1. The Government of the
Philippine Republic
Republic of the Philippines
EULOGIO “AMANG” RODRIGUEZ
INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Nagtahan, Sampaloc, Manila
GRADUATE PROGRAM
MASTER IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
TOPIC: A. INTRODUCTION TO ETHICAL REASONING
B. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ETHICS AND
PUBLIC ORIENTATION
ETHICS IN GOVERNMENT SERVICE
DR. LOURDES BANDOY
Professor
Presented by:
LOUIE A. MEDINACELI
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2. The Government of the
Philippine Republic
INTRODUCTION TO ETHICAL REASONING
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Ethics really has to do with all these levels-acting ethically as individuals, creating
ethical organizations and governments, and making our society as a whole ethical
in the way it treats everyone.
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What, then, is ethics? Ethics is two things.
First, ethics refers to well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe
what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to
society, fairness, or specific virtues. Ethics, for example, refers to those standards
that impose the reasonable obligations to refrain from rape, stealing, murder,
assault, slander, and fraud. Ethical standards also include those that enjoin virtues
of honesty, compassion, and loyalty. And, ethical standards include standards
relating to rights, such as the right to life, the right to freedom from injury, and the
right to privacy. Such standards are adequate standards of ethics because they are
supported by consistent and well-founded reasons.
Secondly, ethics refers to the study and development of one's ethical standards.
As mentioned above, feelings, laws, and social norms can deviate from what is
ethical. So it is necessary to constantly examine one's standards to ensure that
they are reasonable and well-founded. Ethics also means, then, the continuous
effort of studying our own moral beliefs and our moral conduct, and striving to
ensure that we, and the institutions we help to shape, live up to standards that are
reasonable and solidly-based.
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3. The Government of the
Philippine Republic
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The Seven-Step Path to Better Decisions
Stop and Think
Clarify Goals
Determine Facts
Develop Options
Consider Consequences
Choose
Monitor and Modify
Values are what we, as a profession, judge to be right. They
are more than words-they are the moral, ethical, and
professional attributes of character.

4. The Government of the
Philippine Republic
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4 Organizational values---loyalty, duty, selfless service,
integrity
4 Individual values- commitment, competence, candor, and
courage
The organization's core values - in this case, integrity,
professionalism, caring, teamwork, and stewardship- were
deemed important enough to be included with the statement
of the organization's vision..
Making Ethical Decisions
Everything we do, or don’t do, is a choice that can affect our
lives and the lives of others. Ethical choices are based on
principled decisions, not on self-interest or easy-returns. Such
principles are based on universal values that have been held
across time, culture, politics, religion and ethnicity. Any
decision can be evaluated in terms of these universal values
or core ethical principles — trustworthiness, respect,
responsibility, fairness, caring and citizenship.

5. The Government of the
Philippine Republic
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The Process of Making Ethical Decisions
Ethical decision making refers to the process of evaluating and choosing
among alternatives in a manner consistent with ethical principles. In
making ethical decisions it is necessary to:
Notice and eliminate unethical options - right vs wrong. Ethical thinking
requires a sensitivity to perceive the ethical implications of decisions.
Evaluate complex, ambiguous and incomplete facts. It is often difficult to
obtain all necessary information.
Select the best ethical alternative. Resolve any ethical dilemmas - right vs
right. Not all ethical responses to a situation are equal.
Have ethical commitment, ethical consciousness, and ethical competency.
Ethical thinking and decision making takes practice.
Making Decisions
Making good ethical decisions requires a trained sensitivity to ethical
issues and a practiced method for exploring the ethical aspects of a
decision and weighing the considerations that should impact our choice of
a course of action. Having a method for ethical decision making is
absolutely essential. When practiced regularly, the method becomes so
familiar that we work through it automatically without consulting the
specific steps.

6. The Government of the
Philippine Republic
• EMPOWERMENT
• The way ahead will involve empowering public
servants at all levels to find new, more cost
effective ways to deliver better services to PEOPLE
and provide higher quality advice to the
Government. All public servants have a role to play
in this effort. Our future – our vocation as public
servants – is in our hands.”
• “Ethics are not a set of rules or values waiting to be
discovered, that provides all the answers. In the
complex world of public administration,

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Philippine Republic
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ETHICAL VALUES
norms and values rarely provide clear-cut answers to difficult problems.
Ethics should be thought of as helping to frame relevant questions about
what government ought to be doing and how public administration ought
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go about achieving those purposes”.
"Norms are standards of behaviour within the organisation which serve as
a guide to all its members. For example, one of the earliest norms in
public administration was that of neutrality, meaning that public officials
should be apolitical policy implementation functionaries rather than
policy-makers. Within the context of public administration, the emphasis
on norms is associated with the recommendation of certain values that
are viewed as desirable by their promoters.
The common denominator of nearly all people problems is to be found in
the area of values. It is widely recognized that values often differ widely
from person to person and from culture to culture. The influence of values
on people's thinking, acting and behavior is underestimated.

