1. RECEPTIVE SKILLS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
Magdalena Bobek
Introduction
As language teachers we know that language skills cannot be taught separately, but are
tackled simultaneously within the language teaching process. In my assignment I would like
to discuss the two receptive skills of reading and listening. Judging from past experience, I
find these two skills very demanding for young learners, but essential to master in their
language acquisition. In analysing some of the key issues related to reading and listening, I
will also try to point out some of the problems associated with the teaching of the skills and
discuss possible solutions with particular reference to my own teaching context.
Reading: Key Issues and Problems
There are many reasons why we read. Examples taken from Rivers and Timperley (1978:187)
of some of the reasons that L2 students read, include:
- to obtain information for some purpose or because we are curious about some topic
- to obtain instructions on how to perform some task for our work or daily life
- to keep in touch with friends by correspondence or to understand business letters
- to know when or where something will take place or what is available
- to know what is happening or has happened (as reported in newspapers, magazines,
reports)
- for enjoyment or excitement
The aim in teaching reading is to help L2 learners become as efficient readers as possible in
English as their second or foreign language. Wallace (1992:74) claims that:
The more fluently and widely the second language reader reads, the more exposure to
the key structures and vocabulary of the second language he or she gains.
This makes sense, but there are also other factors that influence reading comprehension and
reader efficiency. A key issue involved in reading is the manner in which texts are decoded
by the reader. McDonough and Shaw (2003:97) refer to the 'top-down' and 'bottom-up'
strategies working together to achieve comprehension. In the top-down approach readers
interact with the text by 'activating knowledge of the world, plus past experiences,

2. expectations and intuitions, to arrive at a meaning of the text' (ibid). The bottom-up approach,
as Hockly (2007: 89) states,
[…] starts from the individual symbols (or sounds, in the case of listening),
words, grammatical class, sentence structure, and allows the reader/listener to build up
meaning from the constituent parts of the text.
The readers' knowledge of the world or 'schematic knowledge', as defined by Alptekin
(1993:136) is:
[…] an important part of the 'fit' which exists between people's culture-specific
cognition and their native language.
Cook (1997:86) explains that 'schemas vary according to cultural norms and individual
experience'. This is what the reader brings to the text which in turn influences how he/she
processes it, or in Alptekin's (1993:137) words:
[…] readers make use of culture-specific schemas in relating input to what they already
know and, consequently, construct the writer’s intended meaning.
According to Alptekin (ibid), the problem arises when the learners' schematic knowledge
comes into contact with teaching material containing target-language cultural elements. When
the cultural background elements are missing and there is a lack of knowledge of the L2
culture, reading becomes 'a time-consuming, laborious, and frustrating experience'(Brown et
al., 1977:no pagination in Alptekin ibid). Paran (1996:27), summarizing Wallace (1992),
believes that L2 readers become more dependent on the bottom-up approach. He argues that
because of their insufficient linguistic ability, they also need 'a large amount of contextual
support, since many of the words they are decoding are either unknown to them or accessed
slowly' (ibid:29).
One of the main reasons for the difficulties presented above is the material used in English
Language Teaching (hereafter ELT). According to Alptekin (1993:138): 'most textbook
writers are native speakers', who write ' chiefly through culture-specific schemas' acquired in
'their own English-speaking society'. He also makes the point that it is not economical for
publishers to use the learner's cultural content, because it would not be appropriate for
learners in other cultures (ibid). Widdowson (1996:68) argues, however, that contexts 'cannot
be replicated versions of native-speaker contexts of use', and as summarized by Hockly
(2007:96), he advocates 'carefully chosen texts' to which L2 readers can respond
'authentically'. As a result, coursebooks vary in authentic material. Whatever the case may be,

