1. Hybrid inverter
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Hybrid inverter
Submitted in partialfulfillment of the requirements for the
award of degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Submitted By:
Name Roll No
Name Roll No
Name Roll No
Name Roll No
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
College Name
SUBMITTED TO: …………………………

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Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 6
Problem definition........................................................................................................................... 7
Project Objective............................................................................................................................. 7
Literature review............................................................................................................................. 8
Classification............................................................................................................................... 9
Maximum power point tracking................................................................................................ 10
Solar micro-inverters................................................................................................................. 10
Grid tied Hybrid inverters......................................................................................................... 11
Solar pumping inverters............................................................................................................ 12
Market ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Methodology................................................................................................................................. 15
Block diagram............................................................................................................................... 15
Circuit diagram ............................................................................................................................. 16
Components required Inverter .................................................................................................. 17
Working of DC to AC Inverter ................................................................................................. 18
Linear power supply.................................................................................................................. 20
Electrical Transformer .............................................................................................................. 20
The Basic Working Principle.................................................................................................... 21
Application and advantage............................................................................................................ 23
Disadvantage................................................................................................................................. 36
Future scope .................................................................................................................................. 36
References..................................................................................................................................... 37

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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project report entitled “Hybrid inverter” submitted is our original work
and the report has not formed the basis for the award of any degree, associate ship, fellowship or
any other similar title.
Signature:
Name:
Enrollment no:
Date:

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled “Hybrid inverter” is the bonafide work carried
out by students of “College Name” during the year 2018 in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the Degree of B. Tech. The report has not formed the basis for
the award previously of any degree, diploma, associate ship, fellowship or any other similar title.
Signature of the guide:
Date:

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude and heart full thanks to all those who are
helping me in complete this project.
I want to thank to “guide name”, who has always encouraged and help me in making
this project. In addition to this, I am grateful to other faculties too who made me in right
direction and gave me their precious time and expert guidance whenever necessary through
which I could achieve this extent.
At last but not the least I am feeling glad to say about my family whose wishes are
always with me, without which it was not possible for me to reach this extent.
I hope my work is praised and my efforts render fruitful result.
THANK YOU
Signature:
Name:

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Chapter 1
Introduction

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Introduction
The need of running AC Loads on solar energy leads us to the design of Solar Power
Inverter.. Since the majority of modern conveniences all run on 220 volts AC, the Power
Inverter will be the heart of the Solar Energy System. It not only converts the low voltage 12
volts DC to the 220 volts AC that runs most appliances, but also can charge the batteries if
connected to the utility grid as in the case of a totally independent stand-alone solar power
system. These are special inverters which are designed to draw energy from a battery, manage
the battery charge via an onboard charger.
An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC);
the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate
transformers, switching, and control circuits. Solid-state inverters have no moving parts and are
used in a wide range of applications, from small switching power supplies in computers, to large
electric utility high-voltage direct current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are
commonly used to supply AC power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.
Problem definition
The high energy demand and the constant depletion of the fossil fuels lead us to shift our focus to
renewable energy sources which are not only the future unlimited source of energy, it is also eco-
friendly and viable for the environment. Solar energy is the oldest form of Renewable Energy.
This project focuses on the design of Hybrid inverter which is required to run AC loads which is
mostly used as consumable purpose.
Project Objective
The objective of this project is to design and develop Hybrid inverter using solar panel, IC 4047
multivibrator, mosfets and transformer.
It has battery charging circuit to charge the battery using mains when solar is not available.

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Chapter 2 Literature
review

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Literature review
Internal view of a Hybrid inverter. Note the many large capacitors (blue cylinders), used to store
energy briefly and improve the output waveform.
A Hybrid inverter or PV inverter, is a type of electrical converter which converts the variable
direct current (DC) output of a photovoltaic (PV) solar panel into a utility frequency alternating
current (AC) that can be fed into a commercial electrical grid or used by a local, off-grid
electrical network. It is a critical balance of system (BOS)–component in a photovoltaic system,
allowing the use of ordinary AC-powered equipment. Solar power inverters have special
functions adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays, including maximum power point tracking and
anti-islanding protection.
Classification
Hybrid inverters may be classified into three broad types:
1. Stand-alone inverters, used in isolated systems where the inverter draws its DC energy
from batteries charged by photovoltaic arrays. Many stand-alone inverters also
incorporate integral battery chargers to replenish the battery from an AC source, when
available. Normally these do not interface in any way with the utility grid, and as such,
are not required to have anti-islanding protection.

