atoms with the same number of protons, but different
number of neutrons
Radioisotope: unstable isotope of an element that decays or
disintegrates spontaneously, emitting radiation. Approximately
5,000 natural and artificial radioisotopes have been identified
6. Types of RadiationTypes of Radiation
Non-Ionizing Radiation: Radiation that does not have sufficient
energy to dislodge orbital electrons.
Examples of non-ionizing radiation: microwaves, ultraviolet
light, lasers, radio waves, infrared light, and radar.
Ionizing Radiation: Radiation that has sufficient energy to
dislodge orbital electrons.
Examples of ionizing radiation: alpha particles, beta particles,
neutrons, gamma rays, and x-rays.
9. Terrestrial RadiationTerrestrial Radiation
Common radionuclides created during formation of earth:
–Radioactive Potassium (K-40) found in bananas,
throughout the human body, in plant fertilizer and
anywhere else stable potassium exists.
–Radioactive Rubidium (Rb-87) is found in brazil nuts
among other things.
Terrestrial radiation comes from radioactivity emitting from
Primordial radio nuclides - these are radio nuclides left over
from when the earth was created.
10. Terrestrial RadiationTerrestrial Radiation
Greatest contributor isGreatest contributor is 226226
Ra (Radium) withRa (Radium) with
significant levels also fromsignificant levels also from 238238
U,U, 232232
Th, andTh, and 4040
K.K.
Igneous rock contains the highest concentrationIgneous rock contains the highest concentration
followed by sedimentary, sandstone and limestone.followed by sedimentary, sandstone and limestone.
Fly ash from coal burning plants contains moreFly ash from coal burning plants contains more
radiation than that of nuclear or oil-fired plants.radiation than that of nuclear or oil-fired plants.
4
2α ++
11. Let’s Compare BackgroundsLet’s Compare Backgrounds
Sea level - 30 mrem/yearSea level - 30 mrem/year
from cosmic radiationfrom cosmic radiation
10,000 ft. altitude - 140 mrem/year10,000 ft. altitude - 140 mrem/year
from cosmic radiationfrom cosmic radiation
12. Consumer Products andConsumer Products and
Radioactive MaterialRadioactive Material
There are more sources of radiation in theThere are more sources of radiation in the
consumer product category than in any other.consumer product category than in any other.
Television sets - low energy x-rays.Television sets - low energy x-rays.
Smoke detectorsSmoke detectors
Some more products or services:Some more products or services:
treatment of agricultural products; longtreatment of agricultural products; long
lasting light bulbs; building materials;lasting light bulbs; building materials;
static eliminators in manufacturing; andstatic eliminators in manufacturing; and
luminous dials of watches, clocks andluminous dials of watches, clocks and
compassescompasses
13. Annual Dose from
Background Radiation
Total US average dose equivalent = 360 mrem/year
Total exposure Man-made sources
Radon
Internal 11%
Cosmic 8% Terrestrial 6%
Man-Made 18%
55.0%
Medical X-Rays
Nuclear
Medicine 4%
Consumer
Products 3%
Other 1%
11%
15. Ionizing radiationIonizing radiation
Occurs from the addition or removal ofOccurs from the addition or removal of
electrons from neutral atomselectrons from neutral atoms
Four main types of ionizing radiationFour main types of ionizing radiation
alpha, beta, gamma and neutronsalpha, beta, gamma and neutrons
αα AlphaAlpha
ββ BetaBeta
γγ Gamma (X-ray)Gamma (X-ray)
nn NeutronNeutron
18. TimeTime
Less time = Less radiation exposureLess time = Less radiation exposure
Use RAM only when necessaryUse RAM only when necessary
Dry runsDry runs (without radioactive material)(without radioactive material)
Identify portions of the experiment that can be altered in order toIdentify portions of the experiment that can be altered in order to
decrease exposure timesdecrease exposure times
Shorten time when near RAMShorten time when near RAM
Obtaining higher doses in order to get anObtaining higher doses in order to get an
experiment done quicker is NOT “reasonable”!experiment done quicker is NOT “reasonable”!
