Environmental management A level

o SUSTAINABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
o THE MANAGEMENT OF ENERGY SUPPLY
o ENVIRONMENTAL DEGREDATION
o THE MANAGEMENT OF A DEGRADED ENVIRONMENT

TERMS
 Sustainability - is how biological systems remain diverse
and productive over time. Long-lived and healthy wetlands
and forests are examples of sustainable biological system.
 Renewable energy - energy that comes from resources
which are continually replenished on a human timescale
such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal
heat.
 Non renewable energy - comes from sources that will run
out or will not be replenished in our lifetimes—or even in
many, many lifetimes. e.g. fossil fuels , uranium

 Energy budget - an accounting of the income, use, and
loss of energy esp. in an ecosystem
 Fossil fuel - a natural fuel such as coal or gas, formed
in the geological past from the remains of living
organisms.
 Hydroelectric power - term referring to electricity
generated by hydropower; the production of electrical
power through the use of the gravitational force of
falling or flowing water
 Solar energy - energy from sunlight is captured in solar
panels and converted into electricity.

 Bio fuels - a fuel derived immediately from living
matter. e.g. crops , plants , animal waste .
 Tidal power - is a form of hydropower that converts the
energy of tides into useful forms of power .
 Wind power - power obtained by harnessing the
energy of the wind .
 Nuclear power - electric or motive power generated by
a nuclear reactor .
 Technology - the application of scientific knowledge
for practical purposes, especially in industry .

 Are commodities that are useful to people although
the value and importance of individual resources may
differ between cultures .
TYPES OF RESOURCES
 Natural resources
 Human resources

 They take a long time to form and to be replenished ,
easy to develop and cheap to use, but have become
major polluters of the environment.
COAL
OIL
NATURAL GAS
NUCLEAR ENERGY

 Provided the basis of industrial revolution in Britain,
Western Europe and USA . Despite its exploitation for
almost 2 centuries, it still has far more economically
recoverable reserve than any other fossil fuels 200-400
yrs
 Formed from fossilized plants and consisting of
carbon with various organic and some inorganic
compounds.
 Mined from seams of coal, found sandwiched between
layers of rock in the earth.
 Burnt to provide heat or electricity.

 When burned coal gives off atmospheric pollutants,
including greenhouse gases. e.g. sulphur dioxide and
carbon dioxide.
 Burning coal produces sulphur dioxide, an acidic gas
that contributes to the formation of acid rain. This can
be largely avoided using "flue gas desulphurization" to
clean up the gases before they are released into the
atmosphere. This method uses limestone, and
produces gypsum for the building industry as a by-product.
However, it uses a lot of limestone.

 Like any other fossil fuels, is not even in its distribution
and is often found in areas that are distant from world
markets or a have hostile environment, e.g. the arctic
(Alaska), tropical rainforests (Nigeria and Indonesia),
deserts (Algeria and Middle east).
 This means that oil exploration and exploitation is
expensive, as is the cost of its transport by pipeline or
tanker to world markets.
 A carbon-based liquid formed from fossilized animals.
 Lakes of oil are sandwiched between seams of rock in the
earth.
 Pipes are sunk down to the reservoirs to pump the oil out.
 Widely used in industry and transport.

 When burned, it gives off atmospheric pollutants,
including greenhouse gases.
 Only a limited supply.
 Most world reserves are predicted to become
exhausted within 45 years.

 Has become the fastest growing energy resource
 It provides an alternative to coal and oil, in 2007, it
comprised of a quarter of the world’s primary energy
consumption.
 Methane and some other gases trapped between seams
of rock under the earth's surface.
 Pipes are sunk into the ground to release the gas.
 Often used in houses for heating and cooking.

 When burned, it gives off atmospheric pollutants,
including greenhouse gases.
 Only limited supply of gas.
 Latest estimates suggest that global reserves will last
another 65 years

 Radioactive minerals such as uranium are mined.
 Electricity is generated from the energy that is released
when the atoms of these minerals are split (by nuclear
fission) in nuclear reactors.
 A small amount of radioactive material produces a lot
of energy.
 It doesn't give off atmospheric pollutants.

 Nuclear reactors are expensive to run . Nuclear waste is
highly toxic, and needs to be safely stored for hundreds
or thousands of years (storage is extremely
expensive).Leakage of nuclear materials can have a
devastating impact on people and the environment.
The worst nuclear reactor accident was at Chernobyl,
Ukraine in 1986

 With the depletion of oil and gas reserves in the early years
of the 21st century and the unfavorable publicity given to all
fossil fuels, renewable resources are likely to become
increasingly more attractive.
 They are likely to become cost- competitive, offer great
energy diversity , and allow for a cleaner environment.
TYPES
 Continuous sources – are recurrent and will never run out.
They include running water(HEP), the sun (solar) e.t.c.
 Flow sources- are sustainable provided that they are
carefully managed and maintained e.g. biomass, including
the use of fuel wood.

 Is the most widely use commercially produce source of
energy.
 Its availability depends on assured supply of fast
flowing water which may be obtained from rainfall
spread evenly throughout the year, or by building if
dams and storing water in large reservoirs.

 Although HEP is perceived as clean, it can still have
damaging effects upon the environment.
 The creation of reservoirs can mean large areas of
vegetation being cleared (Tucurui in Amazonia), wildlife
habitats( Kariba in Zimbabwe) and agricultural land (Volta
in Ghana) being lost, and people being forced to move
from their homes (Aswan in Egypt) and (3 gorges in
China).
 New reservoirs drown vegetation and , the resultant lake is
likely to become acidic and anaerobic.
 Dams can be a flood risk if the collapse or overflow, have
been linked to increasing the risk of earthquake activity
and can trap silt previously spread over farmland.

 Is the most successful of renewable technology.
 Wind farms are best suited to places where winds are
strong , steady and reliable and where the landscape is
either high or, as on coasts, exposed.
 Can be found singularly, but usually many together in
wind farms.
 Potentially infinite energy supply and pollution – free.

 Manufacture and implementation of wind farms can
be costly.
 Some local people object to on-shore wind farms,
arguing that it spoils the countryside.

 The sun is the primary source of the earth’s energy.
Energy from sunlight is captured in solar panels and
converted into electricity.
 Manufacture and implementation of solar panels can
be costly.