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Philippine Republic
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Influence of values
(i) They principally determine what he/she regards as right, good, worthy,
beautiful and ethical.
(ii)They provide the standards and norms by which he/she guides his/her
day-today behavior.
(iii) They chiefly determine his/her attitudes toward the causes and issues
such as political, economic, social and industrial with which he/she comes
into contact daily.
(iv) They determine which ideas, principles and concepts he can accept,
assimilate, remember and transmit without distortion.
In addition to the above, it is accepted that individuals may temporarily or
permanently discard their value systems in favor of specific goal
attainment.

9. The Government of the
Philippine Republic
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An Ethical Decision-Making Process:
Recognizing and Resolving Value Conflicts
Step 1 Recognize the value conflict and decide whether to resolve or refer it. If
resolving it…
Analyze the Value Conflict
Step 2 Identify all relevant decision-makers and facilitate their input (it is
important to identify all decision makers so as not to bias the process).
Depending on circumstances and your leadership role, you may be the only
“relevant” decision maker. Consult the Operating Principles, Governance
Matrix and Leadership and Decision Making Styles to determine relevant
decision makers.
Step 3 Decision makers should agree on the conflict to be resolved. Gather
enough information to define the value conflict clearly. Consider the
following…
Facts: What, who, when, how, why?
Factors: Medical, social, economic/financial, political, legal, religious, etc.
Step 4 List the alternative choices that address the conflict, and for each…
Identify the relevant stakeholders (stakeholders are persons, organizations, or
institutions affected by the choice).
Predict effects on stakeholders (this step may require extensive informationgathering; if confidentiality permits, discuss alternatives with affected
stakeholders).

10. The Government of the
Philippine Republic
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Evaluate the Alternatives
Step 5 Make the “right” or best decision by evaluating the effects of each
alternative on the relevant stakeholders
Effects will be positive, negative, or neutral in light of PHS Mission and
Core Values, the PHS Operating Principles, and the wider Catholic moral
tradition (e.g., official church teaching documents; Ethical and Religious
Directives for Catholic Health Care Services).
Also consider other standards for evaluating effects (e.g., professional,
personal, social, legal, financial, or political standards; also self-interest
and feasibility).
Loop back to previous steps, if necessary.
Implementation and Follow-up
Step 6 Communicate decision as required.

11. The Government of the
Philippine Republic
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ETHICAL VALUES AND ETHICAL POINT OF VIEW
Values are what we, as a profession, judge to be right. They are more than wordsthey are the moral, ethical, and professional attributes of character
Ethics deals with such questions at all levels. Its subject consists of the
fundamental issues of practical decision making, and its major concerns include
the nature of ultimate value and the standards by which human actions can be
judged right or wrong. Ethics is not a matter of factual knowledge in the way that
the sciences and other branches of inquiry are. Rather, it has to do with
determining the nature of normative theories and applying these sets of principles
to practical moral problems.
Ethic value denotes something's degree of importance, with the aim of
determining what action or life is best to do or live (Deontology), or at least
attempt to describe the value of different actions (Axiology). It may be described
as treating actions themselves as abstract objects, putting value to them. It deals
with right conduct and good life, in the sense that a highly, or at least relatively
highly, valuable action may be regarded as ethically "good" (adjective sense), and
an action of low, or at least relatively low, value may be regarded as "bad".
What makes an action valuable may in turn depend on the ethic values of the
objects it increases, decreases or alters. An object with "ethic value" may be
termed an "ethic or philosophic good" (noun sense).

12. The Government of the
Philippine Republic
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Ethical value denotes something's degree importance, with the aim of
determining what action or life is best to do, or at least attempt to
describe the value of different actions. It may be described as treating
actions themselves as abstract objects, putting value to them. It deals
with right conduct and good life, in the sense that a highly, or at least
relatively highly, valuable action or may be regarded as good, and an
action of low, or at least relatively low, value may be regarded as bad.
ETHICAL POINT OF VIEW
What people in government do, and how they do it, is of exceptional
importance. Ethical leadership in the public service is not only for the
formal cadre of leaders to apply. All of you, regardless of position, make
choices in your work that impact the public. You have the opportunity to
demonstrate ethical leadership on a regular basis. Ethical reasoning
needs to be nurtured, developed, and expanded over time. Your decision
to attend a talk on ethics in the public service is one step in an on-going
commitment to ethical practice.