3. it remains up to the teacher to select and evaluate the importance that texts have for the L2
learners in their language acquisition and to use them to this end.
Teaching Reading: Problems and Solutions
It is my belief that teachers should not be slaves to their coursebooks, but should choose
materials for classroom use wisely, keeping in mind their learners' needs and purposes for
reading. Sometimes certain texts may be omitted, either because of their irrelevance to the
purpose at hand or lack of time. Teachers may also want to use supplementary reading
material from other sources, which will better serve the aim of the lesson. McDonough and
Shaw (2003:99) suggest that teachers should supply 'materials that stimulate interest and do
not have an overfamiliar content.'. Alptekin suggests building:
conceptual bridges between the culturally familiar and the unfamiliar […] through the
use of comparisons as techniques of cross-cultural comprehension or
the exploitation of universal concepts of human experience as reference points for the
interpretation of unfamiliar data.'(1993:141-142).
All this would certainly help stimulate the L2 readers' schematic knowledge. It is important,
however, to remember that in the majority of language classes learners' knowledge varies
extremely, and that some learners have difficulty getting close to any reading material. That is
why I strongly support pre-reading tasks, as they serve to bring the text closer to the reader
allowing for easier interaction. They can include discussions of pupils' similar life
experiences, discussions of similar topics in articles from newspapers, magazines or the
Internet or a questionnaire on the topic. In the young learner classroom pre-reading activities
can be done either in L1 or L2, depending on the linguistic ability of the learners. The
learners' first connection with the reading material is through the eyes of the teacher and the
way he/she presents it. Once a link between reader and topic has been made, reading can
begin, as well as the particular tasks planned for the given text.
McDonough and Shaw (2003:95) believe that it is important to 'match reading skill to reading
purpose', something I fully agree with. It is also important to clearly define what we want to
do with a certain text and not to overdo the tasks related to it. When working with texts, it
would be wise to take Gairns and Redman's (2003: 170) advice into consideration, which is:
'set a clear task, set a time limit, clarify the reading aims, have a clear policy on vocabulary
pre-teaching'.

4. Some of the activity types presented by Greenall and Swan (1986:3-5) are frequently used in
my teaching context, such as 'dealing with unfamiliar words', which also include exploring
lexical sets and other collocations. 'Checking comprehension, extracting main ideas' and
'reading for specific information' (ibid) often follow the first reading. The activities depend on
the type of text we are dealing with, whether it is a short story, an article, a dialogue, a recipe
or a letter, as well as the reading itself, whether it is individual reading, group reading or
reading out loud. When practising a grammatical structure, I try to connect it to the content of
the corresponding text which allows the pupils to focus not only on the structure as such, but
also on understanding the meaning it conveys within the text. By linking the reading content
to the pupils' own life experiences and letting them continue with the grammar in this more
familiar context, they are able to remember the grammatical structure better, and remain the
focal point within the learning process.
In my attempt to help slow readers, I often put pupils into mixed ability groups where they
take turns reading out loud to each other. In each group there are more or less the same
number of pupils as there are paragraphs in a given text. The texts are carefully chosen and
range from 4 to 5 paragraphs maximum. Each pupil is responsible for one of the paragraphs.
He/she must read it out loud to the rest of the group, lead the group discussion in analysing
unknown words or phrases and paraphrase the main idea in the paragraph. Slower learners
feel less intimidated and participate better. Like Wallace, I also believe it is important to
'ensure that text, context, and reading task give maximum support to the second language
learner's current linguistic and schematic knowledge' (1992:42-43).
'Automaticity of word recognition', referred to by Paran (1996:30), as well as word meaning,
is something I strive for with my learners. One way of achieving this is by exposing them to
as much reading as possible through the annual reading badge competition prepared by the
DZS – Epicenter in Ljubljana. Books are carefully chosen for each level of language learning
and include topics ranging from detective stories to science fiction and romance. For pupils,
who excel in the language, I often choose texts that they can approach with a critical eye,
texts that have the 'potential to raise issues', as Wallace (1992:103) suggests, and allow
readers to challenge and react to the author's point of view based on their own life
experiences. Critical reading is welcome in the ELT classroom, as it breaks the monotony of
reading only for grammar purposes and gives reading a new freshness.

5. Listening: Key Issues
There are quite a few similarities between listening and reading. Hockly (2007:104-105)
summaries that:
Both imply the processing and comprehension of either spoken or written
discourse, and therefore draw on knowledge of spoken and written grammar. Both
imply knowledge of different text types, and the fact that there are corresponding ways
of listening and reading. […] Schematic knowledge is clearly
important for both activities, as are bottom-up and top-down processing.
McDonough and Shaw (2003:118), however, present some particularities that apply only to
listening, one of them being that the listener cannot go back to what has been said, unless it
has been recorded or purposely repeated; various sounds in the background can interfere with
the understanding of the message being conveyed; verbal speech is often accompanied by
visual aid and is grammatically less complicated; there is also a tendency to change the topic
or leave sentences unfinished. They go on to explain that authentic spoken language varies:
[…] in degrees of formality, in length, in the speed of delivery, in the accent of the
speaker, in the role of the listener, and according to whether it is face to face or
mediated in some way (ibid:119).
All these facts prove that even though listening is categorised as a receptive skill, it is very
closely linked to speaking, since the listener's ability to interpret the spoken message is
influenced by the factors governing it.
What is actually involved in listening? According to Vandergrift (1999:168):
It is a complex, active process in which the listener must discriminate between sounds,
understand vocabulary and structures, interpret stress and intonation, retain what was
gathered in all the above, and interpret it within the immediate as well as the larger
sociocultural context of the utterance.
Because of 'the transient nature of the language material' (McDonough and Shaw 2003:119)
listening requires the listener to recognize and process both the micro-skills involving sound
together with those involving meaning in order to achieve comprehension (ibid:120-121).
The role the listener plays in a given situation is also important, whether he/she is only the
recipient of language in the so-called 'transactional speech', referred to by Brown and Yule
(1983a, in McDonough and Shaw:119), or 'both listener and speaker' in 'collaborative' speech,
as referred to by Rost (1990,1994, in ibid) In the latter speech the listener plays a role 'in
shaping and contolling the direction in which it moves' (ibid). The listener must also be aware