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2. Grid-tie inverters, which match phase with a utility-supplied sine wave. Grid-tie inverters
are designed to shut down automatically upon loss of utility supply, for safety reasons.
They do not provide backup power during utility outages.
3. Battery backup inverters, are special inverters which are designed to draw energy from a
battery, manage the battery charge via an onboard charger, and export excess energy to
the utility grid. These inverters are capable of supplying AC energy to selected loads
during a utility outage, and are required to have anti-islanding protection.[clarification needed]
Maximum power point tracking
Hybrid inverters use maximum power point tracking (MPPT) to get the maximum possible
power from the PV array.[3] Solar cells have a complex relationship between solar irradiation,
temperature and total resistance that produces a non-linear output efficiency known as the I-V
curve. It is the purpose of the MPPT system to sample the output of the cells and determine a
resistance (load) to obtain maximum power for any given environmental conditions.[4]
The fill factor, more commonly known by its abbreviation FF, is a parameter which, in
conjunction with the open circuit voltage (Voc) and short circuit current (Isc) of the panel,
determines the maximum power from a solar cell. Fill factor is defined as the ratio of the
maximum power from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc.[5]
There are three main types of MPPT algorithms: perturb-and-observe, incremental conductance
and constant voltage. The first two methods are often referred to as hill climbing methods; they
rely on the curve of power plotted against voltage rising to the left of the maximum power point,
and falling on the right.
Solar micro-inverters

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A solar micro-inverter in the process of being installed. The ground wire is attached to the lug
and the panel's DC connections are attached to the cables on the lower right. The AC parallel
trunk cable runs at the top (just visible).
Solar micro-inverter is an inverter designed to operate with a single PV module. The micro-
inverter converts the direct current output from each panel into alternating current. Its design
allows parallel connection of multiple, independent units in a modular way.[8]
Micro-inverter advantages include single panel power optimization, independent operation of
each panel, plug-and play installation, improved installation and fire safety, minimized costs
with system design and stock minimization.
A 2011 study at Appalachian State University reports that individual integrated inverter setup
yielded about 20% more power in unshaded conditions and 27% more power in shaded
conditions compared to string connected setup using one inverter. Both setups used identical
solar panels.
Grid tied Hybrid inverters
Solar grid-tie inverters are designed to quickly disconnect from the grid if the utility grid goes
down. This is an NEC requirement that ensures that in the event of a blackout, the grid tie
inverter will shut down to prevent the energy it produces from harming any line workers who are
sent to fix the power grid.

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Grid-tie inverters that are available on the market today use a number of different technologies.
The inverters may use the newer high-frequency transformers, conventional low-frequency
transformers, or no transformer. Instead of converting direct current directly to 120 or 240 volts
AC, high-frequency transformers employ a computerized multi-step process that involves
converting the power to high-frequency AC and then back to DC and then to the final AC output
voltage.
Historically, there have been concerns about having transformerless electrical systems feed into
the public utility grid. The concerns stem from the fact that there is a lack of galvanic isolation
between the DC and AC circuits, which could allow the passage of dangerous DC faults to the
AC side.[11] Since 2005, the NFPA's NEC allows transformer-less (or non-galvanically)
inverters. The VDE 0126-1-1 and IEC 6210 also have been amended to allow and define the
safety mechanisms needed for such systems. Primarily, residual or ground current detection is
used to detect possible fault conditions. Also isolation tests are performed to ensure DC to AC
separation.
Many Hybrid inverters are designed to be connected to a utility grid, and will not operate when
they do not detect the presence of the grid. They contain special circuitry to precisely match the
voltage, frequency and phase of the grid.
Solar pumping inverters
Advanced solar pumping inverters convert DC voltage from the solar array into AC voltage to
drive submersible pumps directly without the need for batteries or other energy storage devices.
By utilizing MPPT (maximum power point tracking), solar pumping inverters regulate output
frequency to control the speed of the pumps in order to save the pump motor from damage.
Solar pumping inverters usually have multiple ports to allow the input of DC current generated
by PV arrays, one port to allow the output of AC voltage, and a further port for input from a
water-level sensor.
Market