 Waves are created by the transfer of energy from winds
which blow over them.
 The movement of seawater in and out of a cavity on
the shore compresses trapped air, driving a turbine.
 The LIMPET is a 500kw shoreline oscillating water
column.
 Pelamis sea snake, 750kw hinged contour device.

 Is the most reliable and predictable source. Major
schemes include Bay of fundy in Eastern Canada,
Rance estuary in France, Kislay in Russia and Jiangxia.
in China.
 The movement of tides drives turbines . A tidal
barrage (a kind of dam) is built across estuaries,
forcing water through gaps and stored during flood
tide. Water stored is let go during ebb tide when
sufficient head of water has built up , letting go
potential energy of trapped water.

 Tidal barrages restricts shipping access and inundates
an extensive area.

 In volcanic regions it is possible to use the natural heat
of the earth.
 Cold water is pumped under ground and comes out as
steam.
 Steam can be used for heating or to power turbines
creating electricity.
 Its used successfully in some countries, such as New
Zealand , Iceland, Kenya and several countries in
central America.

 Geothermal energy does pose environmental problems
as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide emissions
may be high, the water supply can become saline , and
earth movements can damage the power station.

 Biomass, also known as bio fuels an bio energy, is the
most dominant form of energy for most of the world’s
population who are living in extreme poverty.
 Its obtained from organic matter i.e. crops, plants and
animal waste, of which the most important in LDCs is
fuel wood. Trees are sustainable sources, providing
that those cut are replaced or allowed to regenerate.
 Many of LDCs have a rapid population growth, which
adds great pressure to their little resources, and lack
the capital and technology to develop or buy
alternative resources.

 In places where demand for fuel wood outstrips the
supply, and where there is neither the money to
replant time to regenerate, the risk of desertification
and irreversible damage to the environment increases.

 There is a marked energy gap between the rich and poor
nations of the world.
 Nearly a third of the world’s people – those living in low
income countries – have no electricity or other modern
energy supplies and depend almost entirely on wood or
other biomass.
 In MDCs oil provides the bedrock for modern life. 90% of
transport relies on oil products and they are vital
components in the pharmaceutical, chemical and food
industries. The MDCs(17% of world’s population) consume
around 75% of the 3 major fossil fuels and consume 53% of
the total energy while LDCs ( 83 % of world’s population)
consume 47%.

 The International Energy Agency predict that the
earth will need almost 60% more energy in 2030 than
in 2002, and that fossil fuel will still meet most of
these needs. although there is plenty of coal, it is not
likely to grow in popularity because its so polluting.
 Oil industry experts predict that current reserves will
last for another 40 years and 65 years for natural gas.

 Demand- consumer’s desire and willingness to pay a
price for a specific good or service.
 Supply- amount of something supplied or available for
use .
 Resource endowment- natural resources within the
borders of a country.
 Technology- the application of scientific knowledge
for practical purposes .
 Energy gap- improvement potential of energy
efficiency or the difference between optimal and
actual level of energy consumption.

 Globally , energy supplies are distributed unevenly.
This means that energy sources are often long
distances from the point of consumption.
 In the modern world, fuel often travels vast distances
to reach its consumers. These distances create many
challenges, from the environment risks of long-distance
pipelines to oil related problems linked to
political instability in the middle east.
 Fossil fuels are not present in great quantities in LDCs

 It has been estimated that the very poorest countries
in the world contain 14% coal, 8% natural gas and 5%
oil.
 The middle income countries including many middle
eastern states such as Iran and Iraq and other NICs
posses 45% coal, 70% oil, 68% natural gas reserves.
 In total the developed world has fewer fossil fuels than
the developing (42% of coal, 25% of oil and 24% of
natural gas.)

 Demand is primarily governed by the size of the
country’s population and its level of economic
development.
 A country’s energy policy can have a significant impact
on demand if it focuses on sustainability and efficiency
as opposed to concentrating solely on building more
power stations and refining facilities . High levels of
pollution can be a strong stimulus to developing a
cleaner energy policy.

 The key factor in supply is energy resource endowment. Some
countries are relatively rich in domestic energy resources while others
are lacking and heavily reliant on imports.
Physical factors affecting supply.
 Deposits of fossil fuels are only found in a limited number of locations.
 Large scale HEP devp require high precipitation, major steep sided
valleys and impermeable rock.
 Large power stations require flat land an geologically stable
foundations.
 Solar energy needs a large number of days with strong sunlight.
 Wind power needs high average wind speeds throughout the year.
 Tidal power stations require a very large tidal range.
 The availability of biomass varies widely according to climatic
conditions.

 The most accessible and low cost deposits are invariably
developed first.
 Onshore deposits of oil and gas are usually cheaper to
develop than offshore deposits .
 Potential HEP sites close to major transport route and
existing electricity transmission corridors are economical
to build than those in very in accessible locations.
 In poor countries foreign direct investment is often
essential for the devp of energy resources,
 When energy prices rise significantly, companies increase
spending on exploration and devp.

 Countries wanting to develop nuclear electricity require
permission from the International Atomic Energy Agency.
 International agreements such as the Kyoto protocol can
have a considerable influence on the energy decisions of
individual countries.
 Potential HEP schemes on international rivers may require
the agreement of other countries that share the river.
 Government may insist on energy companies producing a
certain proportion of their energy from renewable sources.
 Legislation regarding emissions from power stations will
favor the use of, for example ,low sulphur coal, as opposed
to coal with a high sulphur content.

FACTORS LEADING TO THE CHANGES IN USAGE OF
ENERGY.
 Technological development – e.g. nuclear electricity has
only been available since 1954. oil and natural gas can now
be extracted from much deeper waters than in the past.
Renewable energy technology is advancing steadily.
 Changes in demand – at one time in all of Britain trains
were powered by coal and most people also used coal for
heating in their homes. Before natural gas was discovered
in the North sea, Britain’s gas was produced from coal.
 Increasing national wealth- as average incomes increase,
living standards improve which involves the increasing use
of energy and the use of a greater variety of energy sources.

 Changes in price- the relative price of the different
types of energy can influence demand. Electricity
production in the UK has been switching from coal to
gas over the past 20 years mainly because power
stations are cheaper to run on natural gas.
 Environmental factors/public opinion – public opinion
can influence decisions made by governments. People
today are much better informed about environmental
impacts of energy sources than they were in the past.