13. The Government of the
Philippine Republic
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RULES, PRINCIPLES AND DECISIONS
The Golden Rule
The golden rule - sometimes called the global ethic or the ethic of reciprocity - is present, in
different forms, in many cultures and most religions. The wording and emphasis varies but
the central idea is this: Treat others as you would like to be treated.
Formal rules exist outside the decision maker and are typically imposed upon that person.
The model suggests three sets of formal rules: law, regulation and policy.
Law can be characterized as society's voice. Government promulgates laws to define what is
or is not acceptable as a means of building commitment to a specific standard of conduct.
Regulation resembles law and differs primarily in its source. Regulations typically originate
within an administrative body versus legislative body, in the US federal system for example but still external to the organization.
Policy, still external to the decision maker, is a bit closer as it typically refers to rules imposed
by one's employer. Often, policy details the specific procedures for implementing law and
regulation. It describes the specific manner in which the organization wants certain persons
(most often employees - but can include others such as vendors, suppliers, and subcontractors) to perform specific, prescribed tasks.
Collectively the formal rules are considerations the ethical decision maker ought include in
the ethical reasoning process, as failing that, the decision may violate the rules and fail to
meet the standard of compliance. In most cases legal, regulatory and policy compliance are
considered minimums for ethical decision making.
The exception (unethical rules) must be mentioned but it should be noted that this is a rare
exception reserved for issues such as legalized segregation or slavery that may be 'legal' at a
given point in time but lack moral authority.

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Philippine Republic
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The 3 classic ethical principles of justice, sufficiency and solidarity. Justice and
sustainability
The classic formal principle of justice is that equals should be treated equally
unless there is a sufficient reason to treat anyone (or anything) unequally. It is
clearly relevant in the field of ethics called environmental justice
Sufficiency and compassion
The principle of sufficiency mandates that all forms of life are entitled to enough
goods to live on and flourish. The principle also means no one should waste or
hoard resources intended for the sufficiency of all. Upholding the norm of
sufficiency makes demands upon individuals - to share, to live more simply, to
think creatively - and on human communities: to ensure that everyone has access
to the goods that they need to live a life of dignity
Solidarity and participation
The principle of solidarity invites us to consider how we relate to each other in
community. It assumes that we recognize that we are a part of at least one family our biological family, our local community, or our national community - but then
challenges us to consider the full range of relationships with others.
There are three qualities individuals must possess to make ethical decisions. The
first is the ability to recognize ethical issues and to reason through the ethical
consequences of decisions. The ability to see second and third order effects, one
of the elements of strategic thinking, is very important. The second is the ability to
look at alternative points of view, deciding what is right in a particular set of
circumstances. This is similar to the ability to reframe. And the third is the ability
to deal with ambiguity and uncertainty; making a decision on the best information
available. Ethical Decision Making Model
God's morals = Our values = Our decisions = Our outcomes

15. The Government of the
Philippine Republic
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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ETHICS AND PUBLIC ORIENTATION
An ethical posture toward work in public organizations requires not
only knowing the right answers, but also being willing and able to do what
is right. As public manager, you will often face difficult ethical choices.
These choices may present themselves in several ways. Understanding the
moral implications of your actions and resolving the dilemmas they pose is
one of the most difficult problems you will face working in the public
sector. Consequently, your ability to understand the context in which
public problems arise and to work them out in a careful, reasoned and
ethical fashion will be essential to your success and your own sense of
personal well-being.
Leading thinkers in Public Administration long ago recognized that
the critical issues of government ultimately involved MORAL CHOICES. The
definitive policy decisions by public officials often have at their base
conflicting ethical issues such as whether to give precedence to the public
interest or to the narrower demands of profession, department, bureau
or clientele.