19. DistanceDistance
Effective & EasyEffective & Easy
Inverse Square LawInverse Square Law
Doubling distance from source,Doubling distance from source,
decreases dose by factor of fourdecreases dose by factor of four
Tripling it decreases dose nine-foldTripling it decreases dose nine-fold
More Distance = Less RadiationMore Distance = Less Radiation
ExposureExposure
Tongs, Tweezers, Pipettes, PliersTongs, Tweezers, Pipettes, Pliers
20. ShieldingShielding
Materials “absorb” radiationMaterials “absorb” radiation
Proper shielding = LessProper shielding = Less
Radiation ExposureRadiation Exposure
Plexiglass vs. LeadPlexiglass vs. Lead
22. •
Shielding used whereShielding used where
appropriateappropriate
Significantly reducesSignificantly reduces
radiation effectsradiation effects
LeadLead
PlexiglasPlexiglas
RadiationRadiation
ShieldingShielding
23. Radiation use will be labeledlabeled on door, work area & storage area
Research laboratories work with very low levels of radioactive materials
Safety can check for potential contamination prior to work in a lab that
uses radioactive materials
As a precaution: wear gloves, safety glasses and wash handswear gloves, safety glasses and wash hands
Radiation PostingsRadiation Postings
27. Laboratory Wipe TestsLaboratory Wipe Tests
Fill out form RS-8Fill out form RS-8
Draw map of laboratoryDraw map of laboratory
Take wipes of surfaces (10 cmTake wipes of surfaces (10 cm22
) throughout lab) throughout lab
Run wipesRun wipes monthlymonthly for possible contaminationfor possible contamination
Document all information on form and place inDocument all information on form and place in
Radiation Safety BinderRadiation Safety Binder
28. Common UnitsCommon Units
RadioactivityRadioactivity
ExposureExposure
Absorbed DoseAbsorbed Dose
Dose EquivalentDose Equivalent
Units are Cool
29. RadioactivityRadioactivity
Rate of Decay / Potential to DecayRate of Decay / Potential to Decay
““Strength”Strength”
Curie (Ci) - 1 gram of radiumCurie (Ci) - 1 gram of radium
disintegratesdisintegrates
3.7 X 103.7 X 101010
disintegration/disintegration/
second (dps)second (dps)
Becquerel (Bq)Becquerel (Bq)
= 1 disintegration/second (dps)= 1 disintegration/second (dps)
1 mCi = 37 MBq1 mCi = 37 MBq
30. ExposureExposure
Radioactivity is measured in Roentgens (R)Radioactivity is measured in Roentgens (R)
Charge produced in air from ionization byCharge produced in air from ionization by
gamma and x-raysgamma and x-rays
ONLY for photons in airONLY for photons in air
Rather infrequently used unitRather infrequently used unit
A measure of what is emittedA measure of what is emitted
31. Absorbed DoseAbsorbed Dose
Energy deposited by any form of ionizingEnergy deposited by any form of ionizing
radiation in a unit mass of materialradiation in a unit mass of material
Roentgen Absorbed Dose (rad)Roentgen Absorbed Dose (rad)
Gray (Gy)Gray (Gy)
1 Gy = 100 rad1 Gy = 100 rad
32. Dose EquivalentDose Equivalent
Scale for equating relative hazards ofScale for equating relative hazards of
various types of ionization in terms ofvarious types of ionization in terms of
equivalent riskequivalent risk
Damage in tissue measured inDamage in tissue measured in remrem
(Roentgen Equivalent Man)(Roentgen Equivalent Man)
Q:risk of biological injuryQ:risk of biological injury
rem = Q * radrem = Q * rad
Sievert (Sv)Sievert (Sv)
1 Sv = 100 rem1 Sv = 100 rem
33. What do we really need toWhat do we really need to
know?know?
1 R1 R ≈≈ 1 rad = 1 rem1 rad = 1 rem
For gammas & betas*For gammas & betas*
1 rad1 rad ≠≠ 1 rem1 rem
For alphas, neutrons & protonsFor alphas, neutrons & protons
1 rem = 1 rad * Q1 rem = 1 rad * Q
34. And why do we want to know it?And why do we want to know it?
Dosage and dosimetry are measuredDosage and dosimetry are measured
andand reported in rems.reported in rems.
All the Federal and State regulations areAll the Federal and State regulations are
written in rems.written in rems.
The regulators must be placated withThe regulators must be placated with
reports in rems.reports in rems.