 Energy policy- is the manner in which a given entity
(often governmental) has decided to address issues of
energy development including energy production,
distribution and consumption. The attributes of
energy policy may include legislation, international
treaties, incentives to investment, guidelines for
energy conservation, taxation and other public policy
techniques.

 Level of development
 Capital
 Environmental concerns
 Kyoto targets
 Energy policy

 Brazil is the 10th largest world consumer. Its an
important oil and gas producer in S. America and the
world's second largest ethanol fuel producer.
 t the end of the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s,
Brazil's energy sector underwent market liberalization.
 Current government policies concentrate mainly on
the improvement of energy efficiency, in both
residential and industrial sectors, as well as increasing
renewable energy.

 Brazil is the world's 12th largest oil producer. As of
today, more than 50 oil companies are engaged in oil
exploration.
 In 2006, Brazil had 11.2 billion barrels (1.78×109 m3)
the second-largest proven oil reserves in South
America after Venezuela.
Natural gas
 At the end of 2005, the proven reserves of Brazil's
natural gas were 306 x 109 m³, with possible reserves
expected to be 15 times higher. Until recently natural
gas was produced as a by-product of the oil industry.

 Brazil has total coal reserves of about 30 billion
tonnes, but the deposits vary by the quality and
quantity. The proved recoverable reserves are around
10 billion tonnes. In 2004 Brazil produced 5.4 million
tonnes of coal, while coal consumption reached 21.9
million tonnes. Almost all of Brazil’s coal output is
steam coal, of which about 85% is fired in power
station.
Oil shale
 Brazil has the world's second largest known oil shale
resources and has second largest shale oil production
after Estonia.

 Brazil has the 6th largest uranium reserves in the
world. Proven reserves are 162,000 tonnes.

 In 2004, Brazil had 86.5 GW of installed generating
capacity and it produced 387 Twh of electricity. As of
today 66% of distribution and 28% of power
generation is owned by private companies.
 During the electricity crisis in 2001, the government
launched a program to build 55 gas-fired power
stations with a total capacity of 22 GW, but only 19
power stations were built, with a total capacity of 4
GW.

 Brazil is the third largest hydroelectricity producer in
the world after China and Canada. In 2007 hydropower
accounted for 83% of Brazilian electricity production.
The gross theoretical capability exceeds 3,000 TWh
per annum, of which 800 TWh per annum is
economically exploitable. In 2004, Brazil produced
321TWh of hydropower

 Due the Brazil's dependence on hydroelectric power
and lack of investments in transmission, the reserves
were being used for several years, which led to the
dams having a low level of water. Then after another
bad year of rain, in June 2001, the government was
forced to ration electricity usage, this ended in late
2001.

 Nuclear energy accounts for about 4% of Brazil's
electricity. The nuclear power generation monopoly is
owned by Eletronuclear (Eletrobrás Eletronuclear
S/A), a wholly owned subsidiary of Eletrobrás. Nuclear
energy is produced by two reactors at Angra.

 he total installed photovoltaic power capacity in Brazil
is estimated to be between 12 and 15 MWp, of which
50% is for telecommunications systems and 50% for
rural energy systems. It is less than 0.01% of the energy
in Brazil.
 Brazil has one of the highest solar incidence in the
world.

 Brazil's gross wind resource potential is estimated to
be about 140 GW, of which 30 GW could be effectively
transformed into wind power projects. Currently it
generates about 54 GWh per annum.

 Due to its ethanol fuel production, Brazil has
sometimes been described as a bio-energy superpower.
Ethanol fuel is produced from sugar cane. Brazil has
the largest sugar cane crop in the world, and is the
largest exporter of ethanol in the world.

 Brazil has successfully transitioned from importing
almost 80 percent of its total oil consumption in the
1970s to becoming virtually energy independent and a
leader in renewable energy. Nearly half of Brazil’s
energy comes from renewable sources compared to an
average of less than 20 percent for the rest of the
world.

 Brazil is fortunate to have a great variety of energy
sources available for energy production. However,
Brazilian energy has been relatively “cleaner” while
being produced at internationally-competitive prices.
This cautious energy planning pursued by the
Brazilian government has ensured that the country:

 Supplies energy at relatively low costs
 Diversifies energy sources
 Diminishes the risk of energy shortages
 Reduces the market power of some large suppliers
 Controls environmental and social impacts, while
maximizing positive effects

Oil spill off the coast of Rio de Janeiro
 Starting from 8 November 2011 Chevron had spill of
crude oil off the southeastern coast of Brazil. 416,400
liters oil leaked in two weeks from undersea rock well
in the Frade oil project 370km off the Brazilian coast.
Prosecutors in Brazil demand $10.6bn in the legal suit.
Chevron's activities are suspended until the cause of
an oil spill is clear.

 One of the main difference between renewable and
non- renewable sources is their impact on the
environment.
 Renewable sources of energy on the whole are cleaner
and less harmful to the atmosphere. However , they
can have environmental consequences in terms of
deforestation and the release of carbon dioxide . In
LDCs clearing trees for fuel often damages an areas
ecological balance and leads to desertification.

 They release harmful pollutants- Non – renewable
sources release harmful pollutants, such as carbon and
sulphur compounds, into the atmosphere when they
are burnt.
 Transporting fuels from point of production to point
of consumption has environmental impacts -e.g.
movement of crude oil by tanker or pipeline. There is
the danger of an oil spill contaminating the
environment and transport by tanker uses fuel, which
releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Disaster was on 24 March 1989. Occurred in Prince
William Sound, Alaska when Exxon Valdez, an oil
tanker bound for Long Beach, California, struck Prince
William Sound’s Bligh Reef at 12:04 a.m
 50 million tonnes of crude oil was being carried
 By April 2nd the oil had covered an area of 2600km^2.

Effects:
 Oil extended 1700km from the boat
 35000 sea birds died
 3000 sea otters killed
 Local economy badly affected as depended on fishing industry
 Salmon hatcheries destroyed
 Land animals like Caribou poisoned by eating contaminated plants
 Oil on beaches
 Bald eagles and wading birds died as food chain affected
 Seals, shrimps and shellfish suffocated.
 Exxon worked until the end of that year at an eventual cost of 600
million dollars, before pulling out and leaving 60% of the spilled oil
still in Prince William sound or along 1700 km of coastline.