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As of 2014, conversion efficiency for state-of-the-art solar converters reached more than 98
percent. While string inverters are used in residential to medium-sized commercial PV systems,
central inverters cover the large commercial and utility-scale market. Market-share for central
and string inverters are about 50 percent and 48 percent, respectively, leaving less than 2 percent
to micro-inverters.[12]
Inverter/converter market in 2014
Type Power Efficiency(a)
Market
share(b)
Remarks
String inverter up to 100 kWp
(c) 98% 50%
Cost(b) €0.15 per watt-peak. Easy to
replace.
Central
inverter
above 100 kWp 98.5% 48%
€0.10 per watt-peak. High reliability.
Often sold along with a service contract.
Micro-inverter
module power
range
90%–95% 1.5%
€0.40 per watt-peak. Ease of replacement
concerns.
DC/DC
converter
Power
optimizer
module power
range
98.8% N/A
€0.40 per watt-peak. Ease of replacement
concerns. Inverter is still needed. About
0.75 GWP installed in 2013.

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Chapter 3
Methodology

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Methodology
Block diagram
Stepdown
transformer
Battery
charger
Mosfetdriver
circuit
Solarpanel
Battery
AC power
Stepup
transformer

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Circuit diagram

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Components required Inverter
1. Step down 0-15 v 1amp transformer.
2. 1N4007 diode.
3. 7815 voltage regulator.
4. Solar panel.
5. led
6. IC CD4047
7. Resistors (1K, 18K, 100Ω- 0.5W x 2)
8. Capacitor (0.22µF)
9. 12V rechargeable battery
10. Battery charger circuit(Published before)
11. IRFZ44 MOSFET x 2
12. Step Down Transformer (230V primary 12V-0-12V, 5A secondary) (110V to 12V-0-
12V, 5A can also be used) NB:- Transformer connection inverted
Calculations for solar energy
To determine the size of PV modules, the required. Energy consumption must be
estimated. Therefore, the power is calculated as
PS = Ins (t) * AS*Eff(pv)
Where,
Ins (t) = isolation at time t (kw/ m2)
AS = area of single PV panel (m2)
Effpv = overall efficiency of the PV panels and dc/dc converters.

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Overall efficiency is given by,
Eff(pv)= H * PR
Where,
H = Annual average solar radiation on tilted panels.
PR = Performance ratio, coefficient for losses.
Working of DC to AC Inverter
Step down transformer, bridge rectifier, a smoothing capacitor and the LM78155 chip which
contains a 'linear voltage regulator'. Transformer is used to convert 220 VAC to 18VAC. Bridge
rectifier is used to convert AC to ripple DC. Capacitor is used to filter ripples from dc. 7815
voltage regulator is used to regulate voltage to 15 VDC. LED is used for indication power supply
is working or not.
 The inverter circuit is built around IC CD4047 which is wired as astable multivibrator.
 The operating frequency of astable multivibrator is set to 50Hz.
 The power MOSFETs IRFZ44 are directly driven by the Q and Q’ output of CD4047.
 The power MOSFETs are connected in Push Pull configuration (Power amplifier). The
MOSFETs will switch according to the pulse from CD4047 astable multivibrator.
 Thus an AC voltage is transferred to the primary of transformer; it is stepped up to 230V.