16. The Government of the
Philippine Republic
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CONCEPT: Competing Ethical Obligations
For more than a millennium after the fall of Rome, during a period in
which government all but disappeared in the West, the relationship of the
two powers, the SACRED and the SECULAR – for most purposes to be
equate with church and secular authority, was at the center of political
philosophy and political controversy; but the theoretical and logical
supremacy of the HIGHER LAW was seldom questioned. With the
emergence of the modern state a new era opened. The authority of a
State, even a secular State, to determine right and wrong for its citizens
was powerfully asserted by political theorists. On the other hand, the long
era of Higher Law thinking had left an indelible imprint on thought and
attitude. That there is something to which provides guidance on right and
wrong remains a strong feeling even among those who regard themselves
as completely secular. The discussion on higher law has indicated that the
initial duality of PUBLIC MORALITY and the PRIVATE MORALITY was
simplistic.

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Philippine Republic
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The Different ETHICAL OBLIGATIONS
1st. OBLIGATION TO THE CONSTITUTION. This is a legal obligation of
course, but it is also a source of ethical obligations, which may be
symbolized and solemnized by an oath to uphold and defend the
constitution.
2nd. OBLIGATION TO LAW. Law made under the constitution are a source
not just of legal obligation but also of ethical obligations, as public service
codes of ethics normally underscore.
3rd. OBLIGATION TO NATION OR COUNTRY. By most interpretations, a
nation or country or people is separable from regime and plainly sense of
identity with a nation, country or people creates ethical obligations.
4th. OBLIGATION TO DEMOCRACY. It came to be accepted as an ideology
or ethics and as a set of practices that somewhat overlie and somewhat
intertwine with the constitution. The emotional and intellectual
acceptance of democracy creates obligations that are acknowledge and
usually felt by the public administrator.

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5th. OBLIGATION TO ORGANIZATIONAL – BUREAUCRATIC NORMS. These
may be logically divided between those that are generic and those that
are specific. The generic obligations are deeply rooted, perhaps in human
nature, certainly in history and culture. They are associated with such
terms as loyalty, duty and order, as well as productivity, economy and
efficiency. Specific obligations will depend upon circumstance – the
function, the clientele, the technology.
6th. OBLIGATION TO THE PROFESSION AND PROFESSIONALISM. A
profession, a well-developed occupation, has an ethos that concerns
actions pertaining to fellow professionals, clients, patients, employers and
humanity in general.
7th. OBLIGATION TO FAMILY AND FRIENDS. Obligation to family is
bedrock in most if not all morality.

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CONFLICTS BETWEEN PRIVATE AND PUBLIC MORALITY IN PUBLIC
ADMINSTRATION
The problem of conflict between a public official’s private moral
commitments and the public interest has troubled scholars since the
earliest works of literature. In modern political theory, it is often
characterized as the problem of “DIRTY HANDS.” Examples of the problem
of dirty hands include that of the head of State who must lie, despite his
private belief in total honest disclosure, to protect highly sensitive
information. In another example, a social worker recognizes a personal
moral obligation to provide funds to an impoverished family but must
deny them to keep the agency’s budget in balance.
Such conflicts have often been interpreted as oppositions of two distinct
and incompatible moral systems, one PUBLIC and the other PRIVATE.
Some ethicist regard the opposition as so irreconcilable that the moral
characters of the private individual and the public official should be
different to conform to the different systems to which each is subject.
Under such an interpretation, the head of State and the social worker
must choose between separate moral structures, one PRIVATE and one
PUBLIC.

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Such a dichotomy between PUBLIC and PRIVATE MORALITY contradicts the
concept of a UNIFIED ETHICS, which encompasses different conclusions and
different styles but subsumes them under the same moral frame work. The
UNIFIED ETHIC is not a combining of a distinct professional ethic with a private
morality but the application of one moral structure within the context of
professional obligations, which sometimes may be overridden if the ethic so
demands.
The alleged dichotomy between PUBLIC and PRIVATE MORALITY also overlooks the
importance of private moral convictions in justifying the legitimacy of government
action. For example, let us suppose that a society is convinced that its best
financial interests would be served by the military takeover of a small, powerless
nation. Would the public official then be, required by the conditions of his office to
follow the public wishes? If our theory is correct, the answer could be negative.
We maintain that the obligation to act in the public interest derives from a
prior, more fundamental moral based in the unified ethic. That ethic, because it is
more fundamental, would bind the public official more than would public opinion.
There are cases in which the public interest threatens to overrule the private
morality of individuals. Power relationships may resolve such issues by an appeal
to force rather than an appeal to morality. Those in positions of power may
dispute that it was the sole determinant in the moral decision and claim that
ethics was the true victor. To that effect, they may argue that, since they believe
themselves to be morally correct, there is no conflict between might and right;
both, they would assert, are on the same side. However, what is needed in such
cases is a higher order of ethical analysis.