 There was use of a dispersant, a surfactant and solvent
mixture. A private company applied dispersant on
March 24 with a helicopter and dispersant bucket.
Because there was not enough wave action to mix the
dispersant with the oil in the water, the use of the
dispersant was discontinued.
 ne trial explosion was also conducted during the early
stages of the spill to burn the oil, in a region of the spill
isolated from the rest by another
explosion.[clarification needed] The test was relatively
successful, reducing 113,400 liters of oil to 1,134 liters of
removable residue.

 Exxon was widely criticized for its slow response to
cleaning up the disaster and John Devens, the mayor
of Valdez, has said his community felt betrayed by
Exxon's inadequate response to the crisis.[

3 GORGES DAM CHINA.
 The Three Gorges Dam is a hydroelectric dam that
spans the Yangtze River by the town of Sandouping,
located in Yiling District, Yichang, Hubei province,
China.
 The amount of electricity generated is 22500MW.

Main purpose .
 To prevent flooding downstream. Floods were regular
and unpredictable.
 Generate HEP.
 Provide water to urban areas and for irrigation.
 Improvement of river transport system.

POWER GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION
 Power generation is managed by China’s Yangtze
power, a listed subsidiary of China Three Gorges
Corporation.
 The Three Gorges Dam is the world's largest capacity
hydroelectric power station with 34 generators: 32
main generators, each with a capacity of 700 MW, and
two plant power generators, each with capacity of
50 MW, making a total capacity of 22,500 MW. The
expected annual electricity generation was over
100GWh.

 The Three Gorges Dam reached its design-maximum
reservoir water level of 175 m (574 ft) for the first time
on October 26, 2010, in which the intended annual
power-generation capacity of 84.7 GWh was realized
.In 2012, the dam's 32 generating units generated a
record 98.1 GWh of electricity, which accounts for 14%
of China's total hydro generation

 The dam was expected to provide 10% of China’s
power. However, electricity demand has increased
more quickly than previously projected. Even fully
operational, on average, it supports only about 1.7% of
electricity demand in China in the year 2011,when
electricity demand reached 4692.8GWh(55 times the
annual power generated)

BENEFITS
 Control flooding downstream of the dam.
 2. Provides water to urban areas and for agriculture-irrigation.
(The reservoir can store up to 5 trillion
gallons of water.
 3. The HEP generated will provide 15% of China’s
electricity demand.
 a. This will decrease China’s dependency on coal and
therefore reduce greenhouse gas emission.
 4. Thousands of construction jobs were created during
the building of the dam.

 5. China will be able to bring 10,000 ton ocean going
vessels all the way inland, 2000km up to the city of
Chongqing.
 6. The dam will become a tourist attraction –It will
attract a lot of people to the area. Many tertiary
sector/service jobs will be created.
 7. The electricity generated will help the economic
development of cities such as Chongqing,
population=3 million

 1.3 million people were forced into resettlement during
the construction, with up to 4 million anticipated to be
relocated in the next 15 years due to environmental
damage and pollution from the project.
 Much of the land used for resettlement is over 800m
above sea level, where the climate is colder and the soil
can barely support farming

 Areas downstream will be deprived of fertile
sediment.
 It will divert money from other developments. It is
currently one of the most expensive projects in the
world, costing more than $26 billion, over their
budget.
 The untreated human and industrial waste will not be
washed away downstream, but will stay and pollute the
river instead.

 Several large towns upstream, such as Fuling
(population=80,000) and Wanxian
(population=140,000) will be flooded.

 One of the most immediate environmental effects of
the Three Gorges Dam has been an increase in
landslide activity. This results primarily from erosion
caused by the drastic increases and decreases in
reservoir water levels, which, when at their peak,
create a body of water almost as long as Britain (Watts
2010). Furthermore, landslides in the surrounding
areas have been much worse than had been predicted
and dozens of people have already died as a result.

 Another major issue with the Dam is the ways in which
it is affecting biodiversity in the area. Animal and
plant life has been greatly threatened due to flooding
in some habitats and water diversion in others.
Furthermore, fragmentation of habitat may lead to
heavy losses of biological diversity.
 Whether one agrees that this means a loss of spiritual
and cultural wealth, it undoubtedly means a loss in
resources that might otherwise have been tapped.
Examples might include medical plants, among
others.

 It should be no surprise that the river system
downstream has also been affected. Decreases in
freshwater flow has meant that more saltwater is
creeping up the Yangtze, endangering fish populations
already threatened by overfishing.

 Lastly and frighteningly, the Dam may have been tied
to major earthquakes, including the one in May of
2008 which killed 87,000 people. By placing
tremendous pressure and fluctuation (by rapidly
raising and dropping water volume) on the underlying
geological plates, TGD arguably increases seismic
activity.

 The most important effect that the construction of the
Three Gorges Dam has had on Chinese society has
been the displacement of millions of people from the
Yangtze river region. In order to establish the reservoir,
hundreds (possible thousands) of towns and villages
were evacuated and later submerged.

 Those forced to relocate were promised compensation
for the value of their homes and land. In many cases
this deal has been fulfilled without a problem. In what
is likely the overwhelming majority of cases, however,
relocated citizens have either been given far too little
in compensation or their dues have been slimmed
through corruption and embezzlement.
 This has meant problems for many as the cities and
towns they have had to move to are more expensive,
driving many people deeper into poverty.

 Those who were displaced were made poorer due to
landlessness, joblessness, marginalization, and food
insecurity.
 Those who stayed .or who returned due to poor living
conditions elsewhere (of which there are many) face
different types of challenges. Flooding the reservoir
has forced those farmers still in the region to migrate
northwards up the mountain slopes, adding to erosion
through over utilization of top soil

 Natives to the Three Gorges region are not the only
adversely affected Chinese citizens. Those who live far
downstream are affected by pollution (Associated Press
2011). And people all across central and eastern China,
including those in China's largest city, Shanghai, are feeling
the effects of drought thought to be tied to TGD. City
dwellers are further affected by the social pressures of
accommodating hordes of migrant workers. Outside of the
TGD scheme, another 22 million people have been
relocated to make way for hydroelectric projects in China
as of 2007 and as many as another 4 million may eventually
have to be displaced as a result of surrounding effects of the
TGD .