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 The transformer used here is an ordinary step down transformer which is connected in
inverted manner. That is, the primary of a 230V to 12V-0-12V step down transformer can
be treated as secondary for this inverter project.
 If you would like to get 110V AC, choose 110V to 12V-0-12V step down transformer in
reversed way. (That is primary as secondary and secondary as primary)
 The inverter output is filtered by capacitor C2.
 Use suitable heat sinks for MOSFETs.
Transformer:
The electrical transformer receives on the primary winding an AC voltage and delivers on the
secondary winding a different AC voltage (a lower one). This AC output voltage must be
according to the DC voltage we want to obtain at the end. For example: If we want to obtain a
final DC voltage of 12 volts, the secondary windings of the transformer must have an AC voltage
no less of 9 volts.
The peak value on the secondary winding of the transformer will be Vp = 1.41 x 9 = 12.69 volts.
Even thought this value is very close to the one we wanted to get, it is not recommended because
we need to take into account that the voltage drops at different stages (blocks) of the power
supply. In this case, we can choose a transformer with a 12 volts AC secondary winding. With
this AC voltage, we can get a peak voltage of: Vp = 12 x 1.41 = 16.92 volts.
Rectifier:
The output of transformer is given as an input to the rectifier block. The rectifier transforms the
secondary winding AC voltage into a pulsating DC voltage. . In our case, we use a ½ wave
rectifier, which eliminates the negative part of the wave an half wave rectifier conducts only
during the positive half cycle of the AC input.
Filter:

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The filter, formed by one or more capacitors, flattens or smoothes the previous wave eliminating
the alternating current (AC) component delivered by the rectifier. These capacitors are charged
to the maximum voltage value that the rectifier can deliver, and they are discharged when the
pulsating signal disappears.
Voltage regulator:
The voltage regulator receives the signal from the filter and delivers a constant voltage (let’s say
12 DC volts) regardless of the variations on the load or the voltage supply The dc signals are
further given to the regulator that maintains the output of the power supply at a constant level.
Linear power supply
A linear regulated power supply regulates the output voltage by dropping excess voltage in a
series dissipative component. They use a moderately complex regulator circuit to achieve
very low load and line regulation. Linear regulated power supplies also have very little ripple
and very little output noise. The above power supply is linear power supply.
Electrical Transformer
Transformers are capable of receiving AC power at one voltage and delivering it at another
voltage. In this article, we will go through the working and construction of a 3 phase transformer
by starting from its simplest form. We will also understand what power transformer is and how it
is constructed.
Why Transformers are used?
Transformers are ubiquitous devices. They are used to either step-up the A.C voltage or to step-
down it. But, why should we do this voltage transformation? It is a science fact that a stepped-up
voltage is associated with a reduced current. A reduced current leads to low eddy current energy
loss. In this way, transformers help achieve better transmission efficiency while transferring the
power over longer distances.

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Fig.1 Transformers help in step-up or step-down the voltage; this in turn increases the
transmission efficiency
After the electrical power has transmitted to the desired spot, the voltage can be reduced to the
desired level, using a step-down transformer.
The Basic Working Principle
The basic working principle of a transformer is simple, electromagnetic induction. According to
this principle, a varying magnetic flux associated with a loop will induce an electromotive force
across it. Such a fluctuating magnetic field can easily be produced by a coil and an alternating
E.M.F (EP) system. A current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it. The
magnetic field produced by a coil will be as shown in the first part of Fig.2. With the fluctuating
nature of the alternating current, the magnetic field associated with the coil will also fluctuate.
This magnetic flux can be effectively linked to a secondary winding with the help of a core made
up of a ferromagnetic material. The linked magnetic flux is shown in the second part of Fig.2.
This fluctuating magnetic field will induce an E.M.F in the secondary coils due to
electromagnetic induction. The induced E.M.F is denoted by ES.

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Fig.2 AC current in a coil produces a fluctuating magnetic field; this magnetic field can
effectively linked to a secondary coil with the help of a core
Since the turns are arranged in a series, the net E.M.F induced across the winding will be sum of
the individual E.M.Fs (eS) induced in each turn. Nsrepresents, number of turns at the secondary
winding.
Since the same magnetic flux is passing through the primary and secondary coils, the EMF per
turn for both the primary and secondary coils will be the same.
The E.M.F per turn for the primary coil is related to the applied input voltage as shown.
By rearraging the above equations, it can be established that, the induced E.M.F at the secondary
coil is expressed as follows.
This simply means that with fewer turns in the secondary than in primary, one can lower the
voltage. Such transformers are known as step-down transformers. For the reverse case, one can
increase the voltage (step-up transformer).