36. Why Establish OccupationalWhy Establish Occupational
Exposure Limits?Exposure Limits?
We want to eliminate ability ofWe want to eliminate ability of
non-stochastic effectsnon-stochastic effects (Acute) to(Acute) to
occuroccur
Example: Skin ReddeningExample: Skin Reddening
We want to reduce theWe want to reduce the
probability of the occurrence ofprobability of the occurrence of
stochastic effectsstochastic effects (Chronic)(Chronic)
to same level as otherto same level as other
occupationsoccupations
Example: LeukemiaExample: Leukemia
Established fromEstablished from
Accident DataAccident Data
37. Whole BodyWhole Body
Total Effective Dose Equivalent (TEDE)Total Effective Dose Equivalent (TEDE)
TEDE = Internal + ExternalTEDE = Internal + External
Assume Internal Contribution ZeroAssume Internal Contribution Zero
Unless Ingestion, Absorption or InhalationUnless Ingestion, Absorption or Inhalation
SuspectedSuspected
Limit = 5 rem / yrLimit = 5 rem / yr
38. Ensuring Compliance toEnsuring Compliance to
Radiation Exposure LimitsRadiation Exposure Limits
Use the established activity limit for each isotopeUse the established activity limit for each isotope
Compare with similar situationsCompare with similar situations
Estimate with meterEstimate with meter
CalculateCalculate
Time, Distance, Shielding, Type, Energy, GeometryTime, Distance, Shielding, Type, Energy, Geometry
MeasureMeasure
TLD Chip, LuxelTLD Chip, Luxel
BioassayBioassay
39. Who should wear radiationWho should wear radiation
dosimeters or badges?dosimeters or badges?
Those “likely” to exceed 10% of theirThose “likely” to exceed 10% of their
annual limit are requiredannual limit are required
Those who would like a badgeThose who would like a badge
Minors & Declared Pregnant Workers*Minors & Declared Pregnant Workers*
41. Rules, Rights & Responsibilities asRules, Rights & Responsibilities as
a Radiation Workera Radiation Worker
Department of State Health ServicesDepartment of State Health Services
Radiation ControlRadiation Control
Texas Regulations for Control ofTexas Regulations for Control of
RadiationRadiation
In Accordance with Texas RadiationIn Accordance with Texas Radiation
Control Act, Health & Safety Code, ChControl Act, Health & Safety Code, Ch
401401
25 TAC (Texas Administrative Code) 28925 TAC (Texas Administrative Code) 289
47. More Radiation MisconceptionsMore Radiation Misconceptions
Radiation does not
give you super human
powers
Radiation will not
make you glow in
the dark
48. Summary of Biological EffectsSummary of Biological Effects
of Radiationof Radiation
Radiation may…Radiation may…
Deposit Energy in BodyDeposit Energy in Body
Cause DNA DamageCause DNA Damage
Create Ionizations in BodyCreate Ionizations in Body
Leading to Free RadicalsLeading to Free Radicals
Which may lead to biological damageWhich may lead to biological damage
49. Radiation Effects on CellsRadiation Effects on Cells
Radio sensitivity Theory of Bergonie &Radio sensitivity Theory of Bergonie &
Tribondeau.Tribondeau.
Cell are radiosensitive if they :Cell are radiosensitive if they :
Have a high division rateHave a high division rate
Have a long dividing futureHave a long dividing future
Are of an unspecialized typeAre of an unspecialized type
These are the underlying premise for ALARAThese are the underlying premise for ALARA
50. Response to radiation depends on:Response to radiation depends on:
Total doseTotal dose
Dose rateDose rate
Radiation qualityRadiation quality
Stage of development at the time ofStage of development at the time of
exposureexposure
51. Whole Body EffectsWhole Body Effects
Acute or NonstochasticAcute or Nonstochastic
Occur when the radiation dose is large enough toOccur when the radiation dose is large enough to
cause extensive biological damage to cells so thatcause extensive biological damage to cells so that
large numbers of cells die off.large numbers of cells die off.
Evident hours to a few months after exposure (Early).Evident hours to a few months after exposure (Early).
Late or Stochastic (Delayed)Late or Stochastic (Delayed)
Exhibit themselves over years after acute exposure.Exhibit themselves over years after acute exposure.