 At the heart of the issue is the idea that relocation
leads to societal stress. As one author poignantly put
it, "demolition and forced relocation are the biggest
flashpoints for social unrest in China...With an
estimated more than 180,000 protests per year in
China, that's certainly not lost on a government that
now spends more on domestic security than its
military budget“.

 In the Future...
Potential disasters will only exacerbate societal unrest.
Sitting atop two major fault lines, the Jiuwanxi and the
Zigui-Badong, TGD seems ripe for disaster. Indeed,
putting such a massive dam in a heavily populated area
- which is also home to delicate ecosystems - criss-crossed
by fault lines is a recipe for disaster.

 Ultimately, this controversial dam is made all the more
worrisome by the degree to which Chinese officials
have downplayed and ignored potentially catastrophic
concerns. As hydrological expert Dr. Philip B. Williams
points out, officials who were responsible for the safety
analysis of TGD have underestimated potential
earthquake ground accelerations; they have
underplayed the risks of spillway factors as well as risks
of major landslides; and they have ignored risks of
dam failure downstream and downrange . They have
also left much to be desired in their analyses of
structural stability and seismic activity.

 Environmental degradation- is any change or
disturbance to the environment apparent to be
harmful or undesirable causing a decrease of quality.
This can happen naturally e.g. erosion, landslides,
forest fires , floods or man made pollution .
 Pollution is the contamination of the
earth/atmosphere by people disposing of wastes.

 Pollution is a dominant factor of environmental
degradation of land ,air and water and impacts
significantly on human health. There is a considerable
global variations in death from urban air pollution.
According to the WHO ,diseases caused by air
pollution kill 650000 Chinese every year.

 Land pollution –includes rubbish dumps, spoil heaps
and contaminated land.
 Water pollution- by the discharge of waste water from
industries, domestic sewage, acid drainage, toxic salts
from mines, pesticides, pesticide fertilisers, farm
effluents and thermal change.
 Air pollution- the release of chemical particulates into
the atmosphere. Common gaseous pollutants include
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, CFCs.

Land pollution.
 Derelict land – land which has been so damaged by
industrial or other development that its incapable of
beneficial use without treatment. e.g. worked out
mineral excavations, abandoned industrial
installations, contaminated land- leakages or dumping
of waste on site.

Air pollution
 Emission from industries and manufacturing
activities- manufacturing company’s chimney erected
into the air.
 Burning of fossil fuels release carbon dioxide, sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide which
increase acid rains and eutrophication.

.
 All life and virtually every human activity need water.
 It’s the world’s most essential resource and a pivotal
element in poverty reduction. But for 80 countries,
with 40 % of the world’s population, lack of water is a
constant threat. And the situation is getting worse.

 The world’s fresh water resources are linked to human
health.
 25000 people die everyday because of poor water.4500
are children under 5.
 1700 million people lack clean water (12oo lack proper
sanitation)
 1.5 million people die of diarrhoea each year.
 200 million people suffer from schistosomiasis each
year.

 Water scarcity is a major world environmental
problem, threatening to put world food supplies in
jeopardy, limit economic and social development, and
create serious conflicts between neighboring drainage
basin countries.

 The UN estimates that two-thirds of world population
will be affected by ‘severe water stress’ by 2025. the
situation will be particularly severe in Africa, The
Middle East and South Asia. The UN notes that
already a number of the world’s rivers e.g. Colorado in
the US, are running dry and that ground water is also
drained faster than it can be replenished.

The Colorado river
in the US of A
running dry.

 Every year 111000 km3 of precipitation falls onto the
earths surface. This would be more than adequate for
the global population's needs, but cannot be captured
and the rest is very unevenly distributed.
 The total precipitation that is absorbed by soil and
plants, then released back into the air is known as
green water
 The water that collects in rivers, lakes, wetlands and
ground water is known as blue water.

 Green water is unavailable for human use but blue
water is before its evaporated or reaches the sea.

 Total blue water withdrawals are estimated at 3390
km3 , with 74 per cent for agriculture, mostly
irrigation. About 20 % of this total comes from ground
water.
 Although agriculture is a dominant water user,
industrial and domestic uses are growing at a faster
rate. Demand for industrial use has expand
particularly rapidly.

Degradation of
rural
environments
Overgrazing by
livestock can lead to
land degradation

Rural environments have been degraded due to
 Population growth
 Increasing pressures on land
 Urban activities through processes such as climate
change- by huge urban industries and untreated waste
water in major rivers, which can contaminate estuaries
and coastal fishing areas, and pollute drinking water
supplies of rural communities downstream.

 Population pressure also operates through other
mechanisms. Improper agricultural practices, for
instance, occur only under constraints such as the
saturation of good lands under population pressure
which leads settlers to cultivate too shallow or too
steep soils, plough fallow land before it has recovered
its fertility, or attempt to obtain multiple crops by
irrigating unsuitable soils.

 Policy failure –inappropriate policies which include
pricing, subsidy and tax policies which have
encouraged the excessive use of inputs such as
fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides, and the
overexploitation of land. They may also include
policies that favor farming systems which are
inappropriate both to the circumstances of the
farming community and to available resources.

 Rural inequalities – rural people often know best to
conserve their environment, but they may need to
overexploit resources in order to survive. Meanwhile
commercial exploitation by large landowners and
companies often causes environmental degradation in
pursuit of higher profits.

 Resource imbalance- almost all of the future growth in
world’s population will be in LEDCs, and the biggest
increase will be in the poorest countries of all, those
least equipped to meet their own needs or invest in the
future.

 Unsustainable technologies- new technologies have
boosted agricultural production worldwide, but some
have had harmful side effects which must be reversed
and contained, such as resistance of insects to
pesticides, land degradation through wind or water
erosion, nutrient depletion or poor irrigation
management and the loss of biological diversity.

 Trade relations- as the value of raw materials exported
by LEDCs has fallen, their governments have sought to
boos income by expansion of crop production and
timber sales that have damaged the environment.

Terms .
 Reclamation – process of creating new land from oceans, river
beds or lakes.
 Land reform – changing of laws, regulations and customs
regarding land ownership.
 Soil conservation – is a set of management strategies for
prevention of soil being eroded or becoming chemically altered
by over use, acidification, salinization or other chemical soil
contamination.
 Environmentally sensitive areas – is a type of designation for an
agricultural area which needs special protection because of its
landscape, wildlife or historical value.
 Waste disposal- proper disposition of discarded or discharged
material in accordance with the local environmental guidelines.