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But since energy is conserved, the primary and secondary currents have to obey the following
relationship.
PCB Designing:
If you are into electronics, PCBs are the most common things you will see. These
boards make our lives easier by eliminating all those connecting wires and
breadboards. If properly designed, it even makes our project look smaller and
sexy.
What is a circuit board? A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and
electrically connects electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and
other features etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive
substrate.A printed circuit board has pre-designed copper tracks on a conducting
sheet. The pre-defined tracks reduce the wiring thereby reducing the faults
arising due to lose connections. One needs to simply place the components on
the PCB and solder them.

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In this cool tutorial, I will show you how you can make circuit boards at home
easily. Doing so will save you a lot of time from debugging and double checking
the connections on a breadboard. You could even make your own arduino after
going through this tutorial: DIY Arduino and the current one. So, sit back and see
how its done really easily :)
What are the different ways tomake a Circuit Board?
There are in all three basic methods to make PCB:
1. Iron on Glossy paper method.
2. Circuit by hand on PCB.
3. Laser cutting edge etching.
Since laser method is industrial method to make PCB we will get in detail of first
two methods to make PCB at home.
PCB Design:
PCB design is usually done by converting your circuit’s schematic diagram into a
PCB layout using PCB layout software. There are many cool open source software
packages for PCB layout creation and design.
Some are listed here to give you a head-start:
1. CadsoftEagle (http://www.cadsoftusa.com/download-eagle/?language=en)
2. PCBWizard (http://pcb-wizard.software.informer.com/4.0/)

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Design your circuit schematic in Cadsoft Eagle:
In Eagle: File> Export>ImageBe sureto set DPIG to 1200 for better quality
What are the stuff requiredtomake a Circuit Board?

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You also need: FeCl3 powder/solution (same as etching solution), photo/glossy
paper, permanent black marker, blade cutter, sandpaper, kitchen paper, cotton
wool.
For this tutorial, lets consider making a PCB for a simple project- a Touch Switch
using IC555.
STEP 1: Take printout of circuit board layout
Take a print out of your PCB layout using the laser printer and the A4 photo
paper/glossy paper. Keep in mind the following points:
 You should take the mirror print out.
 Select the output in black both from the PCB design software and printer
driver settings.
 Make surethat the printout is made on the glossy side of the paper.
PCB print on glossy paper
STEP 2: Cutting the copper plate for the circuit board

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Cut the copper board according to the size of layoutusing a hacksaw or a cutter.
Copper clad plate
Cutting the plate
Next, rub the copper side of PCB using steel woolor abrasivespongy scrubs. This
removes the top oxide layer of copper as well as the photo resists layer. Sanded
surfaces also allows the image fromthe paper to stick better.

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Rubbing away the top oxide layer
STEP 3: Transferring the PCB print ontothe copper plate
Method 1 Iron on glossy paper method (for complex circuits): Transfer the
printed image (taken from a laser printer) from the photo paper to the board.
Make sure to flip top layer horizontally. Put the copper surface of the board on
the printed layout. Ensure that the board is aligned correctly along the borders of
the printed layout. And use tape to hold the board and the printed paper in the
correctposition.

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Place the printed side of the paper on the plate
Method 2 Circuit by hand on PCB (for simple and small circuits): Taking the
circuit as reference, draw a basic sketch on copper plate with pencil and then
by using a permanent black marker.
Using the permanent marker for sketching the PCB
STEP 4: Ironing the circuit fromthe paper onto the PCB plate
 After printing on glossy paper, we iron it image side down to copper side.
Heat up the electric iron to the maximum temperature.
 Put the board and photo paper arrangement on a clean wooden
table (covered with a table cloth) with the back of the photo paper facing
you.
 Using pliers or a spatula, hold one end and keep it steady. Then put the hot
iron on the other end for about 10 seconds. Now, iron the photo paper all
along using the tip and applying little pressurefor about 5 to 15 mins.
 Pay attention towards the edges of the board – you need to apply pressure,
do the ironing slowly.
 Doing a long hard press seems to work better than moving the iron around.