6. of features of spoken discourse, such as Grice's (1975) politeness and co-operative principles,
which may influence comprehension. Let us also not forget the background knowledge that a
learner has, as well as his/her schema, which influence how he/she will interpret and react to
the spoken message (McDonough and Shaw 2003). Listening in the young learner classroom
is a very demanding skill to master mainly because of the different obstacles the learners
have to overcome during the listening process.
Teaching Listening: Problems and Solutions
Some of the problems in teaching listening include the 'speed' of the listening material, which,
as Underwood (1989, in McDonough and Shaw 2003:125) points out, cannot be controlled.
He also points out that some learners have a limited vocabulary and attempt to understand
every word, but fail to recognize 'signals' (ibid). Lack of background knowledge causes an
even greater void between the listener and the listening material and learners may find it
difficult to concentrate in L2 (ibid). As Ridgway (2000:181) points out, they listen with only
'half and ear'. Another important matter is the listening material itself. It is important not to
use texts that are too long or too advanced for the learners' level of knowledge. According to
Field (2000:186), when weak L2 listeners and readers are confronted 'with texts of ever-
increasing complexity', they simply 'give up'. To overcome this problem Thornbury (2001:59)
advocates the use of 'material that is within students’ linguistic competence', or to 'adapt it
accordingly'.
It often takes a lot of effort on the part of the teacher to keep the learners motivated
throughout the entire listening activity. Pre-listening activities are of major importance in
activating the learners' 'knowledge schema' (McDonough and Shaw 2003:127). What is
important here is to set the scene, so that the pupils can build an image in their minds of what
they are about to listen to. 'It is also an oppportunity to pre-teach essential vocabulary and
provide clear task orientation' (Hockly 2007:115). Underwood's (1989:112-114) examples of
'while' listening activities are similar to those in my teaching context. The type of activity
used, however, depends a lot on the listening material itself. Pupils with limited vocabulary
often work in pairs together with better pupils, to get as much out of the listening as possible.
I will pause from time to time to allow for reflection. Comprehension questions are used to
check the pupils' general understanding of the material. However, I often add 'comprehending'
questions as well, a strategy advocated by Thornbury (2001:59), whose answers cannot be

7. found on surface level, but require a deeper understanding of the text. This usually triggers
discussion which can be very interesting. The post-listening activities in my teaching context
can range from easy exercises like filling in the blanks or role play to more demanding ones
like writing an ending or a description of one of the characters. The level of difficulty of the
activity depends on the linguistic ability of the learners themselves.
Pronunciation of the listening material is a key to understanding it. According to Underwood
(1989:98) 'students need to practise listening to the kind of speech they will actually
encounter in real life’. Since English is becoming an international language, Andrewes
(1993:48), as summarized by Hockly (2007:112), considers it wise for listeners to experience
'non-native speaker accents' as well. The listening material I use offers a fair amount of
different accents, even though the British one still prevails. To compensate for that I
sometimes invite foreign speakers to give talks in order to expose the learners to as many
accents as possible. Participating in international projects has given pupils the opportunity to
practise not only the listening skill, but all the others as well and become 'participants' in real
encounters, not just 'overhearers', as mentioned by Hockly (2007:107). Giving pupils frequent
opportunities to interact in the target language, such as in class debates or group presentations
on topics of interest forces them to start thinking in English as well.
Conclusion
Language skills are not separate entities. They frequently overlap and influence each other
throughout the learning process. Reading and listening efficiency in L2 is influenced by the
learners' schema, which, according to Cook (1997:86), 'can help explain students'
comprehension problems'; by the learner's linguistic ability and by the reading and listening
material. Learners have 'individual learning styles' , according to Field (2000:187), and so the
strategies used by the teacher in achieving comprehension are vitally important. In teaching
the language skills a greater focus should be put on the needs of the learners and their
purposes for learning the language.

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY:
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