GeneticGenetic
SomaticSomatic
TeratogenicTeratogenic
52. Most and Least Radiosensitive CellsMost and Least Radiosensitive Cells
Low SensitivityLow Sensitivity Mature red blood cellsMature red blood cells
Muscle cellsMuscle cells
Ganglion cellsGanglion cells
Mature connective tissuesMature connective tissues
High SensitivityHigh Sensitivity Gastric mucosaGastric mucosa
Mucous membranesMucous membranes
Esophageal epitheliumEsophageal epithelium
Urinary bladder epitheliumUrinary bladder epithelium
Very High SensitivityVery High Sensitivity Primitive blood cellsPrimitive blood cells
Intestinal epitheliumIntestinal epithelium
SpermatogoniaSpermatogonia
Ovarian follicular cellsOvarian follicular cells
LymphocytesLymphocytes
53. Comparison of Administrative, Regulatory andComparison of Administrative, Regulatory and
Biological Effect DosesBiological Effect Doses
100% of People Die,100% of People Die,
CNS SyndromeCNS Syndrome
Permanent InfertilityPermanent Infertility
Whole Body Regulatory Limit (5 rem/yr)Whole Body Regulatory Limit (5 rem/yr)Eye Regulatory Limit (15 rem/yr)Eye Regulatory Limit (15 rem/yr)
50% of People Die (450 – 500 rad)50% of People Die (450 – 500 rad)
Nausea & Vomiting (10% of People)Nausea & Vomiting (10% of People)
Whole Body UTHSCH AdministrativeWhole Body UTHSCH Administrative
Limit (0.125 rem/month)Limit (0.125 rem/month)
Whole Body ExposureWhole Body ExposurePartial Body ExposurePartial Body Exposure
Extremities Regulatory Limit (50 rem/yr)Extremities Regulatory Limit (50 rem/yr)
Eye UTHSCH AdministrativeEye UTHSCH Administrative
Limit (0.375 rem/month)Limit (0.375 rem/month)
Rad or RemRad or Rem
Extremities UTHSCH AdministrativeExtremities UTHSCH Administrative
Limit (1.275 rem/month)Limit (1.275 rem/month)
General Public Whole Body RegulatoryGeneral Public Whole Body Regulatory
Limit (0.100 rem/yr)Limit (0.100 rem/yr)
No Clinical Symptoms Seen Below 10 remNo Clinical Symptoms Seen Below 10 rem
Cataract FormationCataract Formation
Loss of HairLoss of Hair
Skin ReddeningSkin Reddening
Decreased White Blood Cell CountDecreased White Blood Cell Count
Ulcers on the SkinUlcers on the Skin
Molecular Death (> 100,000 rad)Molecular Death (> 100,000 rad)
Gastrointestinal SyndromeGastrointestinal Syndrome
54. Medical TreatmentMedical Treatment
External DecontaminationExternal Decontamination
Mild cleaning solution applied toMild cleaning solution applied to
intact skinintact skin
Betadine, Soap, Rad-Con for handsBetadine, Soap, Rad-Con for hands
Never use harsh abrasive or steelNever use harsh abrasive or steel
woolwool
Internal DecontaminationInternal Decontamination
Treatment which enhancesTreatment which enhances
excretion of radionuclidesexcretion of radionuclides
55. How Often Does This Happen?How Often Does This Happen?
Results of reported exposure-related incidents in TexasResults of reported exposure-related incidents in Texas
1956 – 20001956 – 2000
Source: Emery, et. al.Source: Emery, et. al.
Only 2% at theOnly 2% at the
Level that ClinicalLevel that Clinical
Effects FromEffects From
Radiation Can beRadiation Can be
SeenSeen
(n=3,148)
Editor's Notes
How can we ensure…? UTHSC-H limits carefully set from much experience Compare: other labs doing similar work Estimate meter + abstruse calculations Other calcs Measurement is probably best
esOfogal spermAtogOnia
TX radiation control limits UTHSC limits Dose-> depends on type, dose rate, time, area of body 6 rem -> to HP: not good but not much different from 4 rem -> physician: not much -> Lawyer: depends if defense or prosecutor -> regulator: BAD
If something happened here
Most interesting piece of this chart is the smallest Only 2% to result in readily apparent biological effects