The short-term benefits of clearing rainforest areas .
 land for agriculture, houses and roads
 jobs for local workers in road building, logging,
agriculture, mining and construction
 the generation of income (often in valuable foreign
currency) for the LEDC when wood, minerals, and
other resources are sold
 scientific investigation into rainforest plants may
provide new food sources and medicines

 These benefits, however, come at a cost. Clearing
rainforest threatens the survival of many plant and
animal species and can lead to serious environmental
degradation. Widespread deforestation damages the
whole biosphere (the balance of living and non-living
things) with serious long-term consequences.

Problems of human intervention
 Commercial logging activity
 New roads divide up parts of the rainforest and can
cut off connections between different biotic and
abiotic systems. For example, a road can stop monkeys
such as the golden lion tamarin from travelling to
gather food and, in turn, distribute seeds to re-sow
plants in the forest.
 Land clearance for farming, transportation and
mining can lead to deforestation. Hardwood trees
take many years to grow so can be difficult to replace.

 Fertile soils that make farming possible are quickly
washed away when the forest is cleared. If soil ends up
in rivers, this can lead to flooding.
 Loss of animal habitat occurs when trees are cut
down. Hence, deforestation can result in endangering
animals and plant life, or even causing them to
become extinct.
 Profits from large-scale farming and selling resources
often go back to MEDCs or large companies and don't
benefit the rainforest communities.

 The market forces of globalization are invading the
Amazon, hastening the demise of the forest. In the
past three decades, hundreds of people have died in
land wars; countless others endure fear and
uncertainty, their lives threatened by those who profit
from the theft of timber and land.

 During the past 40 years, close to 20 percent of the
Amazon rain forest has been cut down

 Uncontrolled and unchecked exploitation can cause
irreversible damage such as loss of biodiversity, soil
erosion, flooding and climate change. So, sustainable
use of the forest is essential. Sustainable development
will meet the needs of Brazil's population without
compromising the needs of future generations.

Possible strategies include:
 Agro-forestry - growing trees and crops at the same
time. This lets farmers take advantage of shelter from
the canopy of trees. It prevents soil erosion and the
crops benefit from the nutrients from the dead organic
matter.
 Selective logging - trees are only felled when they
reach a particular height. This allows young trees a
guaranteed life span and the forest will regain full
maturity after around 30-50 years.
.

 Education - ensuring those involved in exploitation
and management of the forest understand the
consequences behind their actions.
 Afforestation - the opposite of deforestation. If trees
are cut down, they are replaced to maintain the
canopy.
 Forest reserves - areas protected from exploitation.
 Monitoring - use of satellite technology and
photography to check that any activities taking place
are legal and follow guidelines for sustainability.

 Brazil’s environmental protection agency has only a
handful of inspectors to monitor thousands of square
miles of territory. Former headquarters was torched by
an angry mob in 2004 after IBAMA agents and police
broke a ring of timber traffickers, shutting down illegal
sawmills and issuing millions of dollars in fines to
loggers in the nearby town of Alta Floresta.

 To aid in policing the sprawling Amazon hinterland,
government agents are turning to satellite technology
and remote sensing to alert them to the work of the
land thieves, Yet even when officials spot illegal
clearing, they are usually hamstrung by a lack of
manpower or equipment. And when the police do
react, the resources they manage to scrape together
can be modest.

 Vanoir Tibaldi, 42, a commander , has spent 15 years
working for IBAMA on the front lines in northern
Mato Grosso. When he was asked about the satellite
imaging system that is supposed to give field agents
the data they need to catch land thieves red-handed,
Tibaldi replied, "We don't even have Internet in our
office—it's a joke."

Terms.
 Urbanisation – is the increase in proportion of people living in
an urban area.
 Urban decay – when part of a city fall into disrepair due to
deindustrialization , depopulation, high unemployment.
 Zone of assimilation of a CBD – is a region where buildings are
being absorbed into CBD use. Usually such a zone is marked by
increasingly higher land prices as well as rates and shows the
direction of growth of a CBD.
 Zone of discard- an area once part of the CBD but now in decline
and characterized by low status shops, warehouses and vacant
property.
 Inner city – part of an urban area surrounding the CBD.
 Informal settlements- areas where groups of housing units have
been constructed on land that the occupants have no legal claim.

Cities in the U.S.A have spread upwards and outwards more
than anywhere else in the world. However, it’s the outward
and upward spread of cities that has the greatest effect on
people and landscape. Cities have sprawled over vast areas
because:
 The U.S.A is an extremely large country and until recently
land was perceived as being in plentiful supply.
 Planning regulations have been weak compared with
Europe, giving land speculators and property developers a
much freer hand.
 High average income meant that people could afford large
houses.

 A high level of personal mobility allied to massive
investment in the transport infrastructure allow
people to commute long distance to work.

By the early part of 20th century some neighboring urban
areas had emerged to form conurbations. In the north
eastern U.S in particular the conurbations came closer
together as urban sprawl continued . Here the
intervening countryside was much reduced and its
character changed. Cross roads by freeways, the
density of rural settlement was high.

 In 1970 America’s suburbs housed 25% more families
than its central cities; by late 1990s they contained 75%
more. Development ,associated central cities with
poverty and crime.
 The demise of the inner cities had resulted in such
urban sprawl that the environmental group the sierra
club termed it as ‘the dark side of the American dream’
in a report published in Sept. 1998. it highlighted.

 Traffic congestion, with each 1% increase in new lane-miles
generating a 0.9% increase in traffic within 5
years.

 Commuting journeys that ‘ steal time from family and
work’ with petrol that’s about half as much in Europe.
 Lost farmland and recreational space. In the 1980s the
loss of prime farmland equaled the combined area of
the states of Connecticut and Rhode island.
 More taxation to pay for the full range of suburban
infrastructure.
 The under-utilisation of inner-city infrastructure
leading to dereliction and closure.