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 Here, the heat fromthe iron transfers the ink printed on the glossy paper to
the copper plate.
Iron the paper onto the plate
CAUTION:Do not directly touch copper plate becauseit is very hot due to ironing.
After ironing, place printed plate in luke warm water for around 10 minutes.
Paper will dissolve, then remove paper gently. Remove the paper off by peeling it
froma low angle.
Peeling the paper

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In some cases while removing the paper, some of the tracks get fainted. In the
figure below, you can see that the track is light in colour hence we can use a black
marker to darken it as shown.
Light trace
Darkening the trace
STEP 5:Etching the plate
You need to be really careful while performing this step.
 Firstput rubber or plastic gloves.

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 Place some newspaper on the bottom so that the etching solution does not
spoil your floor.
 Take a plastic box and fill it up with some water.
 Dissolve2-3 tea spoon of ferric chloride power in the water.
 Dip the PCB into the etching solution (Ferric chloride solution, FeCl3) for
approximately 30 mins.
 The FeCl3 reacts with the unmasked copper and removes the unwanted
copper from the PCB.
 This process is called as Etching. Use pliers to take out the PCB and check if
the entire unmasked area has been etched or not. In case it is not etched
leave it for somemore time in the solution.

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Etching the plate
Gently move the plastic box to and fro so that etching solution reacts with the
exposed copper. The reaction is given as:
Cu + FeCl3 =CuCl3 + Fe
After every two minutes check if all the copper has been removed. If it hasn’t
then place it back in the solution and wait.
CAUTION:Always usegloves while touching the plate having the solution.
Etched copper plate
STEP 6: Cleaning, disposing and final touches for the circuit board
Be careful while disposing the etching solution, since its toxic to fish and other
water organisms. And don’t think about pouring it in the sink when you are done,

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it is illegal to do so and might damage your pipes (hehe, who knew you could get
arrested while making a PCB!). So dilute the etching solution and then throw it
away somewheresafe.
A few drops of thinner (nail polish remover works well) on a pinch of cotton wool
will remove completely the toner/ink on the plate, exposing the copper surface.
Rinse carefully and dry with a clean cloth or kitchen paper. Trim to final size and
smoothen edges with sandpaper.
Removing the ink
Now, drill holes using a PCB driller like this: PCB driller and solder all your cool
components. If you want that traditional green PCB look, apply solder resist paint
on top: PCB lacquer. And finally! your super cool circuit board would be ready!

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Chapter 4 Application
and advantage

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Application and advantage
It is in expensive easy to design.
It has in built battery charging circuit to charge using mains.
It is used in in homes, office.
Disadvantage
 The device may misbehave due to internal circuitry.
 The device is not water resistant keep away from moisture.
Future scope
In future we will add more battery to increase back up time.

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Chapter 5 References

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References
1. Gairns J F 1904. Industrial locomotives for mining, factory, and allied uses. Part II.
Compressed air and internal combustion locomotives Cassier's Mag. 16 363-77 8
copyright S-JPSET : ISSN : 2229-7111, Vol. 2, Issue 1 samriddhi, 2011 Study and
Fabrication of Compressed Air Engine .
2. www.tramwayinfo.com/tr amways/Articles/ Compair2.htm accessed 23 June 2009.
3. Bossel U 2005.Thermodynamic Analysis of Compressed Air Vehiclepulsion European
Fuel Cell Forum.
4. Gairns J F 1904. Industrial locomotives for mining, factory, and allied uses. Part II.
Compressed air and internal combustion locomotives Cassirer's Mag.16 363-77. Bossel U
2005.Thermodynamic Analysis of Compressed Air Vehicle Propulsion European Fuel
Cell Forum.
5. "The Air Car". theaircar.com. http://www.the aircar.com/acf/air-cars/the air
car.html.Retrieved 2008-09-12.
6. www.carazoo.com/autonews/0109200801/Tatas-Air- Car--launch-is-Postponed.
7. www.dnaindia.com/money/report_tamo-s-ambitiousair- car-faces-starting-
trouble_1316093.
8. [9] "Advantages of a compressed air as an energy". theaircar.com.
9. www.theaircar.com/acf/air-cars/energy-storage.html. Retrieved 2008-09-16'.

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