 As suburbs expand, tax bases in inner-city shrink,
lower corporate profits, higher unemployment and
reduced property values.
 Between 1970 and 1990 in the twin cities of
Minneapolis-St. Paul, 162 schools were closed in the
inner areas while 78 new were constructed in the outer
suburbs.

what can be done to limit urban sprawl.
 In parts of Maryland and Michigan communities are
being encouraged to buy farmland or environmentally
sensitive land to prevent its development.
 In Washington and Oregon ‘urban growth boundaries’
and green belts have been established.

 Some cities like Portland and Oregon are looking
inwards rather than outwards for new sites for
development. Almost every city has a considerable
number of brown field sites- disused warehouses and
industrial sites, and other abandoned land – which can
be redeveloped.
 Another idea is to offer tax inducements to
communities that for go development rights

 Population growth- in many LEDCs, population
growth continues at a high rate, putting increasing
pressure on already fragile environments.
 High rates of rural urban migration -they lead to
rapidly deteriorating environmental conditions in
large urban areas

 Environmental hazards, often made worse by climatic
change, present an increasing challenge in some world
regions. In many regions natural hazards have
increased in scale and unpredictability.
 Poor management at both central and local
government levels- result in problems that can least be
partially rectified, not addressed

 Poor knowledge about the environmental impact of
human actions.
 Many degraded environments require substantial
investment to bring about realistic solutions. Such
finance is beyond the means of many poor countries.
However, there may be a choice between low cost and
high cost schemes.

 Civil war has put back development by decades in
some countries. Land mines which have yet to be
cleared have put large areas off limits in some
countries.

 The Lake District National Park was created in 1951.
Covering 880 square miles, it is the UK's largest
national park and receives 12 million visitors a year.

 The park is managed by the National Parks Authority
(NPA), which attempts to balance the conflicting
priorities of different park users. For example:
 The protection of the park's environment, wildlife and
natural features - things that can be harmed by
excessive tourism. This is not only the Authority's job,
but is also powerfully lobbied for by conservation and
wildlife groups.
 Tourists who come to enjoy the park need roads,
parking, accommodation, shops and restaurants
which are not necessarily going to be good for the
countryside.

 Local businesses may want to encourage more and
more visitors.
 Farmers, who may be concerned about damage to
fences and livestock by walkers and their dogs.
 Local residents, who may be worried about congestion,
littering, noise pollution and the erosion of footpaths.
If these different interests are not carefully balanced, the
result could be damage to the environment, local
people becoming upset or even hostile, and tourists
being put off visiting the park.

Measures that have been adopted to help maintain
the Lake District for future generations:
 The National Trust and other conservation groups
have undertaken footpath maintenance. Some
paths have been rebuilt or access restricted to reduce
the effects on paths and vegetation.

 Public transport has been improved and subsidised,
for example the Langdale Rambler bus service. Visitors
are encouraged to use the buses instead of bringing
their cars into the national park.

 Restricted parking zones have been set up in some
villages, for example in Elterwater. The car park on the
edge of the village has been expanded and parking on
grass verges and near houses has been restricted.

 Raising awareness of conservation issues for visitors
with posters and leaflets at tourist information and
visitor centers.

 A 10mph speed limit was introduced on Windermere in
March 2005. The lake had become congested with
powerboats and water skiers and noise from the speedboats
was spoiling the lake for other users such as swimmers and
canoeists. There was also concern that the wake from
powerboats has caused shore erosion and that boats had
contributed to pollution and the disappearance of reed
beds in the lake. Conservationists welcomed the new
speed limit, but speedboat owners, water-skiers, and boat
companies around the lake objected to the change.
Businesses have been affected and boat users have had to
find alternative lakes.

 Urban regeneration- the improvement of old houses
and addition of amenities in an attempt to bring new
life to old inner city areas.
 Urban redevelopment- the total clearance of parts of
old inner city areas and starting afresh with new
houses, especially high rise flats.

CASE
STUDY:LONDON
DOCKLANDS
Its located in
east and
southeast
London.

The London Docklands Development Corporation
During the 19th century, London's port was one of the
busiest in the world, but by the end of the 1950s it was
in significant decline with many of the docks derelict
and abandoned. In response to the resulting social,
economic and environmental problems the London
Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was set
up in 1981.

 Why did the London Docks go into decline?
1. An increase in ship size meant they found it difficult
to come down the river as far as the Isle of Dogs where
the river wasn't as deep. (the position of the docks
moved further downstream to Tilbury);
2. Containerization meant few dockers were needed
with large cranes used to lift containers from ships;
3. The decline of portside industries and
manufacturing

 What were the problems in 1981 in the Isle of Dogs?
* population had declined
* employment was in decline (loss of jobs from decline of
docklands
* access to the rest of London was poor with narrow roads
which were heavily congested, and a lack of public
transport (a single bus route and no rail or underground
service)
* 95%+ of housing was rented and including high density
terraced houses and large estates dominated by high rise
blocks
* Shopping facilities were limited
* Lack of open space and recreation facilities

 Who was involved in helping with the regeneration
process?
Whilst the LDDC was responsible for the planning and
redevelopment of the Docklands areas, other organisation
have also been involved in the redevelopment process,
these included:
- National Government - they created an Isle of Dogs
Enterprise Zone in April 1982 - offering incentives such as
grants, reduced rates etc. to encourage private investment;
- Property Developers - responsible for building large office
blocks (e.g. Canary Wharf)
- Local Housing Association - obtained home
improvement grants
- Conservation Groups
- Newham Council

 network of pedestrian and cycle routes through the
area with access to the river and dock edge through
waterside walkways
- creation of pedestrian bridges
- creation of new open spaces (150ha)
-Water based Ecology Park and London's first bird
sanctuary at East India Dock Basin
- planting of 200,000 trees;
- the area has now received many awards for
architecture, conservation and landscaping

 Unemployment had fallen from 14% to 7.4 with a
doubling in employment and numbers of businesses;
- transport revolution - opening of the Docklands
Light Railway in 1987 - now carrying 35,000 passengers
a week;

 - £7.7 billion in private sector investment
- major new roads including link to the M11
- Building of the City Airport in the former Royal
Docks (500,000+ passengers a year)
- attraction of financial and high-tech firms,
- TV studios and newspapers such as The Guardian
now have offices in the prestigious Canary Wharf
business complex.

 Social Changes
- £10 million spent on improvement council and housing
association homes
- a total of 22,000 new homes built (mainly private
ownership with approx 19% for rent)
- conversion and gentrification of old warehouses to new
homes
- New shopping centre built - including 4,600sq meters
Asda Superstore and refurbishment of shopping parades -
also included transformation of old dockland buildings
into shopping outlets (e.g. Tobacco Dock)

 - Large new shopping centre at Canary Wharf with
over 30 shops
- many restaurants, pubs and cafes built
- Docklands Sailing and Water sports Centre
- £100 million spent on health, education, job training
etc.

 How successful was the London Docklands
Redevelopment?
Successes:
- more trade for local shopkeepers
- cheaper rents here for large companies yet still the benefit
of only being 10 minutes from central London
- a wide range of economic, environmental and social
benefits (see above) - including 22,000 news housing units
and 1000s of new jobs.
- greatly improved accessibility in and out of docklands
- addressed the once failing land, housing and commercial
property markets in the area.

 Criticisms:
- there were criticisms that despite the improvements
many of these didn't benefit the original 'east enders’
- many locals were unable to afford the high costs of
the new expensive houses / flats (still a lack of low-cost
housing in the area)
- despite an increase in jobs with new businesses
coming in, most required skills that the old dockers
did not have;
- reduction in community spirit that the old
Docklands had - with the 'yuppie' newcomers not
mixing with the east enders

Was a major United Nations conference held in Rio de
Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992. 172 governments
participated, with 116 sending their heads of state or
government.
The issues addressed included:
 systematic scrutiny of patterns of production —
particularly the production of toxic components, such
as lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including
radioactive chemicals

 alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil
fuels which are linked to global climate change
 new reliance on public transportation systems in order
to reduce vehicle emissions, congestion in cities and
the health problems caused by polluted air and smoke
 the growing scarcity of water

 An important achievement was an agreement on the
Climate Change Convention which in turn led to the
Kyoto Protocol.
 Another agreement was to "not carry out any activities
on the lands of indigenous peoples that would cause
environmental degradation or that would be culturally
inappropriate"

 The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an
international treaty that sets binding obligations on
industrialized countries to reduce emissions of
greenhouse gases,
 Developing countries do not have binding targets
under the Kyoto Protocol, but are still committed
under the treaty to reduce their emissions. Under the
Protocol, emissions of developing countries are
allowed to grow in accordance with their development
needs.

 The treaty recognizes that developed countries have
contributed the most to the anthropogenic build-up of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (around 77% of
emissions between 1750 and 2004), and that carbon
dioxide emissions per person in developing countries
(2.9 tonnes in 2010) are, on average, lower than
emissions per person in developed countries (10.4
tonnes in 2010).

 International emissions trading allows developed
countries to trade their emission commitments under
the Kyoto Protocol.

CASE STUDY: Cardiff bay regeneration.
 Cardiff is located in south west UK. It’s the capital city
of Wales. The city grew due to the production of coal
and iron. It became the coal capital of the world in the
1840s.

DECLINE.
 Docks were the main driver of economic growth
particularly through trade in coal. Fall in demand for
coal and subsequent decline of industry(East Moors
steel work) had a massive impact.
 Effects of the Great Depression in the 1930s, which
rendered much of the workforce in the South Wales
valleys redundant.
 From 1910 onwards capacity issues meant that the
more modern and less tidal Barry Docks took over as
the largest volume export point of coal.

REGENERATION.
 The regeneration of Cardiff Bay began in 1985 when
South Glamorgan Council, supported by Cardiff City
Council, decided to build its new county headquarters
at Atlantic Wharf alongside the Bute East Dock.
 Two years later the regeneration was extended from
just under 100 acres to 2,700 acres (one sixth of
Cardiff's total area) by the formation of the Cardiff Bay
Development Corporation

Economic regeneration.
 By 1998, £880 million of private investment and £500
million of public funds had been attracted by the
corporation.
 Around 11,500 jobs have been established in the area,
out of a long-term target of 30,000.
 Construction of office complexes in the bay were
 by the Associated British Ports who are major land
holders.

Social.
 More than 2,000 homes have been built, representing
one third of the targeted 6,000 households which will
add 20,000 people to the total population.
 Community Development based neighbourhood
schemes have funded the involvement of local people
enabling them to spend a day in the Bay through free
boat and barrage tours, refreshments and transport.

 A £700 million International Sports Village combining
sports, leisure, entertainment facilities with high
quality waterfront residences, hotels, bars and retail
outlets.
 Atlantic Wharf Leisure Village, St David's Hotel,
Wales' first five-star hotel and a huge array of
restaurants, cafes and bars which attracts 1.5 million
visitors each year.

Environmental.
 Cardiff Bay Barrage - £220 million development
creating a permanent fresh water lake and Europe’s
largest city centre waterfront with more than 13km of
frontage for hotels, leisure facilities, businesses and
new residential areas.
 1100 hectares of derelict land regenerated

Political.
 Developing a Civic Role – Cardiff Council located its
new headquarters in the heart of the Bay, leading the
way by establishing a major public sector employment
opportunity in the centre of a previously
disadvantaged area.

RESULTS.
 The regeneration has had a significant impact on the
Bay and the City. It has placed Cardiff on the
International map, enhancing the image and
economic well being of Cardiff and Wales as a whole.
It has won numerous awards including Globe Forum
Sustainable City Award.
 There was a net increase of 29000 jobs with another
14,000 since 2000-06.
 Target investment was £1.2 billion and since 2003 has
secured over £1.6 billion investment.

 The city centre has been linked with the Waterfront
through transport and communications infrastructure.
 An objective of 6000 new homes currently stands at 9,150
including 500 affordable homes equivalent to an
investment of £32 million.
 2,400 jobs have been created through tourism and visitor
numbers have significantly with a total spend of £149
million.
 Notable key achievements include improvement of
cultural attractions through creative sector investments
such as the renovation of iconic Norwegian Church.

FAILURES;
 Area has been developed in a way that was not entirely
consistent with what was originally expected. The
short comings are evident in terms of addressing
issues relating to economic deprivation in
neighbouring areas, community integration and some
aspects of the transport links.
 It has also failed to properly engage local residents in
the more deprived communities which are home to
many of Cardiff ’s ethnic minority population and
newly arrived migrant workers.

 Some difficulties providing public transport to link
Cardiff Bay with the city centre of particular concern
for international visitors.

Environmental management